Sonderdrucke aus der Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg

ULRICH REBSTOCK

Weights and measures in Islam

Originalbeitrag erschienen in:

Helaine Selin (Hrsg.): Encyclopaedia of the history of science, technology, and medicine in non-
Western cultures.
Berlin: Springer, 2008, S. 2255-2267
 Weights and measures in Islam 2255

Weights and Measures in Islam

U LRICH R EBSTOCK

In the sphere of Islamic influence the Quranic

injunction “to give full measure and to weigh with
the right scales” (Qur’ān 17:35), led - in the long run -
to systems of measuring that were subjected to the
Weights and Measures in the Indus Valley. Fig. 1 Balance
authority and control of politics and law. But only a few
pans (photograph by the Maninichi Newspapers, 1961; used
with permission).
measuring standards were substituted by new Islamic
prescriptions. The most lasting novelty set off through
the Quranic revelation affected the measure of time. It
assumed a dual character. The natural solar year gave
way to the ritual lunar year (29–30 days of the month),
except in some fields of public administration and
astronomical science. Within the sphere of the metro-
logical systems of measures and weights, however, the
Qur’ān remains vague. Among the terms most often
mentioned, kayl or mikyāl (Sura 12:12 and passim,
‘measure of capacity’), mīzān and mithqāl (Sura 6:152,
21:47 and passim, ‘weight’), range first. Others, like
qint. ār (3:75, ‘hundredweight’), darāhim (3:75, pl. of
dirham), dīnār (3:75) and h.abba min hardal (21:47,
˘
‘grain of mustard’), are used in a metaphorical sense. A
Weights and Measures in the Indus Valley. Fig. 2 Weights
(photograph by the Mainichi Newspapers, 1961; used with more systematic elaboration of metrical definitions and
permission). ratios, mainly for juridical purposes, was effectuated in
the ‘traditions of the Prophet’ (h.adīth, pl. ah.ādīth). The
characteristic aspects of the genesis of Islamic law – a
The measuring system used in the Indus valley was cumulative development until the fourth and tenth
different from the Mesopotamian and Egyptian measur- century, geographically restricted proliferation of the
ing systems, but the sensitivity of precision balances various law schools (madhāhib), lack of normative
used in these regions is assumed to have been authority – did, however, not allow for the introduction
comparable. The weights excavated from Taxila (sixth of uniform and ubiquitously accepted Islamic metric
century BCE to seventh century AD) descend from the systems. Thus, the weights and measures which were
system of weights used in the Indus civilization (Fig. 2). used in Arabia and outside it, in the lands conquered by
the Muslims, co-existed side by side, replaced each
other, sometimes only by function, or by name, or
References intermingled. The striking feature of the metric systems
Bhardwaj, H. C. Aspects of Ancient Indian Technology. Delhi: that were in use in the early, medieval and pre-modern
Motilal Banarsidass, 1979. Islamic countries was their diversity. Neither in time,
Hori, Akira. A Consideration of the Ancient Near Eastern nor in space, could standard values develop that were
Systems of Weight. Orient 22 (1986): 16–36. accepted beyond their regional borders and their rulers’
Iwata, Shigeo. On the Standard Deviation of the Weights of period. Although some names of units of measure,
Indus Civilization. Bulletin of the Society for Near Eastern e.g. dhirā٬, dirham or rat. l, were widely diffused
Studies in Japan 27.2 (1974): 13–26.
---. Development of Sensitivity of the Precision Balances. throughout the Islamic world, their absolute values and
Travaux du 1er Congrès International de la Métrologie use in practice differed considerably. Notwithstanding
Historique. Zagreb: Jugoslavenska academija znanosti i this bewildering array of measures, a few basic terms
umjet-nosti, Historijski Zavod, 1975. 1–25 + Fig. 1. that have survived until modern times stand for the
W
---. History of Weighing Scales. Journal of Japan Society for cultural continuity between the Ancient Orient and the
Design Engineering 38.9 (2003): 438–51. Islamic world: rat. l (Greek litron, ‘litre’), irdabb (Greek
Mainkar, V. B. Metrology in the Indus Civilization. Frontiers
artabe, Persian ‘measure of capacity’), mat. ar (Greek
of the Indus Civilization. Ed. B. B. Lal and S. P. Gupta.
New Delhi: Books & Books, 1984. 141–51. metretes, ‘measure of 40 L’), k.ist. (Greek xestes, Latin
Rao, S. R. Lothal and the Indus Civilization. London: Asia sextarius, ‘jug’), k.int. ār (Latin centenarius, ‘hundred-
Publishing House, 1973. weight’), k.af īz (Persian ‘measuring cup’), k.īrāt. (Greek
2256 Weights and measures in Islam

keratios, ‘carat’), istār (Greek stater, ‘weight of gold modified by power politics, institutional reforms or,
coin’), dirham (Greek drachme), dīnār (Latin denari- simply, by the rulers’ autocratic order. Quite often, the
us), kayl (Aramaic measure of capacity), mann/mannā advent of new dynasties brought about the introduction
(Babylonian unit of weight), kurr (Babylonian measure of new metrological standards, mainly in the field of
of capacity). the basic weight units of currency of gold (mithqāl) and
The development of systems of measure was silver (dirham), and the exchange rate of gold dīnār
influenced by the interplay between cultural tradition and silver dirham, which were fixed at a very early state
and the order of authorities. Until the tenth century, by the canonical texts of the Qur’ān and the prophetic
the spread of Islam brought about an intercontinental tradition (h.adīth). Contrary to the more or less stable
economic and cultural sphere which amalgamated mea- weight rate (10 weight dirhams equal 7 weight
suring standards of Egyptian, Arabic, Greek, Roman- mithqāl), which everyday use polished into the handier
Byzantine, Mesopotamian and Persian origin. This ratio of 3:2, the prescribed rate of value (10 silver
resulted in a multiplicity of regional and func- dirhams equal 1 gold dīnār) incessantly deteriorated
tional systems of measurement, which were constantly over the course of time. Ratios of 12:1, 16 4/5:1, 20:1,

Alphabetic list of abbreviations used

ar aruzza, pl. aruzzāt grain of rice

ash ashl, pl. ashwāl, ushūl part of a ‘rope’
az azla/azāla, pl. azāla, azālāt unit of capacity measure
٬as ٬ashīr, pl. ٬ashīrāt, ٬ushrān, a٬shur tenth
ba bat. t. a leather bottle
bā bāb, pl. abwāb portion
bā٬ bā٬, pl. abwā٬ arms’ span
da dānik., pl. dawānik., dawānīk. 1/6 of a dirham/dīnār
dh dhirā٬, pl. dhirā٬āt, adhru٬ ell
dī dīnār, pl. danānīr Gold dīnār
dir dirham, pl. darāhim silver-dirham
dj djarīb, pl. djirbān, adjriba unit of square measure
djo djou barleycorn (Persian)
fa fals, pl. fulūs, aflus small coin
fad faddān, pl. fadādīn yoke of oxen
far farq unit of capacity measure
fā fātil small unit of weight
ghi ghirāra, pl. gharā’ir sack
h.a h.abba, pl. h.ubūb, h.abbāt seed
h.ab h.abl, pl. h.ibāl, h.ubūl rope, thread
h.i h.iml, pl. ah.māl camel-load
ir irdabb, pl. arādibb unit of capacity measure
is istār, pl. asātir unit of weight measure (Greek)
is. is.ba٬, pl. as.ābi٬ width of middle finger
ka kaff, pl. kaffāt hand
kā kāra load carried on the back
kay kayl/kayla, pl. akyāl, akāyil unit of weight measure
kayl kayladja, pl. kayladjāt, kayālidj unit of capacity measure
ku kurr, pl. akrār unit of capacity measure
k.a k.afīz, pl. ak.fiza, k.ifzān unit of capacity weight
k.ab k.ab(a)d.a, pl. k.abad.āt width of fist
k.ad k.adah., pl. ak.dāh. unit of capacity measure
k.al k.alam, pl. ak.lām ‘strip’
k.ām k.āma build, fathom
k.as. k.as.aba, pl. k.as.abāt pole, rod
k.in k.int. ār, pl. k.anāt. īr ‘hundredweight’
k.is k.ist. , pl. ak.sāt. ‘portion’
k.ī k.īrāt. , pl. k.arārīt. carat
k.u k.ulla, pl. k.ulal, k.ilāl jug
ma mann/mannā, pl. amnān, amunnā’ unit of weight measure
mak makkūk, pl. makākīk unit of capacity measure
mar marzbān unit of capacity measure (Persian)
 Weights and measures in Islam 2257

Alphabetic list of abbreviations used (Continued)

mat. mat. ar, pl. amt. ār unit of liquid
mi mithk.āl, pl. mathāk.īl unit of weight measure
mish mishk.ā٬ drinking-vessel
mu mudd, pl. amdād unit of capacity measure
mud mudy, pl. amdā’ unit of capacity measure
na nak.īr ‘small spot’ (Arabic)
nu nügi, pl. nügiler unit of weight measure (Turkish)
ok. ok.k.a, pl. ok.k.alar unit of weight measure (Turkish)
pe peymāne bowl
r rat. l, pl. art. āl ‘litre’
ru rub٬, pl. arbā٬ fourth
sha sha٬īr, pl. sha٬īrāt grain of barley
shi shibr, pl. ashbār span of hand
si silsila, pl. salāsil chain
su sunbul, pl. sanābil ear of grain
s.a s.ā٬, pl. as.wu٬, as.wā٬ unit of capacity of weight
th thumn, pl. athmān eighth
ti tillīs unit of capacity measure
t. a t. assūdj, pl. t. asāsīdj unit of weight measure
٬ush ٬ushr, pl. a٬shār tenth
ūk. ūk.īya, pl. awk.iyā, ūk.īyāt unit of weight measure
wa waiba unit of (dry) capacity measure
was wask., pl. awsāk. (camel’s) load
za zabīl basket made of palm-leaves

30:1 and even 50:1 are recorded. Nevertheless, modern Measures of Length
Islamic jurists insist on referring to the canonical rates Along with the basic unit of length, the dhirā˓, several
(10:7; 10:1) when, for example, fixing the minimum other units were used, some of them only for particular
income (nis.āb) for the obligatory alms payment (zakāt) purposes (construction, geometry, etc.). In theory, i.e.
by Muslims of a determinate portion of their lawful without considering their actual common occurrence or
property. The canonical ratio of the value of gold and precise values, these units could be arranged to the
silver (10:1) reflected the historical situation in the following equation:
Mediterranean region and the Middle East after the
Roman period (12:1). During the Il-Khānid period 1 ash = 1 si = 10 bā = 10 k.as. = 15 bā٬
(thirteenth to fourteenth century), silver from Central (or k.ām) = 60 dh (= Persian gaz) = 360
Asia was massively imported to the West, the price of k.ab = 1,440 is. = 3,600 fa = 8,640 sha.
silver sank again, for a short period, to the Roman
value. Gold, in contrast, remained remarkably stable The ‘black ell’ (al-dhirā٬ al-sawdā’), being ca.
over the millennium. Under the Persian king Darius the 54.04 cm, is said to refer to the length of the ell (from
Great (522–486), mutton cost the same as in Anatolia the elbow to the tip of the middle finger) of a slave
in 1340: the equivalent of 1.9355 g pure gold. of the Caliph al-Mans.ūr (r. 754–775) or the Caliph
The overall cultural diversity of the Islamic world al-Ma’mūn (r. 813–833). Another etymology links
corresponds to the diversity of the metric systems, the measure to the unit by which the ‘Nilometer’ of the
which came into use between the Atlantic and the island of al-Rawd. a was operated. There are almost
Indian sub-continent. Three geographical units can be thirty variants of the ell, some varying 30-fold from
differentiated: The Islamic Arab West, from Andalusia the original. By the eleventh century, at least 11 differ-
to Iraq, Persia and the adjacent areas under Persian ent types of dhirā’ can be differentiated:
influence, and India. The following comments omit the
metric systems of India (see EI 2 VI, pp. 121a–122a, . 1 dhirā٬ sawdā’ = 1 + 1/7 + 2/3 ·1/7 dh al-yad (of the W
s.v. makāyīl, and VII, pp. 138a–140b, s.v. misāh.a) and hand)
concentrate on the development in the Arab West, in = 1 + 1/8 +1/9 dh al-h.adīd (iron ell)
consideration of the situation in Persia. Emphasis is laid . 1 dh fid.d.īya (silver) = 1 – 1/7 dh al-sawdā’
on the early Islamic and medieval period. The absolute . 1 dh yūsuf īya (of Abū Yūsuf, d. 798) = 1− 2/3 ·1/7
equivalents in modern metric values stem back to dh al-sawdā’
archaeological evidence or observations of European . 1 dh hāshimīya (of the Banū Hāshim) = 1 + 1/8 +
travellers. 1/10 dh al-sawdā’
2258 Weights and measures in Islam

. 1 dh bilālīya (of Bilāl b. Abī Burda, d. 739) = 1 dh as 400 square k.as.aba, i.e. 6,368 m2. During the
al-sawdā’ + 2 + 2/3·1/7 is. nineteenth century, the faddān was reduced to
. 1 dh fid.d.īya (al-misāh.a) = 7 or 8 dh al-yad 4,200.833 m2.
. 1 dh ٬umarīya (of ٬Umar b. ٬Abdal٬azīz, d. 720) = If multiplied with one another these units render the
1 + 1/2 dh al-yad matrix (see above).
. 1 dh mīzānīya (surveyor’s ell) = 3 dh al-yad There is substantial evidence that the professional
. 1 dh mābahrāmī = 1 + 1/2 dh al-h.adīd surveyors during the Abbasid period used a specific
system of calculation. They divided the biggest unit,
In addition to these different norms of the dhirā˓,
the azla, into 100 dh mīzānīya which corresponded to
a multitude of ells was used depending on the
48 is. ٬umarīya (see above), hence:
profession involved: carpenters, cloth-makers, con-
structors etc. Moreover, the ells used in different cities 1 az = 100 dh2 = 100 · 122 k.ab2 = 100 · 122 · 42 is.2
under the same name differed: the medieval cloth-ell of In the Turkish lands of the Ottoman Empire (Minor
Damascus (ca. 63.035 cm), for example, was 1/12 Asia, Iraq, Syria and Palestine) the dönüm (turn), Arabic
longer than the cloth-ell of Cairo (58.187 cm). dūnam, was – until recent times – the standard measure of
area. Originally measuring 939 m2, it has been adjusted in
Measures of Area colonial times to 1,000 m2 (in Iraq to 2,500 m2).
The calculation of the surface of (straight) areas operated
with the conventional measures of length. The basic units,
however, were the k.af īz and the djarīb, two specific Measures of Capacity
measures of surface area. Originally and throughout the Most of the confusion about the system of the Islamic
Islamic period, both units also served as measures of measures of capacity, both in primary medieval and
capacity. One djarīb was conceived of as representing the in modern secondary texts, dates back to the Oriental
surface area of agricultural land which could be sown practice to measure grain, pulse, and some liquids in
with the amount of seed one djarīb contained. capacity, but not in weight. The Arabic term mīzān does
Based on the ratio of the length units (1 ash = 10 not clearly differentiate between the two. The transition
bā = 60 dh = 360 k.ab = 1440 is.), the following ratio of from volume to weight needs the related quantity of the
units of surface area measurement can be generated: litre of water: the volume of approx. 75–77 kg of wheat
and 60–72 kg of barley correspond to the volume of 100
1 ash = 60 dh · 60 dh = 3,600 dh 2 = 1 dj
kg/L of water.
and: From this economic and agricultural use of measures
of capacity the proper mathematical and technical
1 dj = 10 k.a = 10· 360 dh 2
calculation of volumes must be set apart. This calculation
= [in Persia] 60 ka = 600 ٬as = 600 · 6 dh2
is built on the calculation of the surface area multiplied by
= 100 ٬as = 100 · 36 dh 2 the third dimension. The names used for the cubic units of
This djarīb was called the ‘small’ djarīb, being 100 measure do not change. Related to the dhirā٬ mīzānīya
square k.abad.a (or k.as.aba; the units being often and based on the ratio 1 az = 100 dh 3 = 100 ku, the
exchangeable) which renders: 100 · (399 cm · 399 cm) following values are produced: (see matrix below)
2
= 1,592 m2. The ‘big’ djarīb had 5,837 1/3 m2, i.e. 3 2/3 Most of the units of measures of capacity are regarded
‘small’ djarīb, and corresponded roughly to the as units of weights too. It is therefore impossible
predominantly Egyptian faddān which was calculated to separate the two systems properly. Depending on

ashl bāb dhirā٬ k.abad.a is.ba٬

ashl 1 dj 1 k.ab 5/3 ash 1/6 + 1/9 ash 1/24 + 1/36 ash = 2 1/2 dh 2
bāb 1 ash 1 ash = 6 dh 2 1/36 ash = 1 dh 2 1/144 is. = ¼ dh 2
dhirā٬ 1/36 ash = 1 dh 2 1/216 ash = 1/6 dh 2 1/864 ash = 1/24 dh 2
2
k.abad.a 1/1,296 ash = 1/144 dh 1/5,841 ash = 1/576 dh 2

azla3 dhirā٬3 k.afīz3 k.abad.a3 is.ba٬3

azla3 1 100 6,000 172,800 = 102 · (12 k.ab)3 11,059,200 = 102 · (48 is.)3
dhirā٬3 1,728 110,592
 Weights and measures in Islam 2259

the material measured, additionally different types of (capacity) = 256 ūk. (weight). In Andalusia, wine and
the same unit, e.g., a ‘honey-fark.’ or a ‘barley-irdabb’, vinegar were sold in rub٬ (1 ru = 1/4 k.ad = 18 r = 216
were used. The absolute values of these types differed ūk. = 1,728 mi = 8.16 L, in Persia the peymāne (bowl,
considerably in different regions and periods. In order to 8.3 L) was in use for this purpose. In Iraq, wine, but
allow a comparative overview, units that are related to also oil and honey, were measured by makkūk or
each other by practical use are grouped together. Minor mishk.ā٬ (drinking-vessel): 1 mak = 48 th à 50 dir = 64
local variations and temporal changes are ignored. mish à 37 1/2 dir = 7.5 L.
Few of these units have a canonical background: Another widespread unit of capacity was the
1 was = 60 s.ā٬ = 240 mu = ca. 252 L. Far bigger than ghirāra, mainly used for grain: 1 ghi = 3 ir mis.rī =
this mudd (ca. 1.05 L) of Medina were the mudd of 12 kay = 14 mak = 72 mu dimashk.ī = 73 1/2 mu
Egypt and Iraq (2.5 L), of Syria (3.67 L), of the Maghreb mis.rī = 265 L. In Egypt, the kayla = 8 k.ad was 7.5 L
(4.32 L), and that of Jerusalem (100 L). The prophetic s.ā٬ (modern 16.5 L).
was exactly 4.2125 L. Being the quantitative lower limit This kayla is not identical with the kayladja,
(nis.āb) for the liability for the zakāt (alms) taxes, the presumably an originally Persian unit of capacity
measure of 5 wask. of dates, for example, was equated in measure: 1 kayl = ½ s.a = 1/3 mak = 3/14 ghi = 1/6 k.a
value with 5 ūk.īya (= 200 dir = 529.9 g), 20 dī (or wheat = 1/5 k.a barley = ca. 1 7/8 ma = 2.5 L (or 2 L in
mithk.āl, = 84.7 g, see later), 5 dhawd (camels), the nis.āb East Iran).
of cotton (5 was = 1,600 dir ٬irāk.ī à 130 g), or 50 kay. The most basic of all grain measures, especially in
Therefore, the values given for one wask. greatly differ. In the Islamic East, was the old Babylonian kurr.
the time of Hārūn al-Rashīd (around 800), a short-lived
1 ku = 30 kā = 60 k.a = 480 mak = 600
wask. (1 was = 2 1/2 prophetic was) was introduced.
‘ush/‘as = 1,440 kayl = 5,769 ru = 7,200
Towards the end of the seventh century, the k.af īz
r = 11,520 th = 2,925 kg (wheat).
(usually corresponding to 1/10 dj = 1/60 kurr) was
used instead of this prophetic s.ā٬ in Iraq. Another Smaller than this ‘big’ kurr of Baghdad was the kurr of
specific k.af īz of capacity is recorded from Iraq around Wāsit. and Bas.ra (1 ku = 60 k.a = 480 mak = 1,440 kayl
990: 1 k.a = 1 k.affa (basket) = 1/2 zabīl (basket made of à 600 dir of wheat = 2,700 kg); a ‘reformed’ kurr even
palm leaves). amounted only to: 1 ku = 60 k.a à 25 r baghdādī =
In Egypt grain, but in particular wheat, was measured 609.375 kg (wheat). Moreover, depending on the kind
by irdabb: 1 ir = 6 wa = 24 ru = 48 k.ad = 90 ma = 96 k.ad of grain measured, different akrār were used: In
(small) = ca. 90 L. Different values extant for the irdabb fourteenth century Baghdad, the kurr of wheat weighed
(between 72.3 kg, modern 182 L) may be explained also 2,925 kg, that of barley 2,437.5 kg, and that of rice
by the difference of volume between, for example, 3.656,25 kg. The common sub-units of the kurr, the
wheat, barley and lentils (100:80:104). k.af īz, makkūk, kayladja, and thumn differed respec-
Egyptian flour was measured in tillīs: 1 ti = 3/2 wa = tively, sometimes not only proportionally. Thus, in
3 ba = 15 ma = 24 k.ad = 22.5 L. There, the waiba of twelfth century Aleppo, a quite different makkūk
rice (1 wa = 8 k.ad = 24 r kabīr), as observed around existed: 1 mak = 19 sun = 28.5 r à 684 dir à 3.125
1665, contained only 12.5 l. Three centuries before in g = 60.92 kg. About the same time, the k.af īz of H.amāh
Tunis, it was equal to 12 prophetic mudd (ca. 12.6 l). was 7/8 k.a of that of Shayzar. In Aleppo, 4 mak made
In Medina and Iraq, honey but also wheat was one marzbān (1 mar = 1/4 mak = 19/4 sun = 57/8 r =
measured in fark. : 1 fa = 3 s.a = 36 r bagdādī = 19 L. In 4,873 1/2 dir = 15.23 kg).
Egypt and Syria, the mudy – not to be confused with Towards the end of the tenth century, the mathemati-
the mudd - replaced the k.ist. when not oil but food was cian al-Būzdjānī compared the new ‘reformed’ (Arabic
measured. It is sometimes called ‘the Syrian djarīb’, mu٬addal) djarīb - this djarīb was not measured with 10
sometimes equated with the k.af īz. The practice in Syria, but with 2 1/2 k.a only – which was introduced after 978
however: 1 k.a = 8 mak = 12 s.a, the indication: 1 mud = by his Lord, the Būyid ٬Ad.ud al-Dawla, with four
15 mak = 22 1/2 s.a does not confirm this. In Palestine, a different common types of the kurr. His systematic
square mudy was known (1 mud 2 = 1 h.ab · 1 h.ab). treatment of the issue will throw some light on the
Olive oil was merchandised in mat. ar (1 mat. = complex variety of the units used and their specific
2 k.u = ca. 17 kg) in the Maghreb, in k.ulla (1 k.u = 12 relation when being transformed from one into another W
th = 27 r = 13.6 kg) in Andalusia. In Egypt, the thumn (see matrix below).
corresponded to 1/8 k.ad (today 0.29 L), in Qayrawān to Besides simsim (sesame), h.int. a (wheat), djahkan-
6 prophetic mu = 6.32 L. Oil and other liquids were dam (mixture of 1/2 h.int. a + 1/2 sha٬īr), and sha٬īr
also measured in k.ist. : In Iraq, the ‘small’ k.ist. (1 k.i = 3 (barley), a fifth category is formed to include all kinds
r = 1.22 L) was half of the ‘great’ k.ist. , in Egypt it was of grain and dry goods that do not belong to one of the
half of a s.ā٬: 211 L; elsewhere the k.ist. is given as: aforementioned categories: nuts, like almonds, pista-
1 mat. = 4 k.i = 21 1/3 r djarwī (see below) = 192 ūk. chios and hazelnuts, dried pears, plums etc. From the
2260 Weights and measures in Islam

1. Ratio of kurr-Variants

Types of kurr mu٬addal kāmil fālidj hāshimī sulaymānī

mu٬addal 1 2 2 1/2 3 3 1/2 + 1/4

kāmil 1/4 1 1 1/4 1 1/2 1 1/2 + 1/4 +1 1/8
fālidj 2/5 4/5 1 1 1/5 1 1/2
hāshimī 1/3 2/3 5/6 1 1 1/4
sulaymānī 1/6 + 1/10 1/3 + 1/5 2/3 4/5 1
[ratio] 60 30 24 20 16

2. Djarīb per kurr

Types of kurr mu٬addal kāmil fālidj hāshimī sulaymānī

djarīb/kurr 24 12 9 3/5 8 6 2/5

fraction 1/3 · 1/8 1/2 · 1/6 1/2 · 1/6 + 1/6 · 1/8 1/8 1/8 + 1/4 · 1/8

3. Ratios Between sub-units (as indicated by Al-Būzdjānī)

makkūk ٬ushr kayladja rub٬ rat.l thumn

kurr 480 600 1,440 5,760 7,200 11,520

makkūk 1 1/4 12 15 24
٬ushr 1/4 + 1/6
kayladja 5 8
h.ubūb 4 5 60
rub٬ 1/12 + 1/48 1 1/4
thumn 1/20 + 1/60 1/2 + 1/8

4. Ratio of Capacity Between Different Kinds of Grain a) dirham al-fid.d.a (silver dirham)
Calibration of the silver (dirham) and gold (dīnār)
simsim h.int.a djahkandam sha٬īr coins was done with the help of glass weights. The
simsim 1 2 2 2/3 4 earliest preserved exemplars date back to the second half
h.int. a 1/2 1 1 1/3 2 of the eighth century. The dirham weight defined the
djahkandam 1/4 + 1/8 1/2 + 1/4 1 1 1/2 weight of the dirham coin, the mithk.āl weight the weight
sha٬īr 1/4 1/2 2/3 1 of the dīnār. The most precise glass weights of the mithk.āl
[ratio] 8 4 3 2 have an average weight of 4.233 g (max. tolerance 1/3
mg). Archaeological finds affirm both the weight of the
dirham in accordance to the canonical ratio of dirham:
matrixes 1–4, exactly 280 possible combinations result mithk.āl (= 10:7): 2.97 g, as to the ‘rounded’ ratio (= 3:2):
by which the transfer of one given quantity (and value) 2.82 g. An exceptional mithk.āl weight was in use in Egypt
of one commodity into another can be calculated. under the Ayyubid dynasty and in the Maghreb under the
Example: If 24 ku of oats (h.urt. umān = category of Almohad dynasty (4.722 g).
sha٬īr) should be transferred into kurr sulaymānī of The mithk.āl gold and the dirham silver were divided
pepper grass (h.abb al-rishād = category of h.int. a), then into k.īrāt. and h.abba.
the rule of seven is required, in short: mi gold = 20 k.ī = 60 h.a;
1
24 ku kāmil sha٬īr – 1/6 · 24 = 22 dir silver = 12 k.ī = 48 h.a (Iraq)
1
ku sulaymānī h.int. a + 30 k.a. mi gold = 24 k.ī = 60 h.a;
1
dir silver = 16 k.ī = 60 h. (Arabia, Egypt, Syria)
1
Measures of Weight Hence, the values (see matrix below).
The entire Islamic system of weights is based on the In addition to these general systematic differences a
dirham and the rat. l. The rat. l is the most common variety of deviating systems from different regions,
smallest unit, or reference, of weight. The weight of the authors and periods are recorded (tenth to thirteenth
dirham is used for two different purposes. The two century; indicated as I–V), that integrate sub-units
values differ correspondingly: like the dānik., t. assūdj, ٬ashīr, fals, and aruzza (which
 Weights and measures in Islam 2261

gold k.īrāt. gold h.abba silver k.īrāt. silver h.abba

Iraq 0.212 g 0.0706 g 0.247 g 0.062 g

Egypt etc. 0.176 g 0.0706 g 0.186 g 0.0495 g

dānik. k.īrāt. t.assūdj h.abba ٬ashīr fals aruzza

I. Dīnār 12 1/2 20 24 60
Dirham 12 24 48 60
II. Dīnār 6 20 baghdādī 60 baghdādī 60
24 bas.rī 72 hurās./shāmī
Dirham 6 48 ˘baghdādī/bas.rī 60 96
36 hurās./shāmī
III. Dīnār [12] [20] 24 60 ˘ 240
IV. Dīnār 24/20 576 [72] 600/7 600

elsewhere corresponds to 25 h.a hardal, grains of With the exception of Persia, where the mann domi-
˘ defines the ha
mustard, i.e. ca. 0.0186 g); one author nated the system of weight measures, the rat. l became
.
hardal as 1/70 of a h.abba (which is sometimes replaced the most common and widespread unit of weight
˘by ‘kamha’, grain of wheat), 60 of which make one measure in the Islamic world, comparable in size and
. .
silver dirham, i.e. 1 h.a hardal = 0.0007 g. From the function to the European ‘pound’ (Pfund, livre, libra,
vague comments of sources,˘ it must be assumed that Italian loan word ‘rotolo’). The rat. l was measured in
most of these different systems were in use as weight dirham. Depending on what was measured, and where
measures too (see matrix below). and when, the rat.l could take different numbers of dirham
According to the actual ratio of value between gold (values between 96 and 1.040 are recorded) of different
and silver currency, the moneychangers had to take dirham weights (standard value: 1 dir = 3.125 g).
several factors into consideration when transferring If integrated into the early Meccan system:
amounts of money from one currency into the other. 1 r = 2 ma [à 130 dir] = 12 ūk. = 480 dir = 1/100 k.in,
This could result in thirteenth century Egypt, for
the mithk.āl weights produce the following (fictitious)
example, when 16 4/5 dir were equivalent to 1 dī, in the
relation:
following calculations:
1 mi = 20 k.ī = 60 [or 100] h.a = 10/7 dir = 1/336 r
1 dī = 1,440 h.a fid.d.a [10 · 60/7· 16 4/5 = 1,440]; and (for Iraq; 1 k.ī = 0.223 g)
1 h.a gold = 1/5 + 2/25 k.ī = 16 4/5 h.a silver; or 1 mi = 24 k.ī = 96 h.a = 3/2 dir = 1/320 r (for Mecca,
1 fa = 2 2/5 h.a silver = 1/7 h.a gold [2 2/5: 1/7 = 16 4/5]. Egypt etc.; 1 k.ī = 0.195 g).
From archaeological (glass weights) and textual
b) dirham al-kayl (weight dirham) evidence, several hundred rat. l weights are known. The
In contrast to the homogeneous evidence of the weight following list enumerates (in order of size, with ‘[…]’
of the ‘silver dirham’ the extant values of the weight of values developed) some of the standard rat. l weights
the ‘weight dirham’ deviate considerably from one repeatedly recorded (see matrix below).
another. They range from 3.086 g to 3.148 g. When not Besides the rat. l, the mann was an important unit of
indicated otherwise, the following comments will be weight everywhere in the Islamic world, in particular
based on the established average standard value of 1 in the Persian East, where it weighed between 260 dir
dir = 3,125 g with which the ‘canonical’ (ratio 10: 7) (= 816.5 g) and 2,080 dir (= 6,656 g). A similar variety
mithk.āl of 4.464 g is corresponding. From textual of mann weights was used In Asia Minor (twelfth
evidence some of which are included in the matrix century onwards). Until the fifteenth century it was
above, different regional values of the dirham/mithk.āl used instead of one half of a rat. l à 130 dirham. Then a
weight can be deduced: W
‘big’ mann (ca. 3 to 3.25 kg), and a ‘middle’ mann of
Egypt 3.125/4.68 g; Syria (Aleppo twelfth century) 1.920 g came into use. During the Safawid period
3.14/4.427 g, (Aleppo nineteenth century) (sixteenth century), a ‘super’ mann, later called the
1 dir = 3.167 g, Damascus 3.086/4.62 g; Anatolia ‘royal’ mann (between 5.7 and 6 kg), was introduced.
(Ottoman period) 3.086/4.81 g; Iraq 3.125/4.46 g; The Ottomans used the ok.k.a (1 ok. = 2 nu = 400 dir à
Iran (fourteenth century) 1 mī = 4.3 g, (sixteenth 3.207 g = 1.2828 kg) instead of the rat. l. Its stability
century) [3.26]/4.639 g; Maghreb 3.3/4.722 g; was proverbial: Okka her yerde dört yüz dirhem gelir
East Africa (sixteenth century) 1 mī = 4.41 g. (… to be no different from anybody else).
2262 Weights and measures in Islam

Egypt (Abbasid period) 96 dir 300 g

Rūmī (Asia Minor) I 102 6/7 dir 321.43 g
Umayyad period [110 dir] 340 g
Rūmī (Asia Minor) II 120 dir 375 g
Iraq (medieval) 128 4/7 dir 401.79 g
Abbasid period (Egypt, 130 dir 406.25 g
Baghdad)
Maghreb 130 dir 406.25 g
Maghreb 137 1/7 dir 428.57 g
Umayyad period (Egypt) [140 dir] 437.5 g
Maghreb (Fāt.imid period) 140 dir 437.5 g
Egypt (later Abbasid period) 144 dir 450 g
Fulfulī 150 dir 468.75 g
Maghreb (Ibn Bat.t.ūt.a) 150 dir 468.75 g
‘big’ Egypt (Abbasid period) 160 dir 500 g
Maghreb (Ibn Bat.t.ūt.a) 180 dir 562.5 g
Laithī 200 dir 625 g
Djarwī 312 dir 975 g
Turkestan (fourteenth centu- 330 dir 1,031.25 g
ry)
Fes/Marrakesh (fourteenth 336 dir 1,050 g
century; = 16 ūk.)
Aleppo (twelfth and thir- 480 dir 1,500 g
teenth century)
Syria/Palestine (fourteenth 592 1/2 dir 1,851.56 g
century)
H.ims. (twelfth century) 684 dir [sic] 2,137.5 g
Aleppo (after thirteenth cen- [724 dir] 2,273 g
tury)
Jerusalem (medieval) 800 dir 2,500 g
H.ims. (Syria, medieval) 864 dir 2,700 g
Constantinople (eighteenth 876 dir 2,800 kg
century)
Jerusalem (nineteenth cen- 900 dir 2,812.5 g
tury)
Iran (Shīrāz, Fārs; in mann) 1,040 dir 3,250 g

The biggest unit - besides the rather colloquial The Quranic ‘h.abba min hardal ‘(the ‘grain of mustard’,
h.iml, camel-load (1 h.i = ca. 250 kg) -, was the k.int. ār, see above), being 1/70 h.a of˘ 1/60 dir each (= ca. 0.0007 g),
the hundredweight (= 100 r). Depending on the type seems to have remained the smallest unit of weight in use
of rat. l it was based on, the k.int. ār weights differed. in the Islamic world. If calculated properly, the fictitious
In medieval Egypt, different k.int. ār weights were nak.īr (1djo = 6 [h.a] hardal = 72 fa = 432 fāl = 2,592
common: fulfulī (pepper) = 100 r à 144 dir = 45 kg; na = 1/96 mi = 0.045˘ g) would correspond to ca. 5 ng.
laithī = 100 r à 200 dir = 62 kg; djarwī = 100 r à 312
dir = 96.7 kg; mannī = 100 r à 260 dir = 81.25 kg; al-Kurashı̄
‘big’ = 24 ru = 240 r à 160 dir = 38,600 dir = 120 kg. The˙ research of the history of weights and measures
In a treatise composed by a customs officer in the and their use in the Islamic world is based on a variety
thirteenth century, additional k.int. ār names, but no of sources. Unfortunately, no particular literary type of
values, for specific goods are mentioned. While the text developed that could claim to be called ‘profes-
k.int. ār of Syria (Aleppo, H.ims., H.amāh) was always sional’. The information available is scattered over
equivalent to 100 local rat. l, it was taken for 100 mann texts on law, social and economic history, administra-
in late medieval Iraq. In Iran (fifteenth century) tion and geography. They generally lack a systematic
and Asia Minor (Ottoman period) 1 k.int. ār weighed character, i.e. ignore comparative and proportionate
ca. 57 kg. references. The most recent endeavor to collect all
The smaller weight unit of istār (1 is = 4 1/2 mi = information available in the historical sources was
6 3/7 dir = 20.07 g), only known from Egypt, was used undertaken by Mah.mūá Fākhūrī and S.alāh. al-Dīn
there to weigh silk: 1 s-k.-t. [?] = 3 ru = 90 man = 180 is. knawwām in: Madjmū˓at wah.dāt al-qiyās al-˓arabīya
 Weights and measures in Islam 2263

Aleppo: Weights
1 dir = 60 h.a 1 dī = (22 + 1/2) k.ī = 90 h.a
1 k.ī = 4 h.a = 2/45 dī 1 dī = 3/2 dī (Iraq)
1 h.a/dī = (6/7 + 2/21) h.a/dī (Egypt) 1 h.a = [(1 + 3/25) h.a (Syria)]
1 k.ī = (1 + 1/4) k.ī (Iraq) 1 k.ī = (1 + 1/8) k.ī (Iraq)
1 r = 7,560 k.ī

Ant.āk.iya: Weights
1 r = [16/17 r sulaymānī]
1 r = [4/5 r z.āhirī]
1 r = 384 dir = [12 ūk.] = [17 1/7 mi] = (268 4/5) mi
1 ūk. = 32 dir (22 2/5) mi
1 r = (3/5 + 1/25) r (Syria) = (2 + 1/2 + 1/20 + 1/100) r fulfulī = 4/5 r z.āhirī = (2/3 + 1/4 + 1/100) r h.aythamī

Ardabīl: Weights
1 r = [9/5 r sulaymānī] 1 r = 1.080 r = [12 ūk.] = 756 mi
1 ūk. = 90 dir 1 mi = 63 dir
1 r = 1 4/5 r sulaymānī = 8 2/5 r (Iraq)

Asyūt. (Egypt): Weights

1 r = [5/3 r sulaymānī] = r (T.ah.āwī, ٬Akkā) 1 r = 720 dir = 1/5 k.is
1 r = 1,000 dir = 700 mi = [12 ūk.] 1 ūk. = 83 1/3 dir = 58 1/3 mi
1 r = 1 2/3 r (Syria) = 31/3 r djarwī = 6 2/3 r fulfulī = (7 + 2/3 +
1/9) r (Iraq)

Baghdad: Measures of capacity

1 r = [3/16 s.a (H.idjāz) = [2 ma] = [1/4 mu (Damascus)] = 3/14 r (Syria)

Bardha٬a (Azarbaydjan): Weights

1 r = [7/5 r sulaymānī] 1 r = 840 dir = [14 ūk.]
1 ūk. = 588 mi 1 ūk./mi = 49 dir
1 r = 1 2/3 r sulaymānī
= (6 + 1/3 + 1/5) r sulaymānī

Damascus: Measures of capacity

1 mu = 1 4/7 mu (H.idjāz) = 4 r (Baghdad)

Weights
1r = 12 ūk. = 600 dir = 1 r sulaymānī 1 ūk. = 50 dir
1 r = 420 mi = 3,600 da = 14,400 k.ī = 36,000 h.a 1 k.ī = 1 3/8 da (Iraq)
1 ūk. = 35 mi = 300 da 1,200 k.ī = 3,000 h.a 1 k.ī = [15/16 k.ī (Aleppo)]
1 h.a = (6/7 + 1/28) h.a (Aleppo)
1 ūk. (small, silk) = 10 dir = 1/50 r = 1/20 is

Diyār Bakr (N-Syria)

1 dir = 60 h.a 1 dī = 22 1/2 k.ī = 90 h.a
1 k.ī = 4 h.a = 2/45 dī 1 h.a = 1/4 k.ī = 1/90 dī W
Diyār Mud. ar (N-Syria)
1 dir = 60 h.a 1 dī = 22 1/2 k.ī = 90 h.a
1 k.ī = 4 h.a = 2/45 dī 1 h.a = 1/4 k.ī = 1/90 dī
2264 Weights and measures in Islam

Djarwī: Weights
1 r = [6/7 ma (Syria, general)]
1 r = [1/2 r sulaymānī ]
1 r = 300 dir = 1/2 r (Syria) = (1/5 + 1/10) r (T.ah.āwī)] = 1 1/6
ma = 210 mi
= 2 1/3 r (Iraq) = [3/10 r (Asyūt.ī)]

Djazīra: Weights
1 dir = 60 h.a 1 dī = 22 1/2 k.ī = 2/45 dī
1 k.ī = 4 h.a = 2/45 dī 1 h.a = 1/4 k.ī = 1/90 dī

Egypt: Measures of area

1 fad = 100 dh · 100 dh = 20 k.ab

Measures of capacity
1 ku = 1 k.in fulfulī = 1/4 k.in (Syria)

Weights
1 dir = 60 h.a 1 da = 6 h.a
1 dir = (1/2 + 1/5) dī = 16 4/5 k.ī 1 k.ī = 3 4/7 h.a
1 dī = 10/7 dir = 24 k.ī = 85 5/7 h.a/dir 1 da/dī = 8 4/7 h.a/dir
1 k.ī = (1/7 + 1/14) da [sic] 1 da = 2 2/5 k.ī
1 dī = 600/7 h.a 1 k.ī = 25/7 h.a = (1/24 + 1/42) dir
1 h.a = (1/5 + 2/25) k.ī 1 h.a/dī = (1/100 + 1/600) dī
1 h.a/dī = [(1 + 1/21) h.a/dī (Aleppo)] 1 k.ī = [15/16 k.ī (Aleppo)]
1 k.ī = [21/25 k.ī (Iraq)] 1 k.ī/dir = [3/8 da (Iraq)]
1 r = 1 k.in fulfulī = 1/4 k.in (Syria)

Filast.īn (Palestine, incl. Tiberias): Measures of length and area

1 h.ab = 40 dh 1 mudy = 1 h.ab · 1 h.ab

Weights
1 ra = 420 mi = 3,600 da = 14,400 k.ī = 36,000 h.a
1 ūk. = 35 mi = 300 da = 1,200 k.ī = 3,000 h.a

Fulfulī: Measures of capacity

1 ra = [7/32 s.a (H.idjāz)] = [7/8 prophetic mu]

Weights
1 r = [7/12 r (Syria, general)]
1 r = 2 r djarwī
1 r = [1/4 r sulaymānī]
1k.in = 1 r (Egypt) =1/4 k.in (Syria)
1 r/ūk. = 12 1/2 dir = (8 1/2 + 1/4) mi = 1/4 r (Syria) =(1/3 + 1/4)
ma
1 r = [6/7 r (Iraq)] = [3/8 r h.aythamī = [5/16 r z.āhirī] =[3/2 r
(Asyūt.ī)]
= [3/2 r (T.ah.āwī)] =[25/64 r (Ant.ākiya]
1 r = 150 dir = 105 mi

Ghaylānī, see Yemen

H.aithamī: Weights
1 r = 400 dir = [12 ūk.] 1 ūk. = 33 1/3 dir
1 r = 2/3 r (Syria) = 2 r laythī = 2 2/3 r fulfulī = 3 1/9 r
(Iraq) = 1 5/9 ma (Iraq) = 1 5/6 r z.āhirī
= 1 11/150 ra (Ant.ākiya)
 Weights and measures in Islam 2265

H.idjāz: Measures of capacity

1 was = 60 s.a = 240 mu 1 mu = 1 3/4 mu (Damascus)
1 s.a = 5 1/3 r (Baghdad) = 1 1/7 r (Syria) = 4 4/7 r fulfulī = 2 2/
3 ma = 8 r (Abū H.anīfa: Baghdad)

Weights
1 dī = 24 k.ī 1 r = 3/601 r sulaymānī

Iraq: Measures of length and area

1 dj = 60 dh · 60 dh = [3,600 dh 2] = 10 k.a = 100 ٬as
1 k.as. = 6 dh = 1 bā = 1/10 ash 1 dj = 1 ash · 1 ash
1 ٬as = 1 bā · 1 bā 1 mud = 30 k.al 2 = 1687 1/2 dh 2

1 k.a = 7 1/2 dh = 1/4 (or 1/3) si

Measures of capacity
1 ku = 60 k.a 1 mu = 3/4 prophetic mu

Weights
1 dī = 6 da = 60 h.a = 20 k.ī 1 k.ī = 3 h.a
1 dir = 48 t. a = 48 h.a = 6 da 1 da/dir = 8 h.a/dir
1 dir = (1/2 + 1/5) dī 1 h.a/dir = 1/48 dir
1 t. a = 4/5 h.a (Syria) 1 dī = 2/3 dī (Aleppo)
1 k.ī = [4/5 k.ī (Aleppo)] 1 k.ī = 1 1/7 + 1/21 k.ī (Damascus, Egypt)
1 da = 2 2/3 k.ī/dir (Dam., Egypt) 1 da = 2 1/3 k.ī
1 k.ī = 8/9 k.ī (Aleppo, weight) 1 r = [3/14 r sulaymānī]
1 ūk. = [1/1,200 k.in (Syria)] 1 r = 1/2 r (Syria, general)
1 r = 128 4/7 dir = 90 mi 1 r = [12 ūk.]
1 ūk. = 10 5/7 dir = 7 1/2 mi
1 r = 1,800 k.ī = 6,171 3/7 h.a/dī = 5,400 h.a/dir = 3/14 r (Syria)
= 6/7 r fulfulī = 1/2 ma = [9/14 r laythī]
1 r = [9/28 r h.aythamī] = [9/35 r (Asyūt.ī)] = [5/42 r (Ardabīl)]

Laythī: Weights
1 r = [1/3 r sulaymānī] 1 r = [7/9 ma (Syria, general)]
1 r = 100 dir = [6 3/33 ūk.] 1 r = [1/2 r h.aythamī]
1 ūk. = 16 1/2 dir = 140 mi = 11 2/3 mi sulaymānī
1 r = 1 1/4 r fulfulī = 6/7 ma = 1 5/9 r (Iraq)

Makāyīl al-nabīy (prophetic measures)

1 mu = 1 1/3 r (Iraq) = 171 3/7 dir = 3 3/7 ūk. (Syria) = 1 1/7 r fulfulī = 120 mi

Sulaymānī: Weights
1 r = 1 r (Damascus) = 200 1/3 r (H.idjāz) = 4 r fulfulī = 4 1/3 r (Iraq) = 3 r laythī = 2 r djarwī = 2 4/19 r (Ghaylānī)
= 1 1/2 r h.aythamī = 1 1/4 r z.āhirī = 5/4 r (Bardha٬ī) = 5/9 r (Ardabīl) = 3/5 r (Asyūt.ī) = 1 1/16 r (Ant.ākiya)
1 r = [2 2/15 ma (Syria, general)] = [7/3 ma (Syria, general)] = [5/7 r (Bardha٬ī)] = [5/9 r (Ardabīl)]

Syria: Measures of capacity

1 ghi = 3 k.a (Iraq) = 12 ru = 72 mu 1 ūk. = [7/24 prophetic mu]
1 r = [7/8 s.a (H.idjāz)] = [4 2/3 r (Baghdad)]
W
Weights
1 dir = 60 h.a 1 h.a = 6 da
1 da = 10 h.a 1 dir = (1/2 + 1/5) dī = 16 4/5 k.ī/dī
1 k.ī = 3 4/7 h.a 1 dī = 1 3/7 dir = 24 k.ī = 85 5/7 h.a
1 da/dī = 8 4/7 h.a/dī 1 k.ī = (1/7 + 1/14) h.a
1 da = 1 4/5 k.ī 1 dī = 600/7 h.a
1 h.a = (1/5 + 2/25) k.ī 1 h.a = 4/5 t. a (Iraq)
2266 Weights and measures in Islam

1 h.a/dī = (1/100 + 1/600) dī 1 h.a = (6/7 + 1/28) h.a (Aleppo)

1 k.ī = 25/7 h.a = (1/28 + 1/42) dir = 1/24 dī

Weights (Syria, specific)

1 r = 420 mi = 3,600 da = 14,400 k.ī = 36,000 h.a
1 ūk. = 35 mi = 300 da = 1,200 k.ī = 3,000 h.a
1 k.in = [4 k.in fulfulī] = [4 r (Egypt)] = 42,000 mi = 60,000 dir
1 r = [4 r/ūk. fulfulī] = [2 r djarwī] = [14/3 r (Iraq)]
1 r = [3/2 r h.aythamī] = [3/5 r (Asyūt.ī)] = [16/25 r (Ant.ākiya)]

Weights (Syria, unspecified)

1 k.in = 100 r = 233 1/3 ma = 466 2/3 r [sic] = 1,200 ūk. (Iraq)
1 ma = 260 dir ≈ 257 1/7 dir = 180 mi = 2 r (Iraq) = 1 5/7 r fulfulī = 13/30 r sulaymānī
1 ma = 1 2/7 r laythī = 6/7 r djarwī = 3/7 r sulaymānī
1 r/ūk. = 5 1/7 ūk. = 1/4 ma = 3 3/4 mi

T.ah.āwī: Weights
1 r = [3/10 r djarwī ] 1 r = 1 r (Asyūt.ī)

Yemen (Ghaylānī): Weights

1 r = [19/42 r sulaymānī ] 1 ūk. = (15 1/2 + 1/3) mi sulaymānī
1 r = [271 2/3 + 2/7] dir sulaymānī = 190 mi sulaymānī

Z.āhirī (Fāt.imid): Weights

1 r = 480 dir = [12 ūk.] = 336 mi 1 ūk. = 40 dir = 28 mi
1 r = 4/5 r (Syria) = 1 1/5 r h.aythamī = 3 1/5 r fulfulī = 1 1/4 r
(Ant.ākiya)
= (3 2/3 + 2/30) r (Iraq)

Ells (adhru٬, unspecified):

dhirā٬ al-yad
1 dh = 2 shi (cloth) = 18 is. (medium) = 24 is. (without thumb) = [3/4 dh (k.āsimī)]

dhirā٬ k.āsimī (= hāshimī)

1 dh = 1 1/3 dh (yad) = 24 is. = 6 k.ab 1 k.ab = 1/6 dh
1 Is. = 1/4 k.ab = 1/24 dh

dhirā٬ hāshimī (mālikī)

1 dh = 8 k.ab = [3/5 dh (mābahrāmī)]

dhirā٬ mābahrāmī (sūd)

1 dh = 1 2/3 dh (hāshimī) = 60 fa = 1/3 (or 1/6) k.ab
1 dj = 36 dh · 36 dh

al-islāmīya, Beirut: Maktabat Lubnān Nāshirūn, 2002. enumeration of all units related, but also endeavoured,
Only occasionally, external sources, records of both for pedagogical reasons, to systematize the usage of
European and Oriental travellers, allow the fixation of measuring units in popular treatises. They sometimes
absolute values. With regard to their geographical and even expressed efforts to standardise and facilitate the
chronological diversity, the reconstruction of entire conversions customs, market and tax officers had to
systems of measurement and of their relation to each enact. Thus, stimulated by theoretical manuals, mathe-
other has just begun. matically standardised methods of measuring and of
During the tenth century, mathematicians became converting quantities from one system into another
aware of the complexity of the metric systems in use. became popularised. To some extent, these devices even
Their particular perspective on the issue differed from had retroactive effects on the practice of Islamic laws.
what their legal and other colleagues had been noting Among these manuals, the “Book on the Basis of
down hitherto. They not only tried to present a systemized Arithmetic and the Division of Inheritances” (Kitāb
 Weights and measures in Japan 2267

al-Tadhkira bi-us.ūl al-h.isab wa l-farā’id. ), written

by the Damascene mathematician ٬Alī b. al-Khid. r
al-٬Uthmānī al-urashī (1030–1067 AD) contains the
most coherent information on the metric systems that
were in use in the Islamic Middle East up to the lifetime
of the author. The following list of units of weight,
currency, capacity and length, together with the
localities they refer to arranged in alphabetical order,
is extracted and, if indicated by ‘[…]’, concluded from
different chapters of this Kitāb al-Tadhkira.

See also: ▶Nilometer

References
Cahen, C. Quelques Problèmes Économiques et Fiscaux de
l’Iraq Buyide D’après un Traité Mathématique. Annales de
L’Institut d’Études Orientales 10 (1952): 326–363.
Ehrenkreutz, A. S. The Kurr System in Medieval Iraq.
Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient
5 (1962): 305–314.
Encyclopaedia of Islam, New edn. (= EI 2), Vol. I-XI, Leiden:
E.J. Brill 1986ff. Entries: misāh.a, mīzān, s.ā٬, zakāt.
Hinz, W. Islamische Masse und Gewichte. Umgerechnet ins
Metrische System. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1955.
Hinz, W. Islamische Währungen des 11. bis 19. Jahrhunderts.
Umgerechnet in Gold. Ein Beitrag zur islamischen
Wirtschaftsgeschichte. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1991.
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Weights and Measures in Japan. Fig. 1 Linear Measure.

Weights and Measures in Japan Drawing by The Ministry of Finance. Doryoko Shurui Hyo
(The Classification Table of Weights and Measures) Genbei
Kinokuniya, 1875. Chos 1, 4–6, 9–11.
S HIGEO I WATA

Japan used the 17.3 cm-long linear measure unit that was Length
common to all the regions in East Asia for a period of Under the Chinese Tang dynasty, a law was enacted
25,000 years. Under the influence of China, the mandating the use of two methods based on large and
Japanese measuring unit gradually lengthened during small linear measures. The large scale was 1.2 times as
the period from the end of the eleventh century BCE to long as the small scale, which we refer to as the ancient W
the middle of the third century BCE. Then, the length of linear measure. The small scale was used for music,
the Japanese measure shaku was stabilized at 23 cm and astronomy, and ceremonial items.
remained unchanged until the end of the second century Japan introduced this Chinese measuring system in
AD. Various civil disturbances in China had the effect of 701. The large scale later became known as kanejaku,
lengthening the linear measure substantially to 29 cm which refers to an L-shaped ruler used by architects.
until the middle of the seventh century, and no more The small scale gradually dropped out of use. Linear
significant variation has since been observed (Fig. 1). measurement tools were mainly made of wood, though