C.

Herbert Clemens
Michael A. Clemens

Geometry for the Classroom:

Exercises and Solutions

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6 Springer-Verlag
Geometry for
the Classroom:
Exercises and Solutions
C. Herbert Clemens Michael A. Clemens

Geometry for
the Classroom:
Exercises and Solutions

With 335 Illustrations

Springer-Verlag
New York Berlin Heidelberg London Paris
Tokyo Hong Kong Barcelona Budapest
C. Herbert Clemens Michael A. Clemens
Department of Mathematics 1610 South 1900 East
University of Utah Salt Lake City, UT 84108
Salt Lake City, UT 84112 USA
USA

Mathematics Subject Classification: 51-01

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Clemens, C Herbert (Charles Herbert), 1939-
Geomentry for the classroom / Herbert C. Clemens, Michael A.
Clemens.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-387-97565-9
1. Geometry. |. Clemens, Michael A. Il. Title.
QA453.C64 1991
516-dc20 91-14915

Printed on acid-free paper.

© 1991 Springer-Verlag New York, Inc.

All rights reserved. This work may not be translated or copied in whole or in part without the written
permission of the publisher (Springer-Verlag New York, Inc., 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010,
USA), except for brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis. Use in connection
with any form of information and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or
dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed is forbidden.
The use of general descriptive names, trade names, trademarks, etc., in this publication, even if the
former are not especially identified, is not to be taken as a sign that such names, as understood by the
Trade Marks and Merchandise Marks Act, may accordingly be used freely by anyone.

Camera-ready copy provided by the authors.

Printed and bound by Edwards Brothers, Inc., Ann Arbor, MI.
Printed in the United States of America.

9876543

ISBN 0-387-97565-9 Springer-Verlag NewYork Berlin Heidelberg

ISBN 3-540-97565-9 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York
 Contents
Intuition 1

Ti@sr Geometry ie about Shape wensrinchs ute Huts elais tscustereesgs © acadeic acassinternmeeingaes + “ad
I2e: ... and more shapes. Tee eee ee ooo win one b oben a isieile Sreisusly =cone 5
T3e:; Polygons) in the, plane. seis snus ei agen tele “964 elu.eisisles Sie:a NieipMotenebaceis sente enous,
I4e: Angles in the plane Sieiele olain.s\ sLelelie els ate/efsisiateis) sictele eva)stolcleis foveleleks tele, ehsiet?
I5e: Walking north, east, south, and west in the plane _............. TZ
Iée: Areas of rectangles e038 ce hye’o's ole Miebane wie a os <(pab pies a eee Mk baie die) ouch
I7e: What is the area of the shaded triangle? SAG ODOR OO oS eo ooo rdoe Ae
I8e: Adding the angles of a triangle Sidiais oieidce:is [bbe a dnun oyna bisa: «Renee ieuaaee aes 18
I9e: Pythagorean theorem Shoo sh odooodnacvpo
ag eve Anbedunos Geass noo’
Il0e: Side Side Side (SSS) Siete sietaiel eat 6. ateier tsseae etal wate
aieia lates ole paca shor’ rH
Il2e: Rectangles between parallels and the Z-principle ....... in QO OCS.
Il3e: Areas: The principle of parallel slices PHN OCOD OO DOB GOD GOOF .26
Il4e: If two lines in the plane do not intersect, they are parallel ..28
I1l5e: The first magnification principle: preliminary form SrA Bina Asi
Ilée: The first magnification principle: final form ip vcugs) Sgptocda Mas bes e uy
I17e: Area inside a circle of radius one _........ EE Pe Tee sleet
I18e: When are triangles congruent? SGudAouooo a64 Sno OG, Soe foes tog Le
I19e: Magnifications preserve parallelism and ANG LOS wpe | orere oforscnegele Maes!
I20e: The principle of similarity ol olece “iscoals sueuw<*sile: 0 Sie Wile sip pre oere eRe ole <0 39
I2le: Proportionality of segments cut by parallels oe OO Goma Cotas 42
I22e: Finding the center of a triangle ig eels. <iptristeets =as1a ote oiraee ee ce 45
I23e: Concurrence theorem for altitudes of a triangle ee
To care
I24e: Inscribing angles in circles tolelcksEr acters: ohvitie take tale BAS
code dclpioroie ab Oe
I25e: Fun facts about circles, and limiting cases ......... <i ane
sbincysts
I26e: Degrees and radians PE eee Sti A aa a er eo ae 56
I27e: Trigonometry Pe ere rr iy meee ee es re ee Pe 57
I28e: Tangent a =(rise)/(run) ......... <a = 6 oipiegh epirepaiaaed> atelersieie fsaoe geeseetx 59
I29e: Everything you always wanted to know about trigonometry
but were afraid to ask aiists ebelsi= eketsietetepets «Pelslishs otekalskeleleiets afetete seal
I30e: The law of sines and the law of cosines Le See ee 62
I3le: Figuring areas eer ere AR rice ee ee Ps sme eee aon
I32e: The second magnification principle seehele crisielelarenslepereustavanel avesietereia a Os
I33e: Volume of a pyramid elo ea UR gs 6 6 RN Ot Oa 6 ne a 650 mie SONS bias hie QE he «Oe 22-70
I34e: Of cones and collars ..... SO 600 G08 <S% site We Shee ee eo wee ee
I35e: Sphereworld TERRE E EE Ty ee eT ee Oe ee ee ne,
I36e: Segments and angles in sphereworld —....eeeeeeeeneeeess 4 ax etn eee 76
I37e: Of boxes, cylinders, and sphereS — ccceacccessessseses SPER te
I38e: If it takes one can of paint to paint a square one widget on
a side, how many cans does it take to paint
a sphere with radius r widgets? Oe Ba ene Fe
I39e: Excess angle formula for spherical triangles waene takerarereincrstenicenel
ers 79
I40e: Hyperbolic-land _....... ee ere Sn ajA es A kOe Sadie a ale ere eta enn eG 80

Construction 83
Cle: Copying triangles eae ens Caer eens een easesees nee eeses Sven saa
C2e: Copying angles Cwet ss Vacs tsa Chas stk NO ea AAS ka NENG ee ee de ouiae OF
C3e: Constructing perpendiculars Sheds ka be ee Nee Ae er a ees 88
C4e: Constructing parallels Cea hoe Cus how aN We teh ee eg ares ate e 91
C5e: Constructing numbers as lengths avele ob eie tole a Bie’ orb te. hotel eiaretbis otorenn Oe
cC6e: Given a number, construct its square root = ..sssssseeecss pause) a 94
 Contents

C7e: Constructing parallelograms mieke s suu wie moms awe anes see ata eonte seaie sists aie O
C8e: Constructing a regular 3-gon and 4-gon —s wcce eee eee eee eee eee eeee 97
C9e: Constructing a regular 5-gon ARS SEE ae ye ee erie Le
Cloe: Constructing a regular 6-gon Riots et eee oie sistele teleielstehel areolar steisokeiake LCL
Clle: Constructing a regular 7-gon (almost) ........-- Scale se 5 3 Heeeekere 103
Cl2e: Constructing a regular tetrahedron Pe Se ee ee Pe Re
Cl3e: Constructing a cube and an octohedron COON OO.6 OOo cao Golo SS LE
Cl4e: Constructing a dodecahedron and an icosahedron cb das Sages Ss aes kOe
Cl5e: Constructing the baricenter of a triangle B stetelee so Css 6 ame eee eee LOT
Cl6e: Constructing the altitudes of a triangle Bioware sue a iete teres ocd Abate:
Cl7e: Constructing a circle through three points Sa ste ale cee oeaietete wens e 110
Cl18e: Bisecting a given angle HAP Tal ak Phaiaieis eve etatete ea) otere octets lc eis tote etene Ae
C19e: Putting circles inside angles Beate ehatere tere) uta tines biereletn stcletetetete ele, ia ie
C20e: Inscribing circles in polygons LESA EL 86 au ee eae eel a Ns pee ee eee
C2le: Circumscribing circles about polygons ee Wg he ie A a a EE
C22e: Drawing triangles on the sphere Re eh Ce ee} ee sen ca hs a's 0) else's se ea eee
C23e: Constructing hyperbolic lines Taare cds 6s ctetemiete ele stereeteloteteteisicis see

Proof 125
Ple: Distance on the line, motions of the line Ries ete cho a sickens ties oe aio aun
P2e: Distance in? the’ plane*""*.....cles ss ce piste cnetoralctsistatatcicna atetete tenets Bachcyche 129
P3e: Motions of the plane Scleicieraieccisistoleheletersretetensteete eaters heirs cts ote) atetetera a V2
P4e: A list of motions of the line See hg Pa 9 Se A Sr SP Se
P5e: A complete list of motions of the line ..... foc eee ke cue ee135
P6e: Motions of the plane: Translations Bietate lets eters. wists’ sreterenelenetenctnteteis
ctoesih
P7e: Motions of the plane: Rotations ...... Bi Ptedite ee ae ead a Te 140
P8e: Motions of the plane: Vertical flip Pe a eg ee oe ee ee RO
P9e: Motions of the plane fixing (0,0) and (a,0) iced. COG Docc oachiceencucnc
cid
Ploe: Atconpleterlistrofimotions of the ‘plane 9° see ES re. reo
Plle: Distance in space A gee Male ete ea ee oe oe 65.0 ance set ae e Chk ee te Rees SET
Pl2e: Motions of space wie olereeletere sverseis e400) e's stateKeraisie sc sisietehetete sreteteterta aU
Pl3e: The triangle inequality slacecsiaista-a o tislels ce ete eiaietela ats els. o)oteuatetetenenete
tare rS2
Pl4e: Co-ordinate geometry is about shapes and more shapes ite nree whe oboe
Pl5e: The shortest path between two points... Va er ws Saws Ces cece kOe
Pl6e: The unique line through two given points ahewe. sraWatetoneothe crates fetes 159
Pl7e: Proving SSS Gale 6 Ste Sodio a a d/o eravebotatetelc ss) eie aicisree «sce ateteretate ctatere meee ERGO

Index 163
 « | Intuition
Coe Answers to exercises
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 Intuition exercises: Ile

1. Is this figure a line? Tle, <~& cam find twe poimte

on thie figure 20 that travelling
along the figure from one point
to the other i4 mot the quickest Away.

This way is
shorter

Is this figure a line? Tle, it extende imfpfimiteby im only

ome direction.

Is this figure a line? Te, whatewen point take out,

avhat'e Lefa id otill ome commected
This is
a wide
stripe. tee Missing
van point

4. Put two segments together Rene ane two warye, hcan put the
so that they make up one
single segment. eegments together end to end, Like
this Bee ee

on Like thie:
a
is,
ao
@) wt Just piled sthentwo
segments right on top of
one another

Jhenre ane lotey of other WIAd too.

 Intuition exercises: Tle

5. Think of a way to put <2'22 meed am infinite MUM

segments together to make
a ray. How many segments of Legments te do thie, wen
will you need? if wl ude neally, neally Long
Legmenie.
Segment

Segment

Segmen Segment

6. What are the ways in Jhey com imtergect in a point:

which two different
rays can intersect? intersection
point

Jhey cam imitereect im a

Legment:

4
e ment
i Seg AB is the inter-
section of the ray
through A with endpoint
B, and the ray through
B with endpoint A.

Wt'e alo porrille for two Layer

te imterrect im a NAA, Or fuer
im am endpoint, on mot at all.

7. The distance between two points Jhe dietamce from PteoQia

P and Q is the length of the
shortest route between them.
jut the Length of the chonteat
Suppose R lies between P and Q path Letueen them. dhe ehonteat
on the straight line containing
P and Q. Tell why noute from P to Q ia alomg the
d(P,Q) = d(P,R) + d(R,Q). traight Lime Letween them. Ihie
NoUle padceee through R, do the
R noute har two parte, the ehonteat
nourte from PtoRamnd then the
Note: "d(P,Q)" means "the distance
between P and Q." shortest route from R to Q.
 Intuition exercises: I2e

Is this a triangle? Ihie 4 Nota triangle, Lecauee there

Why or why not?
ia am endpoint of a segment avhick
4& mot am endpoint of any other
Legment.

Do all figures made up J~we imtensecting segments alwarye

of two segments lie in
a plane? (Hint: Consider ligimaplane. wf the eegments do
two cases -- 1) the mot interdcect, they mary Lie in a
segments intersect, or
2) the segments don't plane, or they “MLOAy mot.
intersect. If the
segments intersect,
make a triangle
with one vertex at the These segments intersect at
An this point.
intersection point and
one side on each of the
two segments.)

Lines through this triangle

<—— cover all the points in the
two segments.

These two segments

lie in a plane.

This segment
passes below
the other,
> without touching
we Lt.

These two segments do not lie

in the same plane.
 Intuition exercises: I2e

3. Can a plane intersect a Jhe pictures Lelow andewer the

circle in exactly two
points? In exactly one
questioned, in onder:
point? What happens if
the plane and the circle
have three distinct
points in common?

a When the plane and the

circle have three points
in common, the plane is
forced to contain all
the points of the circle.

4. Can a plane intersect a :

Peiencvautnfaxesr stows Jhe pictures lelow anewer the
points? In exactly one quedtiond, im onder:
point? What happens if
the plane and the triangle
have three distinct
points in common?

When the plane

contains three points
of the triangle, and When the plane
they don't all lie on contains three
the same side, the points of the
plane is forced to triangle, and
contain all the they all lie
points of the triangle. on the same
side, it's only
forced to
contain that
side of the
triangle.
 Intuition exercises: I3e

: Beriais why the figure Jhie ia mot a quadrilateral Lecauce

elow is nota adri-
lateral. Ponca it wiolatee nule mumen three of
quadrilateral; twwe of thie figure'e
aides meet ata point aubich ia mot
an endpoint.
Two of the sides
intersect at
& this point. As
you can see, it
is not an
endpoint of any
of the four
segments.

. Explain why the figure At ia nota hexagon Lecauce rule

below is not a hexagon. PR Pe one fon hexagon otatee

that one endpoimt of ome eegment

a~meets, only one other Legment
at one of ite endpoinie.

This point is the enapsineee

for four different sides.

- A quadrilateral can be Jhat'e caey! All it takes ie one Line.

divided up into triangles
in many ways. With a Ihe divides it inte two triangles.
pencil, divide the
quadrilateral below into
the least number
of triangles possible.

OL
 Intuition exercises: I3e

. Divide the hexagon Jhe divigion i4 chown Lelow.

below into the least
Rene, the Leaat pocrible mumAen
number of triangles
possible. of triamglee id fowr; one mudgt
draw three dividing lined.

OL ....

. Imagine an N-gon. If C quadrilateral (4-gomn) needd two

N=4, what's the least
number of triangles you
triangled. a pentagon (5-gon) can
can divide it into? If Le divided imteo a triangle and a
N=5, what's the least
number of triangles you quadrilateral, co
can divide it into? If it cam Le divided ASS
N=6? If N=7?
imte three triangles. hexagon
In general, an N-gon
can be broken up into
(6-gom) cam ke
triangles. divided imte a
pentagon and a
triangle, and do inte four triangles.
A. 7-gom can Re divided inte a
hexagon and a triangle, and ao inte
fire triangled.

Every ime N goes up Ly ome, we need

One Mone triangle. Xo the mumenr of
triangles needed ia always two Lead
tham N, that ia, N - 2.
 Intuition exercises: tI4e

With your ruler and The eolution i4 chown Lelow:

compass, draw a segment
on line L that is Ret AJOUN COM PALY to
congruent to segment XY. Y
Pr yeeret 2 the Length of the
K Legment.

Tank any poimt

PL on L, call it “PT”.

changing
Pr L Without
the compadcde vetting
cs
from the finet oten,
place the point of the
?T PL
compadde on the
PT = The point of the compass manked point. Rotate
PL = The pencil of the compass the compadcds until
ite pencil roedee L.
Use the notation Use the compadcd pencil
above in your to mank the redding
answer to describe
the placement of point. dhe two
your compass.
marked poimte on L
are the endpoints of a
Legment comoruent
to Leqgment XY.

Three congruent angles Rememen from 14 that it takee

with a common vertex
together make up a two right angles (90°) te form a
straight angle. What etraight angle, and it took 180 of
should the measure
of each of the angles the 1° angles to form a dtnaight
be? angle, Lo the only wary three
comgiuent amnglee, could make a
etnaight angle (that ia, their
meacured add up to 180°) ia if
each angle had a -meadguwre of 60°.
 Intuition exercises: I4e

We can “add” two angles When Ajou. put the two

by moving them so that angles of 30° togethun,
they have a common vertex
they form on angle
and one common ray, but
so that their insides do of 60° Letween the
not overlap. The measure two 2olld YWnee.
of the “sum” of two angles
is always the sum of the 30° + 30° = 60°
measures. Here are angles
of 30°, 45°, and 90°. Use
tracing paper to build
angles of 60°,
210%,.and
135°, 150°,
255... 90°+
90° + 45°+
30°= 255°
30°

dhe imeide of the

“eum” angle ia
oltaimed hay
putting together
the incides of all
the angled.

SLAkewige:
90°
+ 45° = 135°
90°
+ 60° = 150°
90° + 90° + 30° = 210°

Use the above figures Ihe eagieat away to oltaim theae

and the tracing paper
to make angles of 15°, angles id te “gubtract” angled.
and 345°. Jhe Large angle ia
45°. Bf we puta30°
angle imeide it ae
shown, what's Loft
hag a measure of Whale
45° - 30° = 15° 30°

Sikewiee: 360 - 15 = 345°

 Intuition exercises: I4e 11

5. (SAS) Here are two After following the procedure im

triangles:
the Hint, B' mudt Lie om top of B
c Recaudce |AB| = |A'B'|. dhe
dinection from A' te C' Liew om top
of the direction from Atec
Recause ZA = ZA'. Jhusa,C!
Lier on top of C Lecaude
|AC| = |A'C'|. Admce A'=A,
B'=B, and C'=C, AABC = AA'B'C!.
A!

Suppose we know:

1) The measure of the

angle at A is the
same as the measure of
the angle at A'. To say
this, we write
ZA= ZA'.

2) The length of the side AB

is the same as the length
of the side A'B'. To say
this, we write
JAB] = |A'B'|.
3) JAC] = [A'C'|.

Explain why AABC = AA'B'C'.

This fact is called the

“Side-Angle-Side” property
of triangles, and is
abbreviated “SAS”.

(Hint: Pick up AA'B'C', flip

it over, and put it down so
that A' is on top of A and
the direction from A' to B'
lies on top of the direction
from A to B. Why does B'
then lie on top of B? Why
does the direction from A'
to C' lie on top of the
direction from A to C? Why
does C' then lie on top of
C?)
12 Intuition exercises: I5e

Suppose on I5 that Dhie would Le how the figure

a=b=l
Then the last figure would Look:
toward the bottom on page
I5 is called a square
whose side has length
of one widget. Suppose
it takes one can of
paint to paint the inside
of the square.
Now let's take a walk. Walk
4 widgets north, then
6 widgets east, then 4
widgets south, then 6
widgets west. Would you
get back where you started
from? How many cans of
paint would it take to We cam exactly fill thie up with
paint the inside of the 4x 6 = 24 copied of OWN OMe awid. get
figure you traced out on
your walk? VqUAred. Ro, it will take 24 cane of
paint to paint the inaide of the
Note: The number of cans figure. We cay that the figure hae
of paint it takes to paint
a figure is called the area an area of 24 equane widgete.
of the figure (in square
widgets).

Start
Start at any point. Try
walking 6 widgets south, s Thie ia the figure
3 widgets east, 1 widget traced hay the walk,
north, 2 widgets west,
five widgets north, and amd it appears
ae
one widget west. Are you
at the same point you though AJou do get
started from? If so, how Rack to where Ajou
many cans of paint will
it take to paint the etanted from. Aince,
inside of the figure? aX AJou can Lee, 4t
would take eight
1x 1 widget equanee
to fill the figure
it mmudt take
eight cane of
paint to paint the
imiide of, the figure.
 Intuition exercises: I5e 13

3. How many cans of paint Tlake a copy of the checkered

will it take to paint the Li ;
the checkered area? pont of ksfigure. ny (ibegipp age,
it around we can dee that it
in congruent to the umcheckered
$o35¢ part. Xo, it takes the zame
$oSoo
amount of paint to paint the
checkened amd umcheckered
pare.

X = amount of paint to paint

to paint the checkered pant.

xX+X= 24 2X = 24 X= 12

4. Find the area of the ?

checkered portion: Xt ee 2x%215 Boat at Cog
14 Intuition exercises: I6e

How many cans of paint AUide the foun triangles

does it take to paint
the larger square
(dotted line)? Using this
value, find how many cans
are needed to paint the
tilted square (shaded area).

(Hint: Figure out how much

paint to paint the four Ati cam Le geen that it takee
small triangles by sliding
them together to make 24 came to paint the triangles,
rectangles.)
mime the 49 cama needed fon
Remember e———e = one widget
the Lange equane Leaves 25 cand to
paint the tilted equane.
be eet EMS a A a oS Oe www Bee - Be wv =

@e
Be
&==
=

Saas
Se
Ses
eS
Aa
Seo

‘
‘
‘
g
‘
‘
‘
i]
‘
‘
‘
© © © Be @- = @ « « oe «@ «- « «@ «= - «~ @ = = = e
 Intuition exercises: Ie 15

Slice a piece off a rectangle Rince the second figure in made up

(starting at a corner):
of the came two pieces ae the finat,
put together in a different Away,
it takee the came amount of paint
3 widgets te paimt the eecond figure aw it
doe te paint the original
Put it on the other
side: rectangle. Ro, it takes three cane of

ox
tearan
paint to paint the entire new figure.
dhe anea of the the new figure ie
3 dq.w. Notice that the area of the

How many cans of paint Mew figure =

does it take to paint (Length of Lae) x (vertical height)
this whole new figure?

The new figure we Remember how we made the figure

obtained in exercise
Be is etnara,
called a ABCD im exercide #1. Ihe eegment
AD wad one of the Legments of the

aN
triangle avhich we cut off from the
onigimal nectangle. Ro tk otarted out
Leimg identical with the Legment BC.
Now cut this new
figure in half, as When we mored Legment AD, we did
shown below: mot etretch, Lend, on Uneak it. Ro,
A B Legment AD Aemaine comgnruent to
eegment BC. Again Look at the original
rectangle. dhe top of the nectamgle ia
Sata Cc
comgruent to the tottom. We got the
wegment AB Lay cutting a piece off the
Show why segment AD
is congruent to right - hand end of the top of the
segment BC, and why rectangle, and then ticking it Lack om
segment AB is congruent
to segment DC. the Loft - hand end of the top of the
nectamgle. Ao Legment AB ie made up of
the came two pieces that are uded to
make a wegment congruent to weqgment
DC. Xo Legment AB id, comgruent to
Legment De:
 Intuition exercises: I7e

Let's go back to the We know that triangle ABD

figure we made in
exercise #2. ia congruent to triangle CBD, 2

ROZEaS
A B (area triangle ABD) =
(area triangle CBD)
ALimce together the two triangles amas
D: c up the total anea of parallelogram ABC
In exercise #2 we showed Awe cam uee the following reasoning:
that the three sides of (area triangle ABD) + (area triangle
triangle ABD were CBD) = (area parallelogram ABCD)
congruent to the three
sides of triangle CDB. By uhertitution,
Later, in I10, we'll see
that this is enough to (area triangle ABD) + (area triangle
conclude that triangle ABD ABD) = (area parallelogram ABCD)
is congruent to triangle
CBD. Assume this for the Ty dietributive Law,
moment, and show why the 2 x (area triangle ABD) = (area
area of triangle CDB is parallelogram ABCD)
equal to one-half the area
of the parallelogram ABCD.
And, Way multiplication,
(area triangle ABD) = oe (area
parallelogram ABCD)

. Using the ideas of Davo copied of triangle DBC make up

exercises #1 to #3, give
a new line of reasoning the parallelogram Leloww:
to show that the area
of triangle DBC below
is equal to ft (besceh jie

Xo: 2 x (area triangle BCD) =

(area of parallelogram ABCD)

A E B
—_—__?

D Cc

Tlow, cut the triangle AED of f the Left

vide of the parallelogram and atichk i
Rack on the right cide. We have a
rectangle whoee aneid b x h.
 Intuition exercises: Ive 17

Look at the reasoning Rimce A = A', wecan pick up the

in the very first paragraph firat “angle-piece” (without
of I7. Notice that we take
as “obvious” that, whenever lending it) and put A down
we have two “angle-pieces”
exactly on top of A', im guch a
awary that the vertex of the firet
“amgle-piece” gore exactly on ton
of the vertex of the eecond
and if a = a', A= A! “amgle-piece.” Rimee a = a', we
and B = B', then one cam opin the firet “angle-piece”
“angle-piece” fits exactly
on top of the other. areund, keeping A on top of zy
Explain in your own words until B amd B' atant out im the
why this is obvious to you
3% 20745) 5 azame direction. Aince B = B', B
awill fit exactly on top of B'.
18 Intuition exercises: I8e

1. What is the sum of the A quadrilateral can ke

four inside (interior)
divided inte two triangles
angles of a quadrilateral?
hay exrLcAde #3 of I3e, do the
eum of ite imeide angled i
180° + 180° = 360°.

2. What is the sum of the A pentagon can Le divided into

five inside (interior)
angles of a pentagon?
three triangles, do the dum of
the imeide angled ia
3x 160 =§40;.

3. What is the sum of the x T8057 £05

six interior angles of
a hexagon?

4. What is the sum of the Ty exerciee #5 of T3e, am N-gon

interior angles of an cam Le divided up imte N - 2
N-gon?
triangles, 2o the eum of the
imterior angles 4&
(N- 2) x 180°.

5. Explain why (meadure ZABC) + (meadcune Z ACB)

Cc + (meadunre Z BAC) = 180°
(meadcune Z BAC) + (meagunre Z DAC)
= 180°
Binnie a pak D Aultracting we get
(measure Z DAC) = (meadcunre 2 ABC) + (meadune Z ACB)
- (meagunre Z DAC) = 0.
(measure Z ABC) +
(measure Z ACB)

6. Two angles are

Jawe angles are wupplementary if
if the they “add together” the 4uwm of thein meadunes ia 180°.
to make a straight angle.
(See I4e, ex.#3.) Can Iwe angles are comgruent if ther
supplementary angles be hare the came meagune.
congruent? If so, when?
a+a = 180°. = 90
dhe angles mut Le night angled.
 Intuition exercises: I9e 19

What is the formula for Jhie ina LqUanre whee side hae
the area of the figure
shown below? length (a + b).

a b
Xo, the formula for ite anea ia
(a’ +b)? =" a* 4 "2ab Fb?

. What is the area of this By 17, the anea of the triamgle de®
triangle if y = 90°?
7, (ab).

Naat
b

Use exercises #1 and #2 Jhe ohaded anea ia equal te the area

to compute the formula for
the area of the shaded
of the hig equane minus the areade
region below: of the foun triangles. Ro, the area
equaled:

(a2 + 2ab + b?) - 4(7/,:(ab)) =

a® } Dab + bt 2ab = aé + b2,

The shaded area in By eubtracting the arcade of the four

exercise #3 is a square triangles (ex. #2) from the total area
whose side has length
c. Use this fact, and of the equane (ex.#1) we eee that the
exercises #1 to #3 to ohaded region hae area a? + be Bat
give a new way to
conclude the dimce it 44 2 Vquare awith aide c, ite
Pythagorean theorem.
area
ig aldo c? and 40: a2 + b* = c?.
20 Intuition exercises: I9e

== A triangle, one of whose By the Paythagonrean theorem, the

angles measures 90°, is
called a xight triangle. formula fon the length of the
The side opposite the 90° AArypoteneude de:
angle is called the
hypoteneuse of the right a? +b?= c 2
triangle. (The other two
sides are called legs). Ro, You cam put the valued for the
Find the length of the
Lega im and eolve:
hypoteneuse in the right
triangle shown below.
17+ 2% sc

Baas
i+y4 =e
5 = c?
V5=c
2

Find the lengths of the By the Paythagonean theorem,

hypoteneuses in the
right triangles shown rep ectinely, they N12:
2
below: Cc 17+ 1%=2 i}
WZ) 4 1° "
V3) 2.432
(V4)? + 1?
Voy or 1
(V6)? + 1% = Ww
YH
WP Sanaa
yraQmnoana
 Intuition exercises: 110e 21

. Show that the measure AACD mudt Le comgruent te ABCD,

of ZACD equals the
LINCe, AY AYou CaM ee, the cide of
measure of ZBCD in the
picture below. Length 2 ia congruent to the aide

Cc
of length 2, the aide of Length V5
ig comgruent to the cide of Length 5,
V5"
and the unmarked side ie comgnuent
to taelf. Rimnce the two triamgles De
comgruent, each part of them muct
d(A,B) means "the distance between Re exactly the came ad the corned-
A and B," or “the length of the
segment AB." So, above, a(A,C) =
ponding part of the other triangle.
d (B,C) = v5.
Xo, ZACD = ZBCD.

25 In the triangle below, AB = BC,amnd BC = CA, amd CA = ABQo,

all of the angles are
equal. Why?
Ray AAR, AABC = ABCA im qucha wary
that A conreeponde to B, B correeponde
B
to C, amd C conneeponded to A. Ao, Lince
l/s IP
conredeponding pate of congruent
triiamgles are congruent, ZA = ZB,
A ae [a 2B = Z£C, ZC = ZA. dm other
awonde, & cam pick up AABC, rotate
it ome-thind of aturn, and put it
down exactly on top of iteelp (May
AAA). Ao, ZA fite exactly on top
of ZB, ete.

3. In exercise #2, what is Aince the measures of all the angles

the measure of each of the of a tiiangle add up te 180°, and all
angles in AABC?
of the angles of that triangle AVRIL
compruent, it ie evmple algebra to
chow that each angle hae a meacune
of 60%:
x+x+x 180
3x 180
x 60
 Intuition exercises: 110e

4. In the triangle below, Ty the Paythagorean theorem,

ZACB has measure 90°. deans y2. Alec, BC = AC.
Give the length of ‘ is
segment AB, and show Xo, AABC = ABAC im euch a wary
that <CAB = /CBA. that A connreeponde to B, B
A connreepondae to A,amd Cc
si cornedeponde to C. Rince

aI 4 conned
P nondimn g partente of ofcongruent
congr
triamglee ane comgriuent, then
ZCAB = ZCBA.
d(A,B) means “the distance between
A and B," or "the length of the
segment AB." So, above, d(A,C) =
GiB; C6) = 2.

5. In exercise #4 (above), We know that 1) the eum of the

aa a ee a oie Pm MLALUNL of all the angles smudt
Re 180°, 2) ome of the angles
MelAQwrieds 90°, and 3) the other
two angles ane comgruent, Lo:
90 + x + x = 180
90 + 2x = 180
2x = 90
02045

Ro, the meagune of ZABC i4 45°,

and the meagure of ZBAC ia, 45°.

6. The two triangles at the Cc

right are congruent. Pick AR
out two sets of
corresponding sides and one
set of corresponding angles.
Notice that “corresponding B
parts of congruent
triangles are congruent.”
From now on we'll be using For example:
thiis princ
i iple
ipl a lot.
lo Aidee: AC and DF. LE
Anglea: angle E and
angle B.
 Intuition exercises: I12e 23

If line L is parallel iT;

to line M, and line M is
parallel to line N, show
M
that line L is parallel
to line N. (Hint: Make the
rectangles for L and M
the same width as those
for M and N, and pile N
them on top of the other
ones.) a nectamgle awith top
along L and Lotteom along Nig
oltaimed Lay piling am L-Montop
of anmM-N rectangle.

Draw this
We can use the Z-principle line
to reason to the fact that parallel to
the sum of the interior the base
angles of a triangle is of the
180°. Fill in the missing triangle
steps of the reasoning
at the right. We will let
the Greek letters stand for 5 € By the Z-
the measures of the angles principle,
shown. a= 6

By the Z-
principle,
p=e

Now, 5 + y + &€ = 180°

So, by substitution, a + B + y = 180°

24 Intuition exercises: I112e

3. Show that, through a Udeing C3, cometiuct a perpendicular

point not on a line, M to the given lime L through the
there passes a line
parallel to the given given poimt P. Jhen condetiuct a
line.
P perpendicular N to M through P.
a
Aince eegmente om L, Mand N cam
L Le completed to a rectangle, lime N ia
parallel to Lime L.
(Hint: Construct a
perpendicular M to L
through P, and then
at P, construct a
perpendicular N to M.
Show that L and N
contain opposite
sides of a rectangle.)

4. Show that, through a Jo atant, UL take a queen lime L,

point not on a given
line, there passes and a given point P. Jo ghow that
only one line parallel there ia omy one line parallel to
to the given line.
L through P, Led finet aceume that
ay ie thene ia mone than one Line parallel
to L through P, and prove AMAQeLF
AwLong. AWW call theee Limee xX amd YY.
ee
ES SEE
Tlow, CUP Nose xh dnawalime Z that ie

(Hint: Assume that there pripendiculanr te L, and pasdee

are two lines parallel to through P. Az
L that pass through P.

Az

Raye along X and 2 with vertex P

~make am angle of 90°, day the
Use
get
the Z-principle
a contradiction.)
to
A-prneiple. Aloo Ly the J-principtle,
LAAe along Y and Z with rentexn
~make an angle of 90°. Ro, Limee x
and Y pase through the point P, amd
make the came angle with the line 2.
Xo, X and Y ane the came line.
 Intuition exercises: I12e 25

5. Show the converse of the Cometruct a lime xX through P and

Suhasoceple: parallel to line M.
If the “transversal” N
meets lines L and M
in such a way that
(measure Za) =
(measure
2B ),
then lines L and M
are parallel. Ry the J-principte, NAA along x
and N with rventex P makean angle
. OL comgurent to ZB. Za i& comgruent
M to ZB, amd alec haa one of ite Narye
N along Lime N. Ro, limed KX and L hLoth
pare through the point P and make the
Lame angle avith Vime N. Ro, Limee xX
and L anethe game line.

6. Show that two lines

to the Rince:
perpendicular a+ 90° aalBOrn
same line are parallel.

them:
a = 90°

Xo, Ray the comrvenr2e

20° of the 9-pnimciple, which
awe dhowed im exercier #5, Lime L ia
parallel to Lime M.
26 Intuition exercises: I13e

ab When we were figuring out Riven any triangte,

how to find the area of a
triangle, we started with
right triangles because
they were the easiest.

|-----

uge the Principle of, Parallel ALlicee

Suppose we just know the to ghove the triangle agaimet the
formula wall.
area = ae (b x h)
only for right triangles.
Use the Principle of
Parallel Slices to show that
the same formula must be
true for al], triangles.

b haamn't changed, meithern hae h.

Ao, day the formula for anead of
night trianglea, area = */, bh

A quadrilateral with
two parallel non-adjacent
Ry the Principle of Parallel Alicea,
sides is called a trapezoid. the trapayzoid im the exericier hat

AS ay)
the game anea ae the following

tgLQuw ie: ne

Use the Principle of Parallel

slices to show that the area
yin b,
of the above trapezoid is
Rut thie laat figure clearly hae
17, (by + ba)h a12G =

(bo x h) + 4/2 ((b,- by) x h) =

/y (b,x h) + 1/5 (box h) =
*/y (by+ by)h
 Intuition exercises: I13e 27

3. Use the Principle of dhe Line through (-1,-1) amd (3,0)

Parallel slices to i
DEob eHACTEno hice id, parallel toa gide of the finet
i

triangles shown below triangle. Xo, hay the Princilple of

all have the same area:
Parallel ALlicee, we cam wlide a
nenterx of the triamgle along thie
Lime without changing the area
of the triamgle.

Aimilarly, the Line through (1,1)

amd (3,1) ia panallel to the Lave
of the aecond triangle. Ro, L can
elide a vertex along that line
without changing the area of the
triangte.

4. Draw a trapezoid in the

grid at the right, and
compute its area.
 Intuition exercises: I14e

One thing we did not check Jhe gum of the imtervior anglea,
when we were doing I14 is : , r
that, when we slide the im the quadrilateral PP;RS 4
rectangle PQRS down the 360°. Ao:
line M, the copies we
make as we go fit together (measure Z PP, R) = :
side-by-side as shown in 860° @ 90% =-790_-=<9 =
the picture in I14. Explain 180° = @ = 6.
this by explaining why
ZPP,R = 2B in the figure
in 114.

. Principle of Vertical Angles: Jhie chould he a relatively cacy

problem, tut an vmpontant one.
We'll ke using the Principle of
Vertical Angles throughout the
When two lines
nedt of thie Look. Jhe anmewer can
intersect, a= f.
Le dhowmn with a diagram:
Remember: "ZQ" means the angle
itself, but "a" alone
means the measure of ZQ. a
Y B
Show why the Principle of
Vertical Angles is true. mf A
(Hint: Find Zy such that a + 7 = 180
a+ y= 180°, and pt y Bo +-y = 1380
= 180°.) : :
a+ty=Bty -..-Substitution

a = 8B ...addition

Show the Principle of

Corresponding Angles:

By the Y-principte, B=y. Rut, ince

If lines L and M are et 5 day the Principle of UrEmtical
parallel, then a= 8B. Angled, then Ray gubetitution a= p.
 Intuition exercises: Il4e 29

What do you think the Jf a=B8,them LIIM.

Converse to the Principle mete :
of Corresponding Angles Ihie ie tue Lecauce:
should be? Why is it a=8 inven
true?
y=a Principle of Vertical Angles
y=8 Jnamneitivity
LIIM Comnenrdee of the Y-principle
30 Intuition exercises: I15e

A square of area 14 Aince the magnification facton

sq.w. is magnified
with magnification n=21/,, the anea ia multiplied Ly
factor 2 ee . What (2 7, )? = (7°/,). &o the area of the
is the area of the
magnified square? magnified equare ia
(257) eign ee

An interval of length St'e uot AT

7 is magnified with
pepe aber factor
7. What is the length
of the magnified interval?

A square of area 7 is Aimee r= 7, the anea ie

magnified with magnifi-
cation factor of the multiplied My (17)? = 7.
square root of 7. What Ro the aneaia
is the area of the
magnified square? 7-7 = 49.

Suppose we have a cube

which has edges one
widget long:

i
ab
Suppose now we magnify
the cube (in all
directions) with magni-
fication factor 2. What
are the dimensions of
the magnified cube?

How many of the l-unit

cubes above fit into
the magnified cube?

If a cube is magnified
with magnification factor
2, its volume is multiplied
by

If a cube is magnified
with magnification factor
r, its volume is multiplied
by
 Intuition exercises: I16e 31

1. The area of the first figure

and the magnifying factor are
given. Find the area of the
second figure: Rance 1=2, we

multipda, Wy 27 = 4,
r=2 20 the aneain
4-17, =6.

Rimce r= 2 7/,,
we
r= 2 ate multiply day (2%, )° =
Lats | 297,. Xo the aneaia
lees 7/5 = pehz.

n= 2,20 the anea ie

multiplied Lay 27 = 4,
Ro the anea id 4z.

n=2 /,,d0
the aneaie
multiplied bay
(2 */,)* = (7°7,). &o the
anea ig (7°/,)n.
 Intuition exercises: I16e

There is a number T
which is the area
dhe circle of nadine 1
inside a circle of gotten Ray magnifang the
radius 1. (In I17,
we will get a pretty circle of nadius 1 with
good idea of how big magnifring facton n. Xo,
this number 7 is.)
Use the Magnification dunce anea i4, 2-dimendcional,
Principle to find the
formula for the area
the anea ia multiplied hay a
of a circle of factor of n?. Bo the anea of
radius fr.
the circle of nadine 1 14 n? nt.
. We will see later that
the length of the path Length ie one-dimendcional
around the edge of a
Lo the formula for the
circle of radius 1 (its
Circumference) is 21 circum frrence of a cincke
Use the Magnification
Principle to find the
of nadiud rn ia 1:20, 0n 2m.
formula for the circum-
ference of a circle of
radius fr.

A sphere of radius 1 is dhe phere of rnadiug 1 a

the set of all points in
3-dimensional space which oltained Wy magnifying the
are one unit away from
ephere of nadiug 1 with and
some fixed point O.
A-Power magnification.
Alo, eurface anea ie
2-dimeneional, eo it in
multiplied Lay n2
Ro it will take 17-4 came
Later we will see that the
surface area of a sphere of
of paint, dhat ie, the eunface
radius 1 widget is 47 sq.w. area of a ephene of nadine 2
That is, it takes 4m cans of
paint to paint the sphere. de 4nr?.
How many cans of paint will
it take to paint a sphere of
radius xr widgets?

If the volume of the (inside Volume ia 3-dimendional, go

of the) sphere of radius 1
is G/E, what is the volume the volume ia 2° -(4/, rt, on
of the (inside of the) sphere ae ae
of radius r?
 Intuition exercises: TI17e 33

The t-estimating Contest:

Use the finest graph paper you can find to get better
lower and upper estimates for m than we did in I17.

If you work hard at it, you should be able to conclude that

See <I SiaZ..

Helpful hints:

1; Use the Magnification Principle—make a circle whose radius

is, for example, 8 widgets. This will allow you to fit
more little squares inside the circle. We know from
exercise #2 in Il6e that the area inside the circle of
radius 8 widgets is 64m sq.w. So if, by counting little
squares inside the circle of radius 8, we conclude
a < (area of circle of radius 8) <b
Then
a < 64% <b.

This inequality will then give by algebra that

a/64 <1 < b/64.

ND Sharpen the pencil on your compass, and draw the circle

carefully. That will make it easier to decide which
little squares are entirely inside the circle and which
Squares touch the circle at all.

. Don't do a whole circle. Just do one-fourth of a circle

and multiply your answers by 4.

Class contest: Who can get the best lower and upper estimates?
Can anyone show that 3.13 < @ < 3.15?
 Intuition exercises: TIl7e

2. @Ce=an 21CE) 5

Cut out several circles of radius 1 widget

from the pattern at the right. Mark the
center of each circle.
Let C stand for the circumference
of the circle, that is, the length of
a piece of string which wraps around the
circle exactly once.

Cut the first circle into 8 equal pieces

of pie. Arrange the pieces as shown
and glue them in place. Notice that ai
it takes m cans of paint to paint the
figure at the right. Why? The length
of the bumpy bottom of the figure is C/2.
Why? C/2

Cut the second circle into 16 equal pieces

of pie. Arrange the pieces as shown
and glue them in place. Notice that 1
it takes m cans of paint to paint the
figure at the right. Why? The length
of the bumpy bottom of the figure is C/2.
Why? Cf2

Keep going as long as you can, cutting

circles into more and more pieces of pie,
incredibly and arranging them in the same way. It
many pieces always takes m cans of paint to paint
of pie
the figure you get. Why? The length of arene. 250

the (less and less) bumpy bottom is Ci2

always C/2. Why?

As you cut more and more finely, the figure

gets closer and closer to a rectangle of
base C/2 and height 1. It still takes n
mans.Ol, paing. Lo paint it. So. C/2 =n... So:

C = (circumference of circle of radius 1) = 2x

Now the circle of radius r is obtained by magnifying the

circle of radius 1 with magnification factor r. Since length
is one-dimensional, the Magnification Principle says that:

C = (circumference of circle of radius r) = r:2nx

 Intuition exercises: tI18e 35

Suppose AB is parallel Ry the 7-principle,

to DC and AD is parallel
to BC? a=B amd y=5.

IAN
Explain
So,
D

in
why AABD
particular,
Cc
= ACDB.
we
Aleo
YA. BD = DB. Ao, day aK Yow
can conclude that
BC = DA and AB = CD. AABD = ACDB

Suppose AB is parallel Bay exenciae #1, a =f amd y=5 amd

to DC and AD is parallel AB
= CD
to BC (we write AB||DC
and AD||BC) :

NaS
A an B

; OPER
D c
D Cc

Ao, La AK
Explain why AAXB = ACXD
So, in particular, we can AAXB = ACXD.
conclude that the diagonals
of a parallelogram bisect
each other. (Hint: Use
exercise #1.)

Show that if the diagonals p=o Vertical Anglee

of a quadrilateral bisect B
AX = CX linen A
each other, then the quad-
rilateral is a parallel- BX = DX Riven Ne aN
ogram. (Hint: Use the 3 § B
Principle of Vertical Angles
and SAS, then use the
Converse of the Z-principle
AAXB = ACXD. Ad&
to show that opposite sides a=B Conneds. parte of comgruent fige.
of the quadrilateral are y=5 Conned. pante of comgruent fige.
parallel.)
ABIIDC Comnnrenge of -principle
Lee game Lime of neaconing to get
AD||BC.
36 Intuition exercises: 118e

A triangle is called TLake twe copier of the triangle

asosceles if two of and pair off nenrticee of the firet with
its sides are of
equal length. thooe of the aecond do that
A
A'=A, B'=C, C'=B.

. Xv

B c

B Cc C=B'
Show that, if AB = AC, B=C'

then £6 =y.
Ry AAA, the two triangles are
(Hint: Copy the
triangle, flip the congruent with A conreiponding to A'
copy over, and use
SSS.)
B connee ponding to B'
c conneeponding to C'
Rut p im the finet triangle conrecponde
to y im the aecond. Ro B=y.

Make two copied of the triangle amd

flip the econd one, fod Like im
B c CXULALE #4. Tow uee ALA along the
ride BC to conclude that the two
Show that, if Bp =),
then AB = AC.
triangles ane comgriuent im euch a
away that AB of athe finet
connreaponde to AC of the eecond.

6. A xhombus is a quadrilateral AB = CD Aiven

all of whose sides are of F
equal length. Show that Chose ED Riven
every rhombus is a parallel- AC = CA B
ogram. (Hint: Draw a
diagonal, use SSS and the
Converse of the Z-principle.) .
Cc
B
D

A AABC = ACDA AAR

a=B Conned. parte of comgruent fige.
ADIIBC Comvrende of 4-punciple
ABIIDC fame line of reaconing
 Intuition exercises: I18e 37

Show that if ABC Mince the eum of the meacunree of the

and A'B'C' are
such that three anglee of any triangle ia 180°,
ZA = ZA‘ and AMVaAgwre(ZC') = 180° - meagune(ZA')
ZB = ZB',
- Meagwre(ZB')
then sZ2C ="2C".

= 180° - meagune(za)
- Meadwrel(z B)

= Meagune( ZC)

Show that if one can Llae exencig?g #7 to comclude that

pair off the vertices
of one triangle with ZA = "ZA"
the vertices of another amd then ude AAC.
so that AB = A'B' and
4Be=e2 8 and 2C =272 Ci,
then AABC = AA'B'C'.
(We could call this
AAS or SAA.)

Explain this example BC = BC* ayer AABC amd AABC'!

to show that ASS is
ane mot congruent.
not always true:

10. Show HL for right

triangles: If two
right triangles have
congruent hypoteneuses
and one leg of one is a a‘

congruent to one leg

of the other, then Auppode c = c! amd a = a'. Jhen, dy
the two triangles are the Prythagonean theorem,
congruent. (Compare
this result with b? = G* - a = (c')*.-S(ae) meq pay*
exercise #9.)
Xo b = b'. Jhen, hay AAA, the two
triamglee are comgruent.
38 Intuition exercises: 119e

ae A 2x3 rectangle is dhe Length of a diagonal of the 2x3

magnified with
magnification
nectamgte ig V2? + 3? =113. Xo
factor 5. How long the Length of the diagonal of the
is a diagonal of
the magnified magnified nectamgle ia 5113.
rectangle?

Pd A square with side dhe Length toa diagonal of the onigimal

8 is magnified VquUare id, [82+ 82 = 8V2. Rothe Length
with magnification
factor We What of a diagonal of the magnified QGUare
is the length of swith Le (*/, 2. Ry the Firat
ta diagonal of the
“magnified” square? Tlagnification Principte, the area of the
(Here the magnifi- magnified equare will Le
cation factor is less
than 1 so the “mag- GEO is ER al PRE.
nified” object is
actually smaller than
the original one.)
What is the area of
the “magnified” square?

One thing we really a) Ihe digtance from Q to R 4 juct

didn't talk much about the Length of the ehonteet path Letween
in I19 is the basic
fact that an r-power them (11). dhe ahorteat route from Q
magnification takes
to R ia along the etraight Lime Letween
straight lines to
straight lines. Let's them (11). Jhie route paeees through
check this:
P, do the noute had two parte, the
Q a) Suppose P lies
between Q and R ohonteat route from Q te P and then
P on a straight
line. Tell why the ehonrteat route from P to R.
R d(Q,P)+d(P,R) (Exercive #7 of Ile.)
= d(Q,R).
b) Suppose the
magnification &) d(Q',P')+d(P',R')
takes P to P',
r*d{G, B) + r:d(P,R)
Q to Q', and R
r= (d(QO,/P)
+d (P, R))
to R'. Show that
d(Q',P') + d(P',R') r:d(Q,R)
= d(Q',R"). d(Q',P")
c) Tell why c) Ctherwidce, the pointe P',Q' and R'
this means
that P' is would Le the vertices of a triangle
on the straight which had two cided whoee lengthe
line between
Ot ander... add up exactly to the Length of the
thind, which ie impocdeitle.
 Intuition exercises: I120e 39

If BC is parallel to
DE, show why AABC
is similar to AADE.
A

B Cc

Za= Za
D
ZR= 268 Principle of Conned. Angles
(From now on we will
write “~” to mean
LyY= LE Principle of Corned. Angles
“is similar to.” So Ao, Lay Condition fP, AABC ~ AADE.
we can rewrite this
problem as follows:
Show that, if BC||DE,
then AABC ~ AADE.)

For a figure as in wn exencigg #1, we daw that AABC ~ AADE.

exercise #1, suppose
d(A,B)=2, d(A,C)=3, Ao, La, Condition Q,
and d(A,D)=5. Find d(A,B)/d(A,D) = d(A,C)/d(A,E)
d(A,E). 2/5 = 3/da(A,E)
GX{A;EB) -#215/2),

For a figure as in In exercdiee

#1, we daw that AABC ~ AADE.
exercise #1, suppose
d(A,C)=2, d(A,D)=5, Ao, Ly Condition &,
and d(A,E)=10. Find d(A,B)/d(A,D) = d(A,C)/d(A,E)
da(A,B). d(A,B)/5 = 2/10
d(A,B) = 1.

For a figure as in In exencige

#1, we daw that AABC ~ AADE.
exercise #1, suppose Xo, Ray Comdition 2,
d(A,C)=2, d(B,C)=5,
and d(A,E)=10. Find d(A,C)/d(A,E) = d(B,C)/d(D,E)
d(D,E). 2/10 = S/d(D,E)
d(D,E) = 25.

AABC ~ AADE. Ao,

Lay Condition P,
. Zp= 26. Ao, La the

D “ Comuer1ee
. of the
Suppose AABC ~ AADE.
Show that BCI|DE. Principle of Conned:
Angles, BC|| DE
40 Intuition exercises: I120e

To show that two Aince the eum of the three imierionr angles
triangles are sim-
ilar, it's enough of a triangle id, 180°, we do thie hay algebra:
to show that two a + B + y = 180 a'+ B'+ y' = 180 a=a' p= B'
of the angles of
the first are con- a+ B+ y' = 180
gruent to corres-
ponding angles of = 0 y=y' ReCondition
P holde.
the second. Why fee
is that?

a+ B= 90° Miven
B= 8 4-Principle
a + 5= 90° Auhetiturtion
a + y + 90° = 180° mY.
0
a+ y= 90° Algebra
Suppose OR 1 DF, and
that all other seg-
8 =yY Algebra
ments are horizontal
or vertical. Show Rince the two triamglee ane night triangles,
that AAOR ~ AEFD. Ave COM Now USe CxXercig?r #6 te conclude that
"Li" means they ane eimilar
"is perpen- “y :
aicular to."

If Condition Ris true, G/(A!,B')_ d(B’,C")_ ,

Condit’ R: da (A,B) d (B,C)
On the other hand, we can magnify AABC by a
Two sides of one triangle factor of r to get a triangle ADEF.
are proportional to two
sides of another, and the d(D,E) = r-d(A,B) = Pie d(A,B) = d(A',B')
angles included by the
two sides are equal. d(E,F) = r-d(B,c) =2B'eC")
d (B,C)
a(p,c) = d(B',C")
Also, by Condition R, Z2B#= ZB'.
Show: R implies P.
Since magnification preserves angles, ZE = ZB'.
(Hint: The proof is very
So, by SAS, ADEF = AA'B'C'. This means that
similar to “Q implies P,”
Z4D*°2ZA', But Z2D#= ZA _ since magnification
but use SAS instead of
SSS.) preserves angles. So ZA' = ZA.
By the same line of reasoning, Z2C' = ZC.
So Condition P is true.

Show: P implies R. Condition P. implies Condition Q,

and together Comditionsa P and Q,
imclude worything adceerted im
ConditionR.
 Intuition exercises: 120e 41

Oe Ry Comdition R, ACED ~ ACAB,

do Length of ED ig ome-half
the Length of AB hay
Condition 2. Aimilarly,
B
Length EF = (1/2) Length BC
D is the midpoint of
the segment BC, E is length DF = (1/2) length ac.
the midpoint of AC, Using SLA over and oven
and F is the midpoint
of AB. What can you again, we comclude that ald
say about the segments
foun of the emaller triangles
and triangles in this
picture? Give reasons im the figure are congruent,
for your answers.

xa I

The quadrilateral EFGH has By exerciae #5, EF|I|AC amd

as its vertices the midpoints HGI|AC. &n the game Away,
of the sides of the quad-
rilateral ABCD. What can you EHIIBD amd FGIIBD. So EFGH
say about the quadrilateral
EFGH? (Hint: You may want in a parallelogram.
to draw in AC momentarily
to help visualize things.)

23. Suppose AAEB is a right AACE amd AAEB ane Loth night
angle and AB | CE. Show triamglea avith amothevr angle
that the triangles AEB,
ACE, and ECB are all (at A) im commen. Ao, day Vx. #6,
similar. AACE ~ AAEB. Ty the came
E neaconing, AECB ~ AAEB.
42 Intuition exercises: I2le

Parallel
lines

Ss L

Transversals

1. Fill in the missing value:

| AB | |BC] JA'B'| IB'C'|
5 6 7 4275
Qi, ou 6 9 3
Kaew 7 4 7, 4

y! 5 = 15 3

2. Fill in the missing steps:

IBC| ne Reason

a) eS IB c'| E21
| AB | IA'B' | - - - - - - - ----------------
Bei igideh
Bean
Bet [B'C"|
cena.)
ee LEO Add1 to
een ° loth idee
oi Petsenate
of a)
|BC | | AB | _ (Btc' | JA'B'| | ABI or IA'B'| _

gh HaBietebly AB JATB LI TABS 2 a oe co ee

|BC| +|AB| cs IB'C'| + JA'B'| :
eh)
) IE
Si
TABI eee
TAB] commen denomimatern
e) jac] _ JAC! iB ketween Aandc, B' MetweenAtamdc'
| AB | JAB [0 te rn re en rere

3. Why does /XAl _ IAA'l 9 Ihie ie true Ay 120, dince the

| xB | |BB' | triangles XAA' amd XBB' ane dimilan.
 Intuition exercises: tI2le 43

Notice that in the I21 Cometnruct a thind Lime parallel to

diagram, there is nothing
to prevent the line L DE through A. A
from passing through the
point X. Use this to TLoww ~we con.
explain why the following TZ E
theorem is true: opply
to conclude 5
: A line parallel
to the third side of a 1AD|
_ JAEL
triangle cuts the other IDB] =| EC]
two sides into propor-
tional segments.
A

B CS

Show the converse to [DB] [EC| Niven

the theorem in exercise JAD| |ABI
#4, that is:
Theorem: Suppose a
DB ini vor
E Tet Algebra
1DB|_ _ JEC|_
; IAD] ~ [ABI * IDBL
|AD| ,"LADT
|AD| _1ECL 1REL
= ‘|AE] "| AE] dgetna
g
Then DE is parallel to
the line through BC. IDBI+|AD] _ JECI+}AE| Algebra
| AD | | AE |
(Hint: Show that LAB | LAC | D ketween A and B
JAB] _ JACI [AD] =é “eS PAEY A and E
C between
and then [AD
use| exercises
soe!
AABC ~ AADE I20,
Dr ex. acoad
#
#8 and #5 of I20e.) DE Il Bc 120, ex. #5

A D : co SLADI
. 1 rt oer BE |
|DC| 6 9 |EC|
9 Tow use the theorem im exercine #5,
Bp 1.5

Why is AB ||DE?
rat evatcisette:e find
5 ey . ACDE ~
~ ACAB €x, #6 amd 120, ex. op #1
ADEL, COC ers
(AB leatl a Gens Te iComaitiontorotz0
eae Qof
Is there enough information To, vmagine irom Lane AC amd BC
in exercise #6 to determine NS EAT Pe Reee tes Ne cPS
| DE |? d
a hinge atic.
a4 Intuition exercises: I2le

In the coming pages, we will Zz

start with any triangle and
construct special lines
associated to that triangle,
and we will show that these
lines have surprising
special properties. For
example, we will see in I23
that the three altitudes of
any triangle pass through a
ne
common point. (See C16 for
definition of altitude.) ACZE 4 a parallelogram hay 711
Also we will see in C21 that
the perpendicular bisectors Recaudee BE 4 perpendicular to
of the three sides of any
triangle pass through a
Roth xZ amd AC, amd AD ia
common point. The following perpendiculan to Leth zy and BC.
exercise shows that these
two facts are related. Xo, hay exerciee #1 of I18e, |ZB| =
JAC]. By the came readconing,
Construct your favorite
triangle and construct its IBX| = JACI. Since the altitude BE
three altitudes: of the original triangle AABC wad
comdtructed
to Le perpendicular te
the aide 2x of AxyzZ, and dince
|ZB| = |BX|, BE 44 Ly definition
A E C alee the perpendicular Ligecton of
Now construct a perpendicular to ZX. kn the exact came wary, AD id
AD through A, a perpendicular to Loth an altitude of AABC and the
BE through B, anda
perpendicular to CF through C: perpendicular Licectonr of YZ, amd
z B the game gore for CF. Xo, if the
three altitudes of AABC page
through a common point, then
the perpendicular Ligectons of the
three cides of AXYZ mut pace
through a common point, too,
mamely, the eame point! And, if
x
the perpendicular Meectonre of the
Show that ACBZ is a parallelogram,
and that ACXB is a parallelogram. three cides of AXYZ pace through
acommon point, then the three
Conclude that ZB = BX, so that BE is
altitudes of AABC page through a
the perpendicular bisector of 2X.
common point, too, mame the
Conclude in the same way that CF is
the perpendicular bisector of XY,
dame point!
and AD is the perpendicular bisector
OLekZe

So the perpendicular bisectors of

the sides of AXYZ are the same as
the altitudes of AABC.
 Intuition exercises: I22e 45

1. To find the midpoint of

a segment in the (x,y)-
plane:
(a,,b,)

(-4,0)
(a,b)

midpoint = (2 barr ) (-2,-4) D (5, -4)

x-coordinate y-coordinate
(-2,1.75)
is average is average (-2.4,-.4)
of x-coords. of y-coords. (124, =2.4)
of endpoints of endpoints (1.5; -4)
($75,/-1275)
Find the coordinates of (4,1)
the midpoints of all the sides at(lated)
NS
Pee
Q7AAVNAWY
of the polygon at the right.

2. In the next three problems, we

will find the coordinates of the
center of the triangle below:
(2,2)

(-4, 0)
(6, -2)

(6,-2)

First find the coordinates of

the midpoints of the three
sides, and plot these points

3. A median of a triangle is a segment

between a vertex of the triangle
and the midpoint of the opposite
side. Draw two of the medians
of the triangle in exercise #2.
By I22, they meet in the center
of the triangle. Since every
median contains the center of
the triangle, the third median
had better pass through the point (6, -2)
of intersection of the other two.
Check this by drawing the third
median.
46 Intuition exercises: tI22e

Use algebra to find the

coordinates of the center
of the triangle in ex.#2.
Steps:
a) Find the equation of
the line containing a
median, using the fact (-4, 0)
that you know two points
on
b)
the
Find
line.
the equation of
Alone = -3/7 Mecel
: (6, -2)
the line containing a @quation: y-1 = (-3/7) (xt1)
second. median. o
c) Solve the two linear Alope 0
equations simultaneously. Center = (4/3, 0) Equation: y = 0

Concurrence Theorem

The three medians of

any triangle pass
through a common point.

The reasoning of I22

showed why this theorem Construct a line parallel to AC and
is true. In this exercise passing through X. Let P and Q denote
and the next is another the points at which the line meets the
argument. Fill in the other two sides of the triangle. In
missing steps. the same way, contruct RSI|ICB and MNI|AB.
; F The "Given" is true
Given: AB i ls a oeIlPQ, X is midpoint en 8 “Sa on Ene een
Show: X is also midpoint of PQ. from cverkices Anand By
Reason
Proof: ARXM = ASXN SAS

Hie ~ <XSN Corresponding angle... -

MR ||SN ‘tea
Camartnarwos Doprimciple
XSNQ is a parallelogram Definition of parallelogram
XQ = SN Exercise #1 of I18e
Px || SN PX ||MR and MR || SN
XNSP is a parallelogram Definition ef porallelegram— _
PX = SN -Coorioe Hlof Ilse Lk
PX = XQ
-Dranidtivita
of comgruence _ _
Given: PQ ||AC and PX = XQ Cc
Show: AY = YC

A P
Proof: ABXQ ~ ABYC Exendde #lefT20e 2. Le
IxQ|/|YC| = |BX|/|BY|

eye
Landition Qof I20---------

Seodlion 1205202222
ABPX ~ ABAY Sedetlef I20e...-
IAY| = |Y¥C| Dromastinity,
ef equality ook
AY = YC and algebra
 Intuition exercises: I123e 47

ile An angle is called obtuse

if its measure is more
than 90°. If one of the
angles of a triangle is
obtuse, two of its altitudes
will lie outside the triangle.
Use exercise #1 of C3e to
construct the three
altitudes of the triangle
at the right. Extend them
to find the point where
they all meet.

Where do all the altitudes At the rentex of the night angle

of a right triangle meet?
im the triangte.

An angle of a triangle is Gta point im the imterionr

acute if its measure is
less than 90°. If all three of the triangte.
angles of a triangle are
acute, where do its altitudes
meet?

Using your straight edge and

compass and C3e, construct
all the medians and all the
altitudes of the triangles
shown. Mark the concurrence

20 Le
points for each.

There are two other concurrence theorems, one for angle bisectors of a triangle,
the other for perpendicular bisectors of sides of a triangle. Since they have
alot to do with inscribing circles in triangles and circumscribing circles around
triangles, we will discuss them in pages C20 and C21.
 Intuition exercises: I123e

In the diagram below, show A

why: x J,
(area AAXC)/(area AAXB) F

= |CD|/|DB| eae
;
ve
c
D B

- Firat, mote that:

F area AADC e 1 /, |CD|h me CD?
area AADB ‘/, |DBIh DB
Cc
D B Auletitute x fon Ain the alore
neaconing te ohtain:
(Hint: First show
(area AADC) /(area AADB). area AXDC _ BD!
= |CD|/|DB|. area AXDB |DC|
Then show:
(area AXDC) /(area AXDB) faut: area AADC _ area AXDC {BD |
= |CD|/|DB].) area AADB- area AXDB |DC|

Ac: area AADC - area AXDC |BD|

“area AADB - area AXDB- |DC|
(Jo eee awhAy thie Laat equality ig true,
eee the generic example im the Lon
Leow.) Timally, ave can comclude that:
area AAXC _ [BDI
area AAXB |DC|

a/b = c/d = e/f

be = af (b-d)e = (a-c)f£
de = cf e/f = (a-c) /(b-d)

Ceva's Theorem states deduming, ag im Bx. #5, that the three

that, in the diagram in 3 ‘
egit< Meheis nes shDE GRE, Lines do pace through X, them:
and CF are concurrent [AE] 2{CDI . {BE}
(pass through a single JEC| |DB| - |FA|
point) at X inside the _ area ABXA | area AAXC | area ACXB 1
triangle if and only if: area ABXC area AAXB- area ACXA ~—
TAEL . EEA ores, Om the other hand, if IEC] oar a =
[BCP |DB]™ (FA) and if BE and AD meet
at x, extend cx
Show why Ceva's to meetAB at dome point F'. Jhen we
Theorem is true. (Hint: [AE| JCD] |BF'|
use the principle you mudrt have (EC| IDB| |F'Al + °°
discovered in ex.#5.) re HO and thenefone F = Ft.
Ro, the three Linea muct Le concunnent.
 Intuition exercises: I123e 49

Use exercise #5 to show Auppodee AD and BE ane medians

why the Concurrence
Theorem for Medians is amd they ameet at x. Extend cx
true. zn to meet ABatF. Ro:
(area ABXA)/ (area ABXC) = |AE|/|EC| = 1
area ABXA = area ABXC

a:
(area AAXC)/ (area AAXB) = |CD|/|DB] = 1
area AAXC = area AAXB
Ry aubetitution:
area AAXC = area ABXC
(area AAXC)/ (area ABXC) = 1

And day ex. #5:

(area AAXC)/ (area ABXC) = |AF|/|FB| = 1
JAF (> =" ]FB|

Xo CF mudi Le the thind median,

and it Paceed through x.

Suppose all three Finet of all:

altitudes of a triangle
lie inside the
AAEB ~ AAFC so that BE
FA _ AB
~AC
triangle. Use Ceva's Make gure AJOU VLU why thie id true.
Theorem to show why the
Concurrence Theorem for Alec:
Altitudes is true. ACDA me ACEB so that JED),
CE ~ = IG,
CB
A
E F ABFC Cat ABDA so that — 4 =

From these equalities Awe cam

vary that:
Cc
D B BE .CD BE. AB .AC CB . 3
FA. CE i.DBss AC’ CBr nan
(Hint: You will need to
use the converse, that is, Ueing the comver1ee of Ceva'a
the direction of Ceva's
Theorem which says that Jheonem, we cam conclude from
ge 4JAEL .1CDI .1BFI _ y thie Laet eaten that the three
1EC| |DB| {FAI
altitudes are comewrient at xX.
then the lines AD, BE,
and CF are concurrent.)
50 Intuition exercises: I124e

1. The angle a is incribed dhe central angle of the anc cut

in a semi-circle. What dy Zahaw meagure 180°. Ao, day
is its measure? frm
124, a= 90°.

2. Explain why ZDAB = ZDCB

Q
AAXB ~ ACXD. hay I24, dince
Loth angles D
cuttheaame *
We. Aimilarly
ZCDA = ZCBA. =
But if twe angles
ofa triangle are neepectinelay
comgriuent to two angles of
another triangle, ao ane the
third angled. Tow ude Condition
P. of I20.

3. A segment whose endpoints Draw the chonda CD and AB,

lie on a circle is called
a chord of the circle. and ude exercige #2:
Suppose chords AD and BC
meet in a point X. Show AAXB ~ ACXD.
that Xo, hay
|AX|-|XD] = |CX|-|XB].
Comdition 2
c of 120:
ARE. CX
D | XB | |XD|
Xo:
[AX|-|XDI = |CX]-/XBI.

4. Suppose, in exercise #3, 2x4 = 3x| XB] hay CXLNALL #3,

|JAX|=2, |XD|=4, and
|CX|=3. What is |XB|? [XB] = 8/3.
 Intuition exercises: I24e 51

as Show that APxQ' ~~ DOXP 'y, Two angles are

supplementary
x P if the sum of
Pp'
their measures
Se On.
0)
GP Pee ZAP LODs 124

XP OU == ZROR Aupplementary angles

VLAN DN) Td PASOAG, I24

Q'

AXPQ* + *“AXOP* Comdition P, of I20

(Hint: To show that
ZXPQ' = ZXQP',
show first that
ZOLPP =e OO.)

Show that

[XP|-|xXP'| = |[XQl-1XQ']. Draw im PQ' amd OP', amd use ex. #5:

x Pe x
P'

Q
Q

(oy
Q'

AXxPQ' ~ AxQP'
IXP1/1XQ| = [XQ'I/|XP'| Condition
& of 120

(SP P| XP] Ge TAXON TRO

te Suppose, in exercise #6, 6x12 = |XQ|x10 Lay exenciae#6

|XP|=6, |XP'|=12, and
}XQ'|=10. What is |XQ|? [XQl = 7.2
52 Intuition exercises: I124e

o™
8. Let's use AB to mean

oez
the arc between A and
Band aA
| AB |
to mean the measure
of the central angle
given ey. the arc AB:

Show that, in the a=Bt+yY ex.

#5 of I8e
noe below,
any B= */, OD | ee :
Hs [ABI + Pew CDI.
y= 1/5 |ABI dy 124
Now eubatitute the Laat two
equations im the firet.

(Hint: a= B + y by
exercise #5 of I8e)

9. Show that, in the y=Bt+a hay ex. #5 of I8e

picture below,
a)
a=y-B Lay algebra
LS
[ABI - ry eapest
B= ‘/, ICD | day 124
v= "/> |ABI day 124
Now gubaetitute the Laat two
equations in the eecomd ome.

10. Suppose, in exercise #9, 10°

F =
1 “/5 fe
(ABl =
1 fp 20°
;
hy erconciae
#9
o™ [nN

|CD| = 20°, and a= 10° JAB| = 40°

™

What is |AB|?
 Intuition exercises: I125e 53

1. Explain why
|XA|]*|XA'] = | XE] 7. |XA|*|XA'| = |XBI|-|XB'|
= TACT ACT = AD es XD © |

Now Let the Lime through X go to the lime

where the two pointe of intereection
avith the cincle, E and E', come together.
Dhen |XE|+|XE'| juat Lecomeda |XE’.
Aince the product |XE|+|XE'| doean't
change ahile Eamd E' ane coming
together,
[XA]-|XA"] = |XE[+{xXB"| = [xE?.

2. Explain why Ihig

4 Like exencige
#1.
a= 1,
*/,|AE] - 1/,1A'El.
Roe yore

A A' -

Ae line goee to XE, the angle at X gore

E=E' [of Font
to a, and the formula
[™ 4 co
+ IAD = /lASD |
goeeto */,|AE] - */,|A'E!.
3. Explain why
[XA]? = |XE[?. The idea here ig the came ad im
a exercioe # 1:
= |XA|+|XA'] doean't change ae A and
A! come together.

tae lala why Ihe idea hene

ia the came
ad im
1 “/,|majorAE
he: | CXCMALL #2:
a=
Ae Aand A' come togethrn, the
- 1/,|minorBE |A
angle Letween the two Limes
x through X, amd the formula im
CKULALL #2 goede to
4 7>~
/>\mMajOrAE |
1 con

E - “/,|minoraAE|
 Intuition exercises: I125e

Bae
‘
s
x
mS

B
B Rt B >
x a eal,

= ot
X= A aease
A. A es Sr ea

‘ . - =
Py
x

ee on 1 om 4 om”

a = 1/,|AB| d= 9773 (AB! a= */5)/AB|

In the above “moving picture,” A and B don't move, but X
moves down along the circle until it gets to A. The measure
of the angle a doesn't change because, by 125, it is always
equal to 1 |AB|
2
which doesn't change. The last picture tells us
how to calculate the angle between a tangent line and a chord.
State this formula as precisely as you can.

Jheonem: dhe angle Letween a chord amd a Lime tangent to the cincle
at ome endroimt of the chord hat meaqunre one-half of
that of the central angle of the anc cut Lay the chord.

If the line L is tangent AB | = 180°

at A to the circle with
center O, explain why L Lo, day exerciae #5,
is perpendicular to the = 90°
line OA. ah oe

B L

: A
Explain c Ry exercigg #5,
why
meadwnre( 4BAC) = 1 */, |AB|
ne
= meadunre(Z ABC)
AARC Rody exerciee #4 of 118e,
is 4 IAC] = |BCl.
isosceles.
 Intuition exercises: I125e 55

In the following figure, Applying CXULCALL # | of I24e to

O is the center of the
circle and M is the midpoint the cincke with cemterM, we
of OP. comclude that ZORP i4 90°. Ao
P line PR 4 perpendicular to
nadine OR. ince the tamgent
Line at point R to the cincle with
center 0 i aloo perpendicular
to OR, that tamgent lime
Draw the circle with center M comtaime the eegment PR.
and radius |MO| (which is the
same as |MP]|).

Show that ZORP is 90°. Use

exercise #6 to show that
the line through P and R is
tangent to the circle with
center O.
56 Intuition exercises: I26e

Give the radian measure 2. Give the degree measure

for the following angles: for the following angles:
180° _Kk. radiane
90° t/2. nadiane m™ radians pM diene
a
F w/2 radians 90°
45 —E/4_ radians /3 vadians 2 Ode
B055 _T/6_ =nadsane 1 radian (360/?2r)*
60° 1/3 nadiane SG radians ore
: 2 t/6 radians
120 (2/3) nadiane (2/3) radians 120"
270° (3/2)T nadiane 0 radians a)
dioanby
1526 T/12,) nadiane
alk ™/180 nadiane
When the radian measure
of an angle gets up to
2m, the string we wrap
around the unit circle
ends back at the point
(1,0). So this angle is
the same as the angle
of 0 radians. On the
unit circle at the right, ¥
show the angle of (5/2)tT
radians. Find a radian dhe angle with radian meaawre 1/2
measure for this angle in, the zame ae the angle awith nadian
which is less than 27
radians. AMLAAWre 51/2.

Find a radian measure

which is less than 2 T nadiome
for each angle: ( 27/3) nadiane
T nadianme
7% radians
(8/3)™ radians 0 nadiane
1001nm radians
2m radians

We will also let ~n/4 -1/3 N

radian measures be radians radians
negative. For example,
to construct an angle
of -(m/3) radians, cut
a piece of string (1/3)
units long. Starting from
(1,0), instead of wrapping
the string in the upward
direction, we wrap in the
downward direction.
Draw in the angles of
given measures:
-3n/2 radians
 Intuition exercises: I27e Si

vig 2 “|
1
3
sine a = 1/2
cosine a= 3/2
tangent a= _1/¥3
cotangent a = _Y¥3
secant a= 2/3
cosecant a = 2

Find sine 45°:

125? = 207
(Hint: Any right Ar Ro, x = V2.
triangle with
an angle of 1 Bo, dime 45° = 1/N2
= V2/2.
45° is isosceles.
Then use the Pythagorean 'rad." means
theorem to find x.) "radians"

Find cosine 45° TaN 2 . Find cosine (1/4 rad.) sig

tangent 45° 1 tangent (1/4 rad.) Sees (ae
cotangent (7/4 rad.) 1
cotangent 45°
secant 45° _Y2__ secant (1/4 rad.) ee
cosecant 45° me Bice cosecant (1/4 rad.) fea! Se

. Find sine 30°. a= 30°,d40

(Hint: 2a = 60° : 30° » =2 eppeetes
a Sides seiayil2
an ie BeTame 22 e
since each
dime
angle of an
equilateral
triangle has
measure 60°)

. Find cosine 30° (1/2)¢ + oc? wif

(Hint; Use the 1
Ro x = N3/2
Pythagorean
theorem to 1/2 Ro codime 30° = 13/2
Feeeel ETS.)

Rame anewer #6.

ad exerciae
Find cosine (m/6 rad.).

Find tangent 30° iW V3 Find tangent (m/6 rad.) 1 uA

joe
cotangent 30° __¥3 cotangent (7/6 rad) [3
secant 30° Ase secant (7/6 rad.) 2/M5 ae
oi
cosecant 30° aa Yee cosecant (1/6 rad.)
58 Intuition exercises: I27e

9% A regular n-gon is a polygon with n_ sides, such that the

lengths of all its sides are equal and the measures of all
its interior angles are equal. (See C8-C11l.) A circle is
inscribed in a polygon if it lies inside the polygon and
is tangent (I25) to each side of the polygon. A regular
n-gon admits an inscribed circle and a radius of that
circle, drawn to one of the points of tangency is called
an apothem of the regular n-gon. A circle is circumscribed
about a polygon if it passes through all the vertices of the
polygon. A regular n-gon admits a circumscribed circle and
a radius of the circle , drawn to a vertex to the polygon
is called a radius of the polygon.
In this exercise, we study Fon a negulan
regular n-gons whose sides are m-gom, the
all of length s, with apothem
a and radius r. Explain why, comtral
for regular hexagons (n=6): angle a
a = r-sin 60° a = (s/2) tan 60° . = 360'/m
For regular pentagons \ Ro B=
a= r+sin)4° a = (s/2) tam‘ ° \N 180 - (360/n)
For regular n-gons: KL 2
180 - (360/5)
a =r sin , a = (s/2) tan 2 Tor m=5, B= 2 = 54°.

20; Fill in the following table

for regular n-gons: .°
e

OH p= s= r= a=

60° 60° 1 1 0.866 = ~

ie ‘eam ods 239 2 1.618
120° 30° 5 2.687 1.443 a

90° 45" 6 4.243 3

Salisng Otic tn aanmeacnal 0.576 0.519

(Use your calculator.)

 Intuition exercises: I128e 59

In the formula at the bottom

of I28, your calculator will Warning: Make sure that
give you the value of your calculator is in
"degree" mode if you are
tangent a once you know
entering degrees, and in
the angle a (either in degrees "radian" mode if you are
or radians). Practice using entering radians.
this function of your calcu-
lator:
tangent 30° = 0.5774 tangent (m/4 rad.) = 1
tangent 51° = 1.2349" tangent (1 rad.) = 1.95/4
tangent 45° = i tangent (0.5 rad.) = 0.5463
tangent (-15°) = -0.2679 tangent (-1/4 rad.) = =I
tangent 89° = 57.2900 tangent (49/100 rad.) 31.8205
=

Your calculator will also

give you the measure of an Warning: Make sure that your
angle (in either degrees calculator is in "degree" mode
or radians), if you know if you want to get your answer
in degrees, and in "radian" mode
the value of the tangent if you want your answer in radians.
of the angle. Just use
the “INV TAN” function.
Practice this:
tangent a = 1 a= 4a. ¢ a = 1/4 rad
tangent a = 1.732 a= 960-" oie 8/3 “rad
tangent a = 0.333 C= ee ee a = 0.321 rad
tangent a = -1 Ge bey a = -%/4 . rad
tangent a = 1.414 a Sais a :

How tall is this tree?

(Hint: Use your is
calculator.) ote

wes” 65.12
ar feet

ragel
93 feet

What is the radian measure

OParnerangle aye rere Nat
-*
aero 01254

-*
- -*

100 feet
 Intuition exercises: I129e

Explain why Fon amy angle j

(sine a)? + (cosine a)? coud’ and eine
ane the Lengthe of
is always equal to one, :
no matter what the the Lege ofa night
angle a is. (Hint: triangle Avtrowe
Use the Pythagorean
enen cent} Frppoteneuee haa
Length 1. Xo, hay the Papthagonrean
theorem, (coe a)? + (im a)? = 17 = 1.
If cosine a = 0.654, (0.654)? + (aim a)? = 1,
what is sine a ? LS

eim a= ta/l - (0.654)? = +0.756.

. Explain why By exerciee #1 of 120,
tangent a = —_Sine a _ awe have eimilanr night
cosine a triangles im the picture
Se a Pelee vA tan
at the Left. Aloo, the
f Lave of the Ligger right
tiiangle hae Length 1,
dimce it id a rading of
the circle. Xo, Lay
Comdition 0 of I20, dimn/coe = tam/1.

. If cosine a = 0.654, tam a = +0.756/0.654 = +1.156.

what is tangent a?
(Hint: Use exercise #2.)

Ray AAA, the two triangles im

. Use facts that
you know about the pictune at the left ane
congruent
triangles and comgruent, Xo, land
the picture at tamgent a are the Lengthe of
the right to
show that secant
the Lege of a night triangle
whore Arypoteneudce had
1 + (tangent a) 2
length aecamt a. Xo, Ray the
= (secant a 12
Pajthagonean theorem,
no matter what the angle oa is.
1? + (tam a)? = (dec a)? .
 Intuition exercises: 129e

6. If tangent a = 1.156 Aecamta = “V1l+ (tama)? = +1.529,

what is secant a ?

7. Use what you know Uding the 2-nrimcinie, the two triangle
about similar triangles F 8 : 3 Pp CA
; pemer Hm a
in the picture im the picture have conrecponding
at the right angles equal. (Remember, if two ete
to explain
why of conned. angles match up, the third
secant a =
eet mudt match up aloo, dimce the
1/(cosine a)
secant QW of three angles im a triangle
EPSEEKORG oeBo Ray Comdition P of I20, the
no matter
Ghatvene tre triangles ane gimilar. Tow, hay
angle a is. Comdition Q of I20, 1/(coe a) = (eee a)/1.

8. If cosine a = 0.654, Recanta = 1/0.654 = 1.529.

what is secant a?
9. Look at the picture (cot a) = (cod a)/(dimn a)
in I29, and write down
three other relations 1+ (cota) = (codeca)
(like exercises #1, #3, (cogec a) = 1/(aim a)
#5 and #7) that hold
no matter what the
angle a is.
dhe angle B
10.Explain why
cos a = sin(90°-a)
hae meaqunre
“cotan a = tan(90°- a) ee 90°- a. From
cosec a sec(90°- a) Be poimt of
using the picture in 129.
VAlW, COAAMNL A
cosecant
Q>»
cosine of angle = Looks Like ite
sine of complementary angle
cotangent of angle = dane, ete.
tangent of complementary angle
cosecant of angle = —tangent
——p
©
secant of complementary angle secant @ 9—————

11.Using the picture in 129, Ton examnpte,

or exercise #1, explain ; Gia ieee We
why leim al = 1- (coe a)? <1.
1 < sine a <1
-1 < cosine a<l

no matter what the angle

d28;
 Intuition exercises: 130e

. In these exercises, we will 122 = 207 + 25% - 2-25-20cosy

use the laws of sine and
cosine to “figure triangles.” cos y = 0.881 Enter INV COS 0.881
on your calculator
For example, we know by SSS : when it is in
that once the lengths of the i}
~~ 28.2 degree mode.
three sides of a triangle are
given, the triangle is 25° = 127 + 20% - 2-12°20cos B
completely determined. So we
ought to be able to figure cos B = -0.168
out the angles. Use the Law B= 99.7°
of Cosines and the INV COS
function on your calculator a, =ehBOLe-9Paryyjay oesB
to figure the three angles
in the triangle below:

20
12

25

SAS: Figure (the remaining c* = 20? + 127 - 2-12+20-cos40°

sides and angles of) the = 400 + 144 - 480(0.776)
triangle below: = 176.32
Use COS in deg
c = 13.3 mode and later
use Alva c

Now that we fare all three sides,

12
wwe cam get the other angles ae
im ex. #1: a= 35° B= 105°

You used the Law of Cosines

Sin B = 0.967
in exercise #2 to calculate
c = 13.3. Then you might eo INV SIN on 4your calculator
have used Law of Cosines or
awilh Lary that B = 75°, tut really
Law of Sines for the rest.
Use the Law of Sines B could te 75° on (180°-75°)
= 105°
sin 8B - sin40° d&imnce
20 LS
sin 75° = sin 105° = 0.967%
to calculate sin Bp. Now (he calculaten only givea the
use INV SIN to calculate Bp.
walue < 90°.) Rowerer, if ome
On the other hand, you
might have used the Law of Rmowd cos B, there ia only one
Cosines to calculate cos B:
angle Ret~ween 0° and 180° with
207 = 127 + 13.37
- 2°12°13.3-cos £B that coring, do from cos B = -0.25
Now use INV COS to ae comclude
p= 105°.
calculate $8. Explain why
you don't get the same
answer. Which answer is
correct?
 Intuition exercises: 130e

ASA: Figure the triangle a = 160°- (20° + 40°) = 120°.

below:
sinl20° = .sin40” b = 11,1
15 b
siniz0). .san20r a at B
5 Cc
(Hint: Use Law of Sines.)

AAS: Figure the triangle a = 180° - (50° + 90°) = 40°

below:
Sanat" ~ AGa a Aa

Sin30
50 = sinsd:
= b 4= 15.3

Why ASS doesn't quite 182 = c* + 20% - 2-20c-cos30°

work: 324 = c* + 400 -40c(N3/2)
c? - 20N3-c + 76 = 0
Using the Quadnatic Formula:

C= 32.3 enOm aCe 255

Use the Law of Cosines
to see that there are
two possible values
for Cc.
> 46 a18

30m

In the Law of Cosines in. an that cadre, we have a right

I30, suppose y = 90°, tiiangle and cos y= 0. Rothe Law
that is, y = 1/2 radians.
What does the Law of
of Codimed judt Lecomee the
Cosines become in that Paythagorean theorem.
case?
64 Intuition exercises: 130e

The following is true of

the diagram below: Wekmnew: AomP ~ AONQ Lay condition P.

e ZRPO,
are
ZQNO, and ZPMO
right angles. go: ON L. 10 01
‘ |PM| | OP |
e |QN|] = sin oa
* 1001 =1 S508
e |OP| = cos B |PM| cos 8
e |ON] = cos a |PM| = sin a-cos B
e |RP| = sin B

R
unit
circle

Explain why |PM| = sin a-cos 8B.

(Note that a and B could be
any angles.)
Now explain why CUE Or =—50
aUBE = Za. Once cms Jappiien. 00 toad
is shown, the following Z URP = 180°- Z RUP - Z RPU
conclusion can be drawn:
= 90°- (90°-a)
Because ARUP is a right triangle: =a
UR
cos ZURP = LR
| RP |
UR
cos a = teal
sin 6

|UR| = cos a:sin 8B

OF Use the conclusions from ’

: Sin (a+tB) = |RV|
ex.#8,9 to explain wh for
any
r
angles a
enand 8B,
Ye [RU] + [PMI
= cosa sinB + sina cosB
sin (a+)

= sina cosB + cosa sin

 Intuition exercises: I3le 65

1. Find the area of the Anea =

11, 20 and 30 widgets,
triangle with sides
/4’V(11+20+30) (-11+20+30) (11-20+30) (11+20-30)
= 55.9 oq.

Sloe ache geres 50° yChe

triangle with sides
*7{N (10+20+30) (-10+20+30) (10-20+30) (10+20-30) = 0.
10, 20 and 30 widgets. The Lengthe of the two chont aides of the
Explain your answer. “triamgle” juat add up to the Length of the
thind. dhie ie mpocetle for a triangle.
. Find the area of the
3 t Rr angle with sides Again theee are Umpordcikle dimendcione fon
9, 20 and 30 widgets. a triangle.
Explain your answer.

4, Finish the algebra 2452-62

in the SSS formula Area = y,ab ‘\N1- (28)?
for the area of a —s5
triangle in I31: = ai! 2ab\I 1- A =o") 2

Wt N N N
~~Db
S N I
» sta
N
+Q

at 75 \ (2ab+
(a “tb*-c?) )(2ab-
(a? +b7-c%) )

ay ty, AJ (a?+2abtb?-c*) (~<a? +2ab-b*

+c?) _(

=1/4 A (atbt+c) (-atb+c) (a-b+tc) (atb-c)

5. Find the area of Anea = Se * 3°15 edm140°

the triangle below: = 1.45 aq.

praah st:
3 w.

6. Find the area of dhind angle hae meaaune 55°

the triangle below: (éin'55°)/3.© (44.30 °)/20

mH = 1,63
Gnea= '/, (1.83°3 04m 95°) = 2.735 oq.
 Intuition exercises: I3le

7. If the diagonals of a JAC|:|BD|*sina =

quadrilateral meet inside
({AX|+|XC1) (JBX|+|XD]) -sina =
the quadrilateral
JAX|+|BX|-sina + |AX|-:|XD|-+sina
+ |XC|-|BX|-sina + |XC|-|XD|-sina =

Coe |AX|-|BX|-sina
+ |AX|-|XD|-sin(180°-a)
+ |XC|-|BX|-sin(180°-a)
+ |XC|-|XD|-sina
show that Rut tid Laet exprerdcion 4&
area ABCD =
exactly twice the gum of the aneade
(aio) JAC|:|BD|-sin a. of each of the triangles making
up the quadrilateral. by the Adz
(Hint: Write
JAC] = JAX] + [XC] formula fon anea.
|BD| = |BX| + [XD]
and use that
sina = sin (180° -a).)

8. In the diagram below, show that

|AB|/|CB| = sin a/sin B:

By 124, 2y'+2y = 360° go y'+y = 180°,

go siny' = siny. By the Law of
Aimee, sina/|AB| = siny'/|OB| and

(Hint: Use I24 to show that

sinB/|CB| = siny/|OB|. dhe neat ie
sin ZOAB = sin ZOCB.) Cady algebra.

9. In the diagram below, show that Uee the Law of Ainee exactly ae
BS iC R* | os
(sin a/sin B) /(sin y/sin $): im ex.#8. Rene
we don't hare
that siny = sind do that we get
|OB'| = |JA'B'|+siny/sina

= |C'B'|-sin6d /sinB
Again the reat ia cacy algehlna.
 Intuition exercises: I3le 67

10. In the diagram below, show that Lee ex. #8 to write out
(IAB]/1CBI)/(1IADI/|CD]) =
(1AB|/|ICBI)/(|ADI/|CD])
(IA'B'{/IC'B'|)/(IA'D'|/|C'D']).
ad an eXpreedcion involving
(1AB|/1CB|)/(|AD|/|CD|) is called only aimee of angles avith
the cross-ratio
of (A,B,C,D).
nertex 0. Uae ex. #9 to write
(IA'B W7tC2B Se OtAE Dk | Ae yD" 1)
ad am expreddion involving
only eine of angles avith
nentex 0. Uae that
sinéS = sin(180°-3)
and motice that the two
CX PLeedcione You get are equal!
D!

(Hint: Use ex.#8 and #9 twice

each, once with D replacing B,
once with D' replacing B'.)

11. Use the cross-ratio to prove JAC|:-|BD| = |JAD|-|BC| + |AB|-|CD|

Ptolemy's theorem: ifand omly i
(JAC|:|BD|)/(|ADI-|BCI) =
1 + 2 CDi) / Gl he BE)

(JAC|/|AD|)/(1B Cl/|BD|) =
1 + (|AB /\AD!)/(1BC|/|DC])
if amd omy #55
4 (uading
ex. #10)
ChA SCOP TR DD Th7/ ¢ ee se ee
1+ (|A'B"|/1A'D'D Wy AA IB SCE ADI C* |)
B if amd only if
If A, B, C, and D lie ona (IA'C'|={B*D*
{77 CLASP
12 Peo Cayce
circle in the order shown, Pe a[AB
|e ie UD Hy AAD eT Ate eC" })
then if amd only if
(AS Clase De eis
JAC|:|BD| =
TAD)Se) BUC Se [ASB es Cpr:
JAD|-|BC| + |AB|-/CD|.
Rut thie Laat identity ig eaary to
(Hint: Divide both sides of
check eince it id alout pointe on a
the equation by |AD|-|BC|
and write the two quotients Lime:
which appear as a b Cc
cross-ratios. Use exercise
A! B v Cc v D '

#10 to replace these dhe left-hand aide of the

quotients by cross-ratios on
a line, e.g. the line identity ia
through A and D: (a+b) (btc) = abiaets ioc
amd the right-hand aide of the
identity id
(atb+c)b + ac = abth“sSetac ;

Adince there CX preedione are

equal, all of the alore identities
ane true!
 Intuition exercises: I132e

A circle of radius 1 dhe anea ineide the circle of nadiug |

stretched horizon- : : ; :
is
tally by a factor of ig tT. Ro the anea imeide the ellinee
3 and vertically by a id, 3°5°7, that ia, 15z.
factor of 5. What is
the area inside the
magnified figure?
(The stretched circle
is called an ellipse.)

A circle of radius 1 Anea =

around (0,0) in the
(x,y) -plane is stretched 3-(1/2)n = (3/2)n
by a factor of 3 in the
x-direction and shrunk
by a factor of (1/2) in
the y-direction. Graph
the resulting ellipse at
the right, and find the
area it encloses.

The pyramid at the right ultin nolume 2

is stretched in the x- a My
direction by a factor Any a facton
of
of 4 and in the y- Aaya
Ve Y
direction by a factor
of 2, while its height
remains unchanged.
By what factor is its
volume multiplied?

ee ise of this he Ty the Principle of Panallel Alicea,

‘ \ the two triangles Lelow have the
ih
LaMe Wea:
I

Parallel Slices (113)

and the Second Magni- ‘ b
fication Principle to Rut the night hand triangle alore ie
give a new way to see A : :
patent cen s ao oltaimed from the triangle im the
the
ary area of
Fya triangle pr ollem day Ltretching
ro 9 the plane hori i-
gomtally dy a facton of b and
vertically by a factor of h. Xo, day the
Aecond Magnification Principle, ite
Wea i
beh: (1/2).
 Intuition exercises: T3Ze 69

After learning the Second

Magmification Principle
for squares, we said that
it also worked for any blob
in the plane:

magnify
by a
factor
of.2 The area of the blob is approx-
imately the sum of the areas of the
magnify by a factor of 3 > little squares which fit entirely
inside the blob, that is,
(area 1)+(area 2)+ . +(area n).
We did this by dividing the Now do the 3x2 magnification.
blob up approximately into The magnification multiplies the
little squares: area of each little square by a
factor of 6 (=2x3). Altogether we get
6(area 1) + 6(area 2) + + 6(arean),
which, by the dustututwe law,
is equal to
6[ (area 1)+(area 2)+ +(area n)].
But this last quantity is
6(approximate area of blob).
So the magnification multiplies the
Complete the argument at approximate area of the blob by a
the right. FACTOL SCL aLO=:

The reasoning in exercise Ton example, if we mow divide up

#5 is only approximate. Get imto equanred with eidee 1/2 what
a better approximation by
dividing each of the little they AvV1e Lefone, Ave Ca fide up
squares into even smaller
all the previour equanes and even
find come mone little equanee
(mean the edge) which till Lie
entirely ineide the lol. Ro the
magnify by a factor of 3 > Quwm of the areas of the tiny
Explain why the sum of the equaneds will Le a Little
areas of all the tiny squares
lying entirely inside the blob Ligger, and co will Le cLogen to
is a better approximation to the neal area of the Loh.
the area of the blob than the
sum of the areas of the squares
in exercise #5.

Repeat the argument in exercise

#5 with the better approximation
to the blob we used in exercise
#6.
70 Intuition exercises: 133e

A pyramid is built Volume = (1/3)-3°4-15 = 60 cuw.

over a rectangular
base 3 widgets by
4 widgets. Its
vertical height is
15 widgets. What is
its volume?

dhe pyramid in made up of four

prypumide avith nectamgular Laaed.
Ro ite volume i4 the gum of the volumes
of the four pryprumide avith nectamgular

A ramid is built Laced:

Alte a shape made up Volume = (1/3)-1-1.5 + (1/3)-6-1.5
of four rectangles . : :
oe wear e aae ee # (1/3)°2.5°1.5 + (1/3)*0.75°1.5
rectangles have areas = (1/3)(1+8+2.5+0.75)(1.5)
1; 8, 2-9, and 0.75
sq.w. respectively. = (1/3)*12.25-1.5
The pyramid has vertical = 6.125 cuw.
height 1.5 widgets. What
is its volume?

In exercise #2, you can We ane using the dintriLutirve

figure out the volume of
each of the four pieces of law. Ree the algebra im the
the pyramid separately, then ANewer to exenrcige #2.
add, or you can add the areas
of the four rectangles first,
then multiply by (1/3) and by
the vertical height. What
law of arithmetic are you
using to conclude that you
get the same answer either way?

. Explain why the volume of the

pyramid below is
(1/3) (area of base) (vert .height) .

(Hint: Cut the base

up approximately
into rectangles
and use the
distributive law.) (1/3)anealh + (1/3)(anea2)A +
(1/3)(anea3z)hA + ... + (1/3)(anea m)A
= (1/3)(aneal + anea2+ .. +aneam) A
= (1/3)(anea
of Lace) A
 Intuition exercises: I33e

5. A one-widget vertical Choaen

segment moved along a
one widget horizontal
segment gives a square:

ae
Choose a vertex
(corner) of the
square: Ome wary to get a equane afich 14 2
face of the cule and which containe
A B
The chosen vertex is an the choaen vertex 14 to choore an
endpoint of the segment edge of the equane aloe A which
above A and of the
segment obtained by moving comtaime
the choeen vertex amd
the chosen vertex along
above the arrow from A
then more that edge along aleve
to B. So the chosen point the wvrow from A toB. Jhene ane
lies in two edges of the
square. two ware to de thie eince the
equane alore A had two edges avtich
Think of a 1x1lx1l cube as
being scraped out by a comtaim the choaen venten. Fimally
square moving along for the entire equare alove Big a face
one unit in a direction
perpendicular to the of the cule which containe the
square: Choose
choeen vertex. Lo, altogether, there
a vertex and
repeat the ane three faces of the cule which
above reasoning
to figure out comtaim the choren verter.
that the vertex
lies on three
faces of the
cube.

Chocse a vertex of the 1xl

square, and make a
“2-dimensional pyramid”
(triangle) by filling in
all possible segments between
the vertex and points on
an edge of the square which
does not contain
the vertex.
Since there are two
edges of the square
not containing the
chosen vertex and
the 1xl square has
area 1, the area of each
triangle must be
1/2
72 Intuition exerc ises: I133e

Choose a vertex of the 1x1lxl

cube, and make a
“3-dimensional pyramid”
by filling in all possible
segments between
the vertex and points on
a face of the cube which
does pot contain
the vertex.
Since there are three
faces of the cube
not containing the
chosen vertex and
the 1lxlx1 cube has
volume 1, the volume of each
pyramid must be 1/3

A four-dimensional dhe 4-dimeneional

cule hae
cube can be thought
of as a 1xlxl three- eught facee: Jwe come from the
dimensional
moved along
of length one ina
cube
a segment ~ B
firet amd the Laet 3-dimen-
ddomal cule im the eegment
direction “perpendicular”
of 3-dimemneional cules,
to the 3-dimensional cube.
If a square has 4 and each of the other 6 ia obtained Ly
faces, each a segment,
a 3-dimensional cube AMONG B CYULANe face of the
has 6 faces, each a 3-dimendional cule along the vegment.
square, how many faces
does a 4-dimensional
cube have? (Each is
a 3-dimensional cube.)
Chosen dhe cute ahore the endpoint B
Pick a vertex (corner) of wertern of the aegment AB deca not
the 4-dimensional cube. contaim the chedren verten.
How many 3-dimensional Neither does a cule obtained by
faces of the four dimen- : thy
sional cube do not touch Howling SOqHOne ack oL the
the chosen vertex? Sweep aA whe aloe A along the aegment
out a 4-dimensional pyramid x AB, ad long ad the aquane
of height 1 and base 1x1x1l face dora mot contain the
by connecting the chosen :
vertex to all points of an horen verter.
opposite face. If the volume Ro 4 facee of the 4-dimendional cule do
of the 4-dimensional cube is l, mort touch the choaen verter. Aince 4
what is the (4-dimensional) equal pypomide fire up the umit 4-cule,
volume of this pyramid?
the volume of cach Pyromid should ke 1/4.

10. Guess the formula for the

volume of a 4-dimensional
pyramid.
Volume =
(1/4](wolu me of 3-dimendional Lacel]l[rertical height]
 Intuition exercises: I134e 73

PR A right circular cone has dhe circumference of the Lace ia

as base a circle of radius ;
2 widgets and slant height em: 2 = 40 wid gere Xo thee face
of 3 widgets. Find its areaia (1/2)(40)3 = On equane
surface area. (We do not :
include in this the area widgete.
of the base.)

2. A right circular cone has The elant height ie V 27 +37, a0

a base of radius 2 anda ;
vertical height of 3. What the qurface neatcaadins
is its surface area? (Hint: (1/2)(22)2
Y13.
Use the Pythagorean theorem
to find the slant height.)

3. Find the surface area of

= 7/2 oq. w.
a collar whose top circle SAD)
has circumference 3 w. and
whose bottom circle has
circumference 4 w. and
whose slant height is 1 w.

Linside’
of)theconein ay che Prythagonsan theorem:
4. Find the volume of the Volume = (1/3)(anea of Lave)(vert. height).

cone is a special type (vent. height)? + (nadiug)? =

oblgpya? ag (alent height)?
(vent. height)? = 37 - 27 =5.
Ro, volume = (1/3)(12? V5) cubic awidgete.

5. Suppose the right circular j AABC ~ AA'B'C

; i
cone in exercise #1 is sliced
by a plane parallel to the Pek is
base halfway between the connreeponding
base and the vertex. Find anglee ane equal.
the surface area of the Ro by 120:
part of the cone below
the plane (not including ype, Sal Angle LL
the area of the base). tte 2 1aCc| |BC|
Bor ogee po clBClo=3/2s
Aimilarty Ae B= Ls

Aurface anea of amall top come =

(1/2)
(2m) 1(3/2) = 32/2.

Ueimg exerciae #1, the anea we want ia

therefore:
6m -— 3n/2 = 9n/2 Qg.w.
Two planes
are parallel
if they
never meet.
 Intuition exercises: I135e

Given two points, P and Q, dhe only away that thene cam k mone
in sphereworld, is there / ; F
aiwayatexaeely one #lane tham ome Lime in the ephere paciing
(great circle) through P trough Pand Qie if there ia mone
and Q? If not, when is th PRs sag: oo
there more than one line an ome plane containing all thr
through P and Q? (Hint: of the pointe P, Q, and 0. Iie would
How many planes contain :
P, Q, and 0, the center mean that P, QO, and 0 all Lieona
SF RChe sepnere7) otraight Une, eince any two dietinet
planed intersect in a etraight Line
on mot at all. Ro P and Q muct le
oppodite pointe of the ephenre, called
“amtinodal poimte.” dhere ane an
infinite mumben of great circkes
through antipodal pointe.

. We will say that two lines

(great circles) meet perpen-
dicularly if the planes
through O which cut out the
circles meet perpendicularly.
Decide what it should mean
for two planes in space to
meet perpendicularly:

Construct

OA 1 OC in the first plane,

OB 1 OC in the second plane.
Then the planes are ie ced
dicular if ZAOB = 90

Using a globe, give an example The equa

ia pernendiculan
ton te
of perpendicular lines (great tcl
circles) in sphereworld. see great ae & trough the
month pole (Longitude).
 Intuition exercises: I35e 75

Now suppose we have a Remember

that a lime im
sphere with radius 1
unit. (If our units are phereworld ia a great cincke, do it
widgets, the sphere would
be about the size of a da cut out hay a plane through 0, the
golf ball; if the units are center of the cphere. Lo, thie
meters, you could barely get
the sphere into the back of cincke 2 a cincke in a plane, and
a small truck; if the units the cincle hae center 0. Ao the
are astronomical units, all
of the solar system out to nadine of the circle ia the came
the earth would fit inside ad the rading of the phere, that
the sphere.) How many units
long is a line in sphere- ig, ome umit. Ro, ay exercive #2
world?
of I17e, the Length
(cincusmfenrence) of the cincle ia
2n-l=2n umita.

Suppose you stand at a point When rou make the laet Left
P in the northern hemisphere
of the earth, walk ae units tweun, if Ajou. them walk along
directly south to the equator, a Latitude of the eanth (circle
turn 90° to the left,
walk b units along the “parallel” to the equator), Ayou
equator, turn 90° to the left,
avilh get Lack to P (im Lead than
walk a units toward the
north pole, and finally b umite). However,
if rou walk
turn 90° to the left,
and walk b units along a along a Lime (great circle), Ajou.
line (great circle). Do ail pare couth of the point P.
you get back to the original
point P? (Compare with I5.)

We will study this situation

more exactly in the coming
pages. In effect, we are being
forced to deal with the fact
that sphereworld is curved.
76 Intuition exercises: I36e

A segment between two

opposite (antipodal) af § equal Lunee fit
points will be called together to corer up
a half-circle. The
region cut out on the the whole ophore
sphere by two half- exactly once, the angle
circles with the same Le
endpoints is called of each Lume murdst
aIf dune.
the lune covers up oe of 5
60° on 1/80
16 t
1/8 of the whole sphere, 2n nadiane. Lf 3 cover
what is the angle at the vertex of the
lune? Give your answer in degrees and the ophene, the ongte
in radians. What if the lune covers of eachia 360°/3 on
:
1/3 of the
e
sphere? Or 1/2
£ the
2
sphere?
2n/3 nadiane. Lf 2
conen, each hae angle
180° on x nadiane.

If the angle of a lune is a Bt takes a Lume of angte of an

radians, what fraction of nadiame te cover the whole ephere,
the sphere does it cover? 60a lune with gle eat &

conere the fraction a/2n of the

ephenre.

A triangle in sphereworld
is made up of three segments
so that each vertex of each
of the segments is a vertex
of exactly one of the other
two segments. On the sphere
at the right, draw a triangle
which has each of its three
angles equal to 1/2 radians (90°).

On the sphere of radius one

at the right, draw a spherical gee make
triangle whose angles are 7/2, the Length
t/2, and a radians, where .
of thie anc
0 <a < n/2. t \
a umite,
Notice that the sum of the Ry 6 the
(interior) angles of your vs :
triangle is m + a radians anighe at the
or 180 + (a/2n)360 degrees! ton of the epherical tuiangle
Compare this with I8--rules ; ;
in curved space are different! wilh ke a radiane.
 Intuition exercises: I37e 77

. Find the volume of a box Volume of findet Lon =

with dimensions 3 widgets
by 4 widgets by 5 widgets. 3-4-5 = 60 cubic widgets,
Find the volume of a box Volume of second Lon =
with dimensions 3 astro-
nomical units by 4 astro- 3-4-5 = 60 whic agtnonomical
nomical units by 5 astro- umite.
nomical units.

. Find the volume of a (right Volume =

circular) cylinder with
height 4 meters and base m2°-4= 16m cu-meteng.
a circle of radius 2 meters.

- Find the (lateral) surface Aurface anea =

area of the cylinder in
exercise #2. If it takes 2n-°2°4= 162 og mewenrd,
3 cans of paint to paint
a square one meter on a side, Cnea of Lage = 12° aqmetere
about how many cans of paint Jotal anea =
will it take to paint the
cylinder, including its top 24n dqvm. = 24-3.14 eqm. (approx.)
and bottom? = 75 qm. (approx.)
Paint = (75 eam.)(3 came/dq.m.)
= 225 came of paint.

. What is the volume of a Volume

sphere with surface area
25 sq.widgets and radius = (1/3)-25- 1.4 = 35/3 amwidgete.
1.4 widgets?

. Find the surface area of 100 = (1/3)(aunf, area)2.88

a sphere whose volume is Aurf. anea = 300/2.88 = 104.17 eqm.
100 cu.m. and radius is
2.88 m.

. Suppose the volume of a

Ihe total volume of all the
cylinder of height 1 is
exactly 25.9862, and the Loxee over all the Little equanee
area of the circular base
is exactly 25.9861. Fill ia ome timed the total anea of
the base with little squares the equanes. Ao thie volume ia
so that the total volume of
all the boxes over the squares dood, than 25.9861-1 = 25.9861.
is within 0.00005 of the Rut that id not within 0.00005
volume of the cylinder. What
is the contradiction? of 2 5.9862.
78 Intuition exercises: I138e

Find the surface area ARunface anea & = 4n( 14)?

of a sphere of radius
14 widgets.
= 2463 eq.

Explain why the formula fy 137, nolumeVU =

for the volume of a sphere ‘ (1/3) 1 & = (1/3) 1-40? = (4/3)0 1%.
of radius r is (4/3)1r ~.

. Find the volume of the spheres U = (4/3)n(3°) = 362 a.widgete,

of radius 3 widgets and of U = (4/3)n(4°) = 268.08 cum.
radius 4 meters.

It takes one can of paint & = 4mn? = 20 egw.

to paint a square one widget
on a side. It took 20 cans n?=5/n
of paint to paint a certain n= 1.26 widgets.
sphere. What is the radius
of the sphere?

A lead ball is dropped into U = (4/3)mn*> = locum.

a full swimming pool and 1
cubic meter of water spills n> = 3/(4n)
out. What is the radius of n = 0.62 meteng.
the ball?

By ex.#2 of I36e, the

In the picture we have a lune

i)
on a sphere with radius one widget. fraction of the ephenre
The angle at the
vertex of the lune
comered by the Lune ie
is a radians. a/(2m). But the area
Explain why the of the entire ephere de 4n,
area of the lune
is 2a square do the anea of the lune ia
widgets. (Hint: [o/(2n)]-4 = 2a aq.
See exercise #2
of I36e.)

The formula in exercise Ry 126, the nadianm measure of

#6 is really the first one the angle of the lume ia
in which we see a big
advantage in using radian (2x/360)-B
measure rather than degree
measure for angles. Write Reo, hay eXercine #6, the anea ie
the formula for the area 2(2n/360)-B = (1/90)-B ea.
of the lune if the angle
has measure f degrees.
 Intuition exercises: 139e 79

A triangle on a sphere Anea = 3(2n/3) -m = 7X.

of radius one has all
its angles of measure
2m/3 radians. Find its
area.

A triangle on a sphere
Jhe eum of the angles id 220 degrees
of radius one has angles = (27/360)-220 nadiane. Ro anea =
of 90> 70" e and, 60-,
Find its area. linx/9 - n= 22/9.

Explain why, on a sphere Jhe ephere of nadiue 1 ia obtained

of radius r, the formula
for the area of a triangle from the ephore of nadine ome by
with angles of a,f, and y magnifring Lay a factor of n im all
radians is
dinectione. Aince area i
r?- (a+ Berty sit)
2-dimendional, the Firat
Tlagmification Principle LAYye
With a magic marker and a
balloon, draw a spherical thot the anea ia multiplied ly n2
triangle ABC. Put in the
opposite (antipodal) triangle
A'B'C'. Next shade in the
six lunes we used in I39
to see why they cover the
two triangles three times
and the rest of the sphere
exactly once.
Anea triangle 1
Find a formula for the area = (dum of ite angled) - rm.
of a spherical quadrilateral
in terms of the radian Anea triangle 2 = (aum angler) ne
measures of its four angles. ddding, wea of quadrilateral =
(Hint: Divide the quadri-
lateral into two triangles.) (owm of ite anglee im radiane) - 2m.

Find a formula for the area Diwiding the pentagon into three
of a spherical pentagon triangles and adding,
in terms of the radian
measures of its five angles. anea of pentagon =
(gum of ite angles in radiane) - 31.

Dividing the pentagon inte (m-2)

Find a formula for the area
of a spherical n-gon triamglea and adding,
in terms of the radian anea of pentagon =
measures of its n angles.
(Qum of ite angles im nadiane)
- (m-2)n.
80 Intuition exercises: t140e

If you know a little ORE and P!

about logarithms, Ge Pm <_< .
explain why Q' [PP'| goee to Gero, Lo
d(P,Q) goes to Pp! f: : ; é
infinity as P C1ode-natio (P,P',Q,Q')
moves toward the gore te Arro. Rutacga
edge of the ‘
universe, that mumderr gore to ero, ite
is, toward P': logarithm gore to
(Vminud) infinity, vo
that the aleolute value
of the Logarithm gore to
(plua) infinity.

Show that rotation of By P7, amy notation 1

hyperbolic-land around PET ee ee
the "center" O of
our disc-universe property that
is a hyperbolic |n(P)r(o)| = Pal,
motion, that is, Hs ;
that it preserves RiP Bo Stee Pees
hyperbolic distance: Ao rrode-natio(P, P',0,0') =
(Hint: Use P7.) oned4-natio(n(P), r(P'), 1(Q), 1(Q')).
Reo, d(n(P),1(Q)) = A(P, Q).

Although we can't prove Find

anotation rp from ex.
it here, it turns out
that, given a point X #2 to take P toa point X om
on the path C in C, then find a notation 19
nibear Pegeate o's j from ex. #2 te take Q toa
there is a hyperbolic
"translation" which point Yom C. fettp Withe
preserves hyperbolic hypertolic tramelation
distance and taking 0 te P and lett, ke
takes 0 to X. Use :
this to show that, the bypoertolic trandelation
given any points P taking 0 to 0. Uae the
and Q in hyperbolic- Hyperbolic motion Ip, then
land, there is a
action of hyperbolic Gmrvr1ee % ), then tq,
hyperbolic motion translation: everybody inside
taking P to Q. the universe moves but stays | then (inrerde Ng). (Ace P10.)
inside the universe

Use exercises #2 and #3

to show that, given any Ae im the andewer
point P in hyperbolic- to OX, #3, UdLe
land, there is a 3, UL WUp, then
hyperbolic motion (MrerLe tp ), then the
which leaves P :
whare it is and notation 1 throu
"rotates" the desined angle
hyperbolic-land through
any given angle around P. around 0, then tp,
then (Unvr202 “1p ).
 Intuition exercises: T40e 81

5. Sketch a triangle in
hyperbolic-land. Remember
that its sides must be
hyperbolic lines, that is,
pieces of circles, and that
these circles must hit the
edge of hyperbolic-land
perpendicularly.

6. Do the interior angles ina

hyperbolic triangles add up
to 180°? More than 180°?
Less than 180°? To answer this,
draw a hyperbolic triangle which
has two sides on “ordinary” line
segments through the “center” of
hyperbola-land. (By exercises #3
and #4, you can move any
hyperbolic triangle into this
position without hyperbolically
bending, stretching, or tearing
t - (dum of angles in radiane)
Lt . )

ig the anea of the Aypoerlolic

triangle! (Compare thie with
139.)

7. In ordinary geometry, Ihere are an

two lines are parallel : Phat
if they don't intersect infinite
(114), and, through a point mMUmMLer of b>
not on a line, there passes :
one and only one parallel hyperbolic
line (I12e, ex.#4). Draw dimes th
a picture to show that in 2 ough
hyperbola-land, at least P which do not
one of these two “facts” ,
must be wrong for hyperbolic meet the hypertelic
lines. line L.

8, You may be tempted to define de im 17, amy “nectangle”

would
parallel lines in hyperbolic-
land as we did in I11, namely, Le made up of two triangles.
as extensions of opposite By ex.# 6, the dum of the angles
sides of a rectangle. Use ex.
#6 to show that there are no im each triangle ie Leoe than
rectangles in hyperbolic-land! 180°, the eum of the angles im
the “nectamgle” would Le leva
tham 360°, do it couldn't Aare
four go° angles!
 aw
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ay iphr

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Se Py
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a i = Oye” a =- 5 7
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:
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= re 1 eee ee a ha 20 os
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os a2 : 4 a _ # i. ie 7

ae ee ee ee le
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ye = 7 28) Ade 6s. *' 7
2? 5 aa « ar f- =flees 3 Roald @
a — opt ; PP :
to tod array “oe a = [ hon
7
7
Construction
Answers to exercises
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Loni. hs etre ahr ose
i vF che ale6
Se wsa

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7 ° 7 7 . ‘
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7
 Construction exercises: Cle 85

1. In the space at the right,

copy the following triangle:
Le

2. Copy the following

triangle in the space to
the right. The copy of
segment AB is already B
given, but you must copy
the triangle in two
different ways so that A
segment AB remains
unmoved. i C can be here

(Hint: In one of the

solutions, A, B, and

\
C will be arranged in
counter-clockwise
order, in the other,
or C can be
in clockwise order.) here

ofsagnent AB in
copy 3. daoen the copy Aco must bi
3. Once the position of the The copy of C mudt Lie at diatance

determined, there were on the cincke around the copy of A

oe ar erate copy — chown aloue. Ihe copy of C mut Le
sen vertex C. Explain at digtance BC from the copy of B,

do it mudt Lie on the cincle around the

copy of B ghown ahove. Jhoenre are
only two poimte which Lie om Loth
Archer.
86 Construction exercises: Cle

4. Notice that the only

information we need to
contruct a triangle is
the length of the three
sides. (That was all we
used in Cl.) Using only
straight-edge and compass,
construct a triangle with
sides given below:

Seas
Be eS
Dice Li

5. Construct a triangle with

sides 2, 3, and 3.

6. Try to construct a triangle

with the three sides given
below:

Pee Sone ete

et ees
Soe a oe eS Re ee Le

Explain what goes wrong.

(Guess a rule.)

dhe protlem ie that, no matter how

Ajou wwing the cides of Length trwe
around, they ~wom't touch each
other. (Jhe gum of the lengthe of
the two ehonrteat vides mut le greater
than the Length of the third
side.)
 Construction exercises: C2e

1. In the space at the right,

copy the following angles:

2. Use your straight edge

and compass to “add” the
three angles given in
exercise #1. (Remember:
to “add” two angles you a B ¥
copy them so that they
have the same vertex and
a common side, and so ; :
enatoeeels tnetdas do not Uae the ineaetriuctionsa
im C2 to copy
overlap.) B onto the upper cide of a and y
omteo the Lower cide of a. Of COUNLL,
there are many other ware to do
thie conetriuction.
 Construction exercises: C3e

There is a construction which

is almost the same as the » Given point
construction:

Through a given point on a given line,

Given line
construct a line perpendicular to the
given line.
PL
It is the construction:

Through a given point not on a given line,

construct a line perpendicular to the PL
given line. PL

In fact, both constructions by w

start with a circle around
the given point in order to
contruct two points, A and
B, on the given line.
Thereafter, the two
constructions are identical.
In the space at the right ue
of this exercise, make the
second construction.

Use your compass and

straight edge to construct
perpendiculars to the
given lines through the
given points:
 Construction exercises: C3e 89

You can use a shortened Cpen the compaed to ome

version of the construction eetting which ie mone than
in C3 to bisect a segment,
in fact, to construct’ a half the length of AB. Oraw
a perpendicular to the
segment which cuts it in
twe cincles, ome with center A
half. In the space at amd ome with center B without
the right, write the
text that should accompany changing the compared vetting:
the diagrams in order to
PL
explain how to construct PL

the perpendicular bisector PL PL

(
to the segment AB.

yy,
PL PL

Use the otraightedge to

cometruct the lime through the
two pointe, C and C', im which
the two circles intersect:

Jhie Lime ie perpendicular te the

eegement AB amd cute it imteo two
eegmente of equal length.

4. Construct the perpendicular

bisectors of the given
segments.
 Construction exercises:

After you have done 118,

come back and explain
why the construction in

ce
exercise #3 really does
make a perpendicular
which bisects the
original segment.
Namely, show that
(S

AADC = ABDC AAR

Za = ZB Connee. angles
INGE Be AAEC = ABEC AAR
Zy = 286 Conned. angles
D d(A,E) = d(B,E) Corned. cides
y = 6 Zy = 26
if d(A,C) = d(B,C) and
d(A,D) = d(B,D), then Map te) a= bee) Atraight angle
AADC = ABDC. 2y = 180° Aubertitution
Use this to show that
AAEC = ABEC. This y = 90° Algebra
in turn means that
a(A,E) = da(B,E) and
that CD makes a 90°
angle with AB. Why?
 Construction exercises: C4e 91

. Using only your straight

edge and compass, construct
parallels to the given
lines through the given
points.

Pa A “parallelogram” is a
quadrilateral whose
opposite sides are
parallel:

|
Using only your
straight edge and
compass, complete the
Firat, uae C4 to cometruct a parallel
figure at the right
to a parallelogram te OR through P, amd then comatnruct
such that the given
figure forms two side a panralleltc PQ thiough R. dhia will
of the parallelogram. complete the parallelogram.

Can you construct a line Limnce parallel Lined do not intereect,

through a point P which
is parallel to a given it ig impoddible to cometruct a Line
line L, when P lies on parallel to Lime L through poimt P
L?
if P Liedon L. ome people Lary that
the line L iteedf ia the panalled to L
pardiing through P, Jhigshae the
advantage of making paralleliem
imte am equivalence relation, Lut the
etatement that parallel Limee dom't
imtenreect mudt then Le modified,
92 Construction exercises: C5Se

o——- Use this as the length for 1 unit.

Construct the number 2,

and construct the
number 7. Note that
with a given length
of 1, you can construct
any whole number. (If
you can't fit some of
the constructions on
this page, do them on
another sheet and
attatch it to this one).

Construct the fraction Fon example, Let'e conetruct */; :

1/2 , and construct the
fraction 1/3. Note that
with a given length of
one, you can construct
any fraction.
10) N Q

TLark 3 unite from rentex on

Lottom nay. Mank 1 umit from N
on Lottem nary. TMLanrk ome umit
from. URAC along top nay. Draw
MN, draw parallel te MN through Q.
d(M,P) =u 42,
Construct the product
4/35% 5. (Bint: You
can construct 4/3 by
adding 1 and 1/3.) 4/3
x3
 Construction exercises: C5e 93

4. Explain why
a(A,E) = p/q: By 121, r/q = d(D,E)/1.
Jhen uae algebra:

1.0 p/q = (qtr)/q = (q/q) + (r/q)

B

Cc xr =, 1+ G(D,2)
: q
= d{(A;E).
94 Construction exercises: Cé6e

-——¢ Use this as the length for 1 unit.

1. Construct 1 +7 vids B

\ d(A,B) = -V2_

2. Construct 1 +7¥3. A 2 d(A,B) = 3

1 2 3 )

da (A,B) = ¥3

A B
RN raiceritrecca Ineste or d (A, ‘ B) = V3 + 1

A B
V3+1
ee
1
od -
d (A,B) —
(73 + 1) +1
 Construction exercises: C6e 95

1
3. Construct il
eS eee E
D
a(A,E) = = _
x Cc Wa 1

1 8B

\/v3 +1

4. Construct 5e—~ le:

This number is a very As Jhen mark off
important one, as we 1 ome unit Lack up
will see in C9. One-
half of this number is 2 thie cegment,
called the “golden ratio”: etanting at an endpoint
Use the quadratic
formula to show x/1 = 1/(1+x)
that, if the two
rectangles in the x yori 1.
1 x picture are x? “+x-1 = 0
proportional, that
bit}, eked ~ouitr +N12 — 4(-1)
c/s L/h 1+x) , 2
Rut x mudt Le pPoeitine, vo the
then x = (¥5-1)/2.
only poraibility, ie
ee =
56-81) /2.
 Construction exercises: Cie

Construct the parallelogram dhe parallelogram ohould come

so that two opposite angles
of the four angles are out looking Like thie (mote: it
congruent to the given doeg mot have to Le Wing om the
angle (below), and so that
each of the two pairs of game wide to Le the came
opposite sides are parallelogram):
congruent, respectively,
to the two given segments.
Cc D

All of the angles in We must aleo Know the Lengthe

a parallelogram add up
to 360°. Opposite angles of the sides, aimee, aa ia
of a parallelogram are ludtrated Lelow, two
congruent. So, once we know
one of the angles (like porallelograme cam Aare their
angle a in exercise #1) we four angles reepectively
can solve for the other
angles: comgruent, and otill Le
2a + 26 360° completely different
B = 180°- a
parallelograme. Xo, there ie
So, if we can determine all
four angles of the Me wary te cometruct a epecific
parallelogram when given
just one, why can't we parallelogram avithout Reimg
construct a unique given the Lengthe of the cides.
parallelogram given
just one angle?
Give examples.

Even though 4 A= #4 §, 2 B= 4 E-
Z2C# ZG, and Z2D#= ZH, the two
paralleograms are certainly not
the same.
 Construction exercises: C8e 97

Instead of using a random dhe triangle ahould Look Like thia:

length for the side of an
equilateral triangle, you
could use a previously
determined length.
Construct the equilateral
triangle with a side of:

oe

Construct a “house” (see

below) so that each side
of the square and each
side of the equilateral
triangle are the same as
the given length:

The “house” should look

like this: :

We constructed a Ihe conetriuction

would imvolre
regular 4-gon on C8.
Part of the definition etanting avith a Lage horizontal
of a “regular” polygon eegment, and comdetructing a
is that all of the
angles in it are perpendicular to it at any point "A",
congruent. Since Jhen, COPAY YOUN Length s onto the
each angle of a square
is 90° and perpendicular Lage and the perpendiculan, loth
lines form a 90° angle,
what would be another
from A. Call the end of the
way to construct a “s -eegment” om the perpendicular
square just by making
a succession of “c’, and the end on the Lace “B”. Now,
perpendiculars? condtnuct perpendiculare at B amd C.
(Hint: you would use Where they intersect id point D.
principles outlined Tlotice the aimilanity, to C8.
in I4e, ex.#1, and C3.)
98 Construction exercises: C9e

Given a regular pentagon

find the center of the
circle which passes through
the vertices of the pentagon.
This cirle is called the
Circumscribed circle, and its
center is called the center
of the polygon. (Hint: Con-
struct the perpendicular
bisectors (C3e) of two sides
of the pentagon. The bisectors
will intersect in the center
of the pentagon.)

Explain why the center of a By AAA, the two right

circle lies on the perpendi-
cular bisector of any chord, triamglee in the diagram are
that is, explain comgriuent, eo r= s, dnce
why, if a=b
and a = 90°, they ane the lengthe of
then, + = s. conneeponding sides
of comgruent triamglee.

An apothem of a regular de im exercioe #1,

pentagon is is the segment
from the center to a side fudrt comdoetnruct
of the pentagon which is perpendicular
perpendicular to the side.
Construct all five apothems Rigectone to the
to the pentagon at the fire vide.
right.

A circle inside a regular dhe center of the circle ig the

pentagon is said to be
inscribed if it just “touches” cemter of the pentagon, and the
(is tangent to) each side of nadiud ia (the Length of) any
the pentagon. Construct the
circle inscribed in the apothem.
pentagon in exercise #3.
(See 125 for the definition
of “tangent.”)
 Construction exercises: C9e 99

Our construction for the

pentagon on C9 is used to Use this as one unit
construct a pentagon inside o—_____..____9@
a given circle. A different for your construction.
construction gives a pentagon
with sides of given length:
First take a side, like the Finet uee C5 and C6 to comaetruct
one below. Call it 1 unit. (1+75)/2. DAig ie a Lange
oe 2»
comdtruction and required a
Now use this distance to
eepanate sheet of paper. dhe
construct the distance
(14+V¥5)/2 by the methods on comotruction hae Leen omitted here,
pages C5.and C6. Use this
length to construct a
Lut the Length i, Lelow:
triangle ABC where AB = evs:
2
(TVS) /20 BC. = Ly and AC = ti.
You can use the method on Next comeda the triamgle that AYou
"more Cle" to construct the atant with: Z
triangle given these three
sides. elow is the distance
of (14+¥5)/2, according to the
given distance of 1, above. 1+V5
2
1+V 55
2 And then AJou copAy the triangle
Here is what the fowr timed, Luilding on the Laat
constructed triangle
looks like: one, until AYOu hare the pentagon:

A 14V5 i
Sides AC and CB are two
sides of the pentagon we
want. By copying this
triangle (building on
BC as in diagram below)
by the method on Cl, we
can complete the pentagon.
Cc
Using the
segment
at the
cop eight 4
of the Reo thie ia the regular pentagon
page as
one unit, of side one given the ome umit ahenre:
construct a
regular pentagon
with side one.

You may need another piece

of paper.
 Construction exercises: C9e

To understand the mathematics

behind the construction of the
regular pentagon, we will need
some trigonometry, namely we
need the formula for the cosine
of the sum of two angles:
cos (a+) = sin (90° - (a+ B)) I29e, ex. #10
= sin ((90° -a) - B) Algebra,
sin (90° -a)-cos B - cos(90° -a)-sin B 130, ex.10 amd admn(-f) = -adnB.
= cos a:cos Bf - sin a-sin B I29e, ex. #10
Where are the formulas in I29e and
I30e which justify this calculation?

Show that

cos 2a = cos “a - sin’ a bxercige #6

= cos*a - (1 - cos 2a) I29e, ex. #1
= 2cos* ob =a.
Algebra

Explain why
cos (2:72°) = cos 144° = -cos 36°. By exerciee #6, coa(180°-36°) =
cod 180° -coag(-36°)= - cog 36°
Explain why
2 [cos (2-72°) }* = 2[cos 36°] ¢ Algebra
= cos 72° + 1. Exercier #7

Explain why
2[2(cos 72°) 2+1}7 cos 72° + 1.
Exerceige #7 amd previour cten
So, if we let X = 2cos 72°,
show that
x* - ax* - x42 = 0.
Algebra amd previoud oten
Factoring we get
(xX? -X-2)
(x? 4+X=1) = 0.
ALgebna
Why can't X *-x-2 = 0?

Conclude that
0 < (2c0e 72°)7< (2c0e 45°)*= 2
X74+X-1 = 0
and solve for X using the quadratic
formula. X = (-1 + 5)/2
Where have we seen this number
before? Cb6e, Cx. #4

Explain what exercise #8 has to do Gun cometruction ia Laved

with the construction of the regular
pentagon. om the fact that
cod (360°/5) =
(-1 -4/5)/4 = X/2.
 Construction exercises: Cl0e 101

In the space below, construct

the hexagon with a side of 2
units, using the following Jhe hexagon awihl Look Like thi:
distance as one unit:
nl
[++

Explain why each side of a Diwiding a hexagon imte ix

hexagon is equal in length to
the radius of the circle com@ruent equilateral
used to construct it. triangles, we eee that ince a
(Hint: Think of a
hexagon as being made up of nadine of the cincle
six congruent equilateral cincewrmecriiled arewnd the
triangles.)
hexagon ie ome dide of one of
the trianglee. Ao ia a cide of
the hexagon. Aince Cer/y Lide
of all aix triangles ane equal
im Length, we cam vay that each
side of the hexagon ia
comgruent te the nadine of the
circle around the hexagon.
102 Construction exercises: Cl0e

3. Construct the center of

the hexagon at the right.
Also construct the circum-
scribed circle, at least
two apothems, and the
inscribed circle. (See
C9e.)

4. For any regular polygon,

there is a relation between
the radius r of the circum-
scribed circle, the radius a
of the inscribed circle
(apothem), and the length s
of a side of the regular
polygon. Look at the picture
at the right and write down
the formula.

(Prythagonean
theorem.)
 Construction exercises: Clle 103

The central angle a of a regular 36027

Tia05 154 3¥
7-gon has measure 3

Now we want to
figure out how
big the angle @
is in Matt's
construction.
To begin, how
big is the as (1/2)* = 12
distance >
d = d(m,x)? Of = 0.75
\ a = 866
(Wait to
do page
I30 before A? =
doing this 124 12 -2: 1=leoeen
exercise.)
Use the 2coed a= 2-0.75
Law of Cosines
to figure out cod a = 0.625
cos a.

Use the INV COS

operation on your
calculator to figure
out the value of a
(in degrees) in Matt's
construction. a=51.32°
Compare the answer in Y
exercise #4 with the :
perfect answer which you Matt 16 only oft ay 11/100-the
figured out in exercise #1. of one degree!
How far off is Matt?
104 Construction exercises: Cl2e

Discuss the symmetries of an

equilateral triangle, that is,
ways of picking the triangle
up and putting it back down
so that it occupies the same
space. Show that you can
rotate the triangle into itself
by rotating in the plane by
120° and by 240° about the Rotation:
center of the triangle. What (123) — (312)
happens when you rotate by
360°? (123) > (231)
Show that you can get 3 more
symmetries if you are able to Lf AJOU CON pick the triangle
pick up the triangle in
three-dimensional space and up and flip it over, you cam
turn it over and put it back get
down.
(Hint: To keep track of (123) — (132)
different symmetries, number (123) > (213)
the vertices of the triangle
before you start and notice (123) — (321)
where the numbers are when
you put the triangle back down
in the same space.)

Discuss the symmetries of a

regular tetrahedron, that is,
ways of picking the tetrahedron
up and putting it back down
so that it occupies the same
space. Show that you can
rotate the tetrahedron into
itself by rotations of 120° and
of 240° about an axis through
a vertex and the center of the
opposite face. What happens
when you rotate by 360°?
Show that you can rotate the
tetrahedron into itself by €.g.., rotations through aXe
rotations of 180° about an axis parding through 4-th rertex
through the midpoint of an edge
amd the center of the vuangte
and the midpoint of the
opposite edge. What happens (123):
when you rotate by 360°? (1234)
> (3124)
(Hint: To keep track of
(1234)
> (2314)
different symmetries, number
the vertices of the triangle €.g., rotation through axhe
before you start and notice through the midpoimt of
where the numbers are when
you put the tetrahedron back ude (12) and the midpoint
down in the same space.) of the aide (34):
(1234)
> (2143)

If you could pick up the tetra- Jf sou cam ales pick up the tetra-
hedon in four-dimensional space and
hedrom im 4 dimendione and “flip
turn it over and put it back down
again, you could get 12 more At,” AJOU Can get AMLONL CAYMMMLI2Y,
symmetries. im fact, AyOu gx all posrcihle
permutations
of the rerticee
eee ana
 Construction exercises: Cl3e 105

We say that the cube and

the octahedron are “dual”
to each other. This means
that you can put a cube
inside an octahedron so
that ech vertex of the cube
is the center of exactly one
face of the octahedron, and
every face of the octahedron
contains a vertex of the cube.
Build or draw the octahedron
with the cube inside.

Now put an octahedron inside

a cube so that the vertices
of the octahedron coincide
with the centers of the faces
of the cube.

How many faces does an Jhe octahedron haw 8 faced, 12

octahedron have? How many
edges? How many vertices?
edged, and 6 verticed. dhe cube
How about the cube? Use haw 6 facee, 12 edgee and 8
the picture or model you
made in exercise #1 or #2 nertices, dn either picture alee,
to explain why the cube each edge of one ohject “Clogged”
and the octoahedron have
the same number of edges. exactly one edge of the other,
and vice verea. Xo the edges of
one pain up exactly avith the
edges of the other.

4. Explain why the tetrahe-

dron is dual to another
tetrahedron. You may want
to draw a picture of two
tetrahedrons in dual
position to each other.
 Construction exercises: Cl4e

How many faces does a Yer, the dedecahedrom and the

dodecahedron have? How
many edges? How many
icohahedron are dual. dhat ia
vertices? Recaude AJOU Cam fit am icoga-
12 faces, 30 edges, 20 vertices.
How about an icosahedron? hednon imeide a dodecahedron
20 faces, 30 edges, 12 vertices. ao that verticer of the one
Are these two shapes dual
to each other? (See Cl13e.) connrepond to faces of the
other, and vice vera.

The shapes or “solids” we have Fon each of the negular aolide,

constructed in the last few
pages, the tetrahedron, cube, the formula
octahedron, dodecahedron, and
VU -€+F
icosahedron, are called the
“regular solids.” Because of give the mumher 2.
all their symmetries, they
have a special place in Fon example, fon the
mathematics. Also, they have icogahedron, we get
another property that they
share with many less symmetric 12 -30+20 = 2.
figures—figure out the number
Vie ise E:
for each of them, where
V = number of vertices
E number of edges
number of faces.

Get a balloon and a magic marker. At will come out that, no

Divide the balloon up into
“faces” any way you want by ~matten fiow Ajou divide the
marking edges and vertices on & ce of the Lalleon inte
the balloon with the magic marker.
As in exercise #2, calculate the faced,
number
UVU-€+7 = 2.
Vi =~ Bat.Eo

The rotational symmetries of the Axes of w“ymmernry can Le

tetrahedron were of two types 1) through centere of opposite
according to the different kinds
of positions of the axis of tiuangle--notationa
of 120°
rotation. (See ex.#2 of Cl2e.) and 240°;
Find three different kinds of 2) through midpointe of
rotational symmetries of the
icosahedron using different kinds oppodite edges--notationa of
of axes. Make a list of all 180°;
rotational symmetries of the icosa- 3) through oppoaite vertices --
hedron using all possible axes of
rotation. (In 3 dimensions, every notations of 72°, 144°, 216°, 288°.
rotation has an axis of rotation.) Aince there ane 10 paine of
oppodite tiianglee, 15 paine of
oppooste edges, and 6 pane of
oppodtte vertices, there ane
2-10+1-15+4-6=59 diatimct
(mom-tUvial) rotational
CAYMMMACY.
 Construction exercises: Cl5e 107

In the triangles at the Atom aw Sed ae eet Se

right, construct the for clarity
baricenter. It may be
hard to remember which
line is which after
constructing all of those
bisectors, but it will
help to keep the radius
of the arcs you use to
construct them as small
as possible.

Note that no matter what

shape the triangle is,
the baricenter is always
inside the triangle.
This is because the
medians always stay inside
the triangle.

. Explain why the area

of the part of a
triangle on one side
of the median is the
same as the area of
the part on the other by b,
side of the median.
Anea on one cide of median = (1/2)b,h.
Anea on other cide of medion = (1/2)b,h.
But b, = bo, vo the aneag ane the came,
too.
108 Construction exercises: Clé6e

Construct the altitudes Dhe altitudes will Look Like thie:

of the acute triangles
at right.

Construct the altitudes Ihe altitudes which coincide with

of the right triangles
to the right. Notice the aides have mot teen drawn.
that in a right triangle,
two of the sides of the
triangle already “pass
through a vertex and are
perpendicular to the side
opposite the vertex.”
This means that the two
sides of the triangle
which form the sides of
the one 90° angle in the
triangle are two altitudes
of the triangle. So, it
follows that the altitudes
of a right triangle will
intersect at the vertex
where the 90° angle is.
 Construction exercises: Cl6e 109

Construct the altitudes

of the obtuse triangles
at right. Notice that
in an acute triangle, the
intersection point 2 of the
altitudes was well inside
the triangle. In the last
triangle of ex.#1, point
Z got close to the edge
of the triangle as one
of the angles got close
to 90°. In ex.#2, we saw
that when one of the
angles reaches 90°,
point a reaches the edge
of the triangle. So, it
makes sense that, when
one of the angles has
measure greater than
90° (an obtuse triangle),
point Z should go completely
outside the triangle.

Example: The dotted lines

below are the altitudes
of triangle ABC. As you
can see, each altitude passes
through one vertex and
is perpendicular to the
(extension of the)
side opposite that vertex.
You may need to extend
the sides with a straight
edge to make the
construction of a
“perpendicular to a line”
easier.

~ \

\
‘\
eo
en
wow
@=ewww
we
Sm.
8
110 Construction exercises: Cl7e

Construct the unique circles

passing through each set of
three points at right. For
clarity each set has been
separated by a dotted line.

Notice that the three points

can be considered as the
vertices of a triangle. (Just
join each pair of points é
by a segment.) When we con-
struct a circle through the
three vertices of a triangle,
we say that we are circumscribing
a circle about the triangle.
There is a unique circle
circumscribed about any triangle.

Explain why you can't dhe center of the cincle would

construct a circle through
three points if all three hare to Lie on the imtereection
points lie on a line.
of the pripendiculan Liectone
of the Legmente Letween the
pointe. But, im thid cade, all
three of the perpendicular
Ligectona ane parallel!
 Construction exercises: Cl7e 111

Explain why every point P Rimce AC = BC, the triamglee APC

on the perpendicular
bisector of the segment and BPC ane comgruent Lay Pt) So
AB is equidistant from
pater 2 eG? IAQ) = ad(P, Be
A and B.

Explain why every point Q dhe triamgree AQC amd BOC ane
equidistant from A and B
is on the perpendicular comgruent Lay HE. fon night
bisector. triamglee (Lee exenciee #10 of 118e).
Ro d(A,C) = d(B,C). Aimee OC ie
Q perpendiculan to AB, it mudct
A | ae therefore Le the perpendicular
Cc
Lieecton,
(Hint: Construct a
perpendicular to AB
through Q.)

Concurrence theorem for the Let Q Le the point where the

perpendicular bisectors of
the three sides of a triangle:
perpendicular Livectonr of
The perpendicular bisectors of AB meete the perpendicular
the sides of any triangle meet
in a common point. Ligecton of BC. Jhen
Why is this theorem true? d(OvAlN=ed (0B )4="dtO,C)
(Hint: Re-read the explanation
at the bottom of C17.) hay exercdae #3. Tow ude
B PXULALS #4 to comclude that
Q also Liew om the
perpendicular Ligecton of AG.
112 Construction exercises: Cl18e

Construct the “angle dhe angle

bisector” of the angle bi
at right. igecton
awill Look
Like thie:

Construct the bisectors :

of each of the sequence reir, angie
of angles at the right: a/2xaddans

Obtuse angle

Straight angle
180°
jm radians

Angle of 225°
or 5/4 radians.
 Construction exercises: Cl8e 113

The (perpendicular) distance Jhe triangles AQP and BOP

from a point to a line
is the length of a segment hare two paire of connmponding
between the point and the angles comgnuent, therefore the
line which is perpendicular
to the line. Explain why third pain of conneeponding
a point on the bisector of
angles Wie congruent. Aloo
an angle is equidistant
from the two sides of the theae two triangles hare one
angle.
pair of conneeponding sider
compet (im fact, equal),
Ao the two triangles are
comgruent day aAd. Iherefone,
d(P,A) = d(P,B).

Explain why a point which Jf d(Q,A) = d(Q,B), then the

is equidistant from the two
sides of an angle lies on tiianglee AOQ amd BOQ ane
the bisector of the angle. comguent hay the RL theorem
fon night tianglee (118e).
Xo the angle BOQ hae the 2ame
AMLALWLe ae the angle BOQ.

Concurrence theorem for Let P ke the point im which the

the bisectors of the angles
of a triangle: Linectora of the first two angles
The three bisectors of the
interior angles of a triangle of the tiiangle mmeet, Bry exerciee
meet in a common point. #3, the dietance from P to the aide
Explain why this theorem
is true. AC of the triangle ia the game ad
the diatamnce from P to the aide AB,
and the diatamnce from P to the
oide AB ig the game aa the diatance
from Pte the aide BC. Aince P ia
BR therefore equidiatamnt from eideo
CA abd CB, we now that the Lime
PC mudt Ligect the angle atc day
PCXOLALL #4,
114 Construction exercises: C19e

Inscribe a circle in the Ae we gaid, there ane aman/y

angle at right. There are poddille anewerd, Lut all
many possible answers,
since any point on the should
Look Like thie:
angle bisector can be
chosen as the center of
the circle, and so many
different circles could
be made.

Inscribe a circle in the

angles at the right.
 Construction exercises: C19e 115

Inscribe circles in the

triangles at the right.
(Hint: The point in which
the bisectors of two of
the angles of the triangle
intersect will be the center
of the inscribed circle.
Bemember that the Concurrence
Theorem tells us that it
doesn't matter which two
angle bisectors we use.)
 Construction exercises: C20e

Below is an n-gon with an i i LOH ROR A,= ome

inscribed circle of center Aince 0a AQ perp A,
O. The vertices of the n-gon Ob 44 perp. to A, A,, triamglee
are A,, Ag, Az, .-. Ay. ,
hve: and 0 sgl
pA, ane Ou
right trianglee.
g
Explain why the segment OA ,
is the bisector of angle A ,. Becaudce aand b ane on the cincle,
In other words, explain —
why angle 0A,A, is congruent Lpad |ob| and therefore
to angle OA,A,. (Hint: triangles OaA, and ObA, ane
Show that the two right con ent .(118e). Ro
triangles in the picture g Ni
are congruent.) angle OA, A, 44 congruent
to amgle OA, A,, making OA,
the Ligecton of the angle at A.

Below is an n-gon identical Cometruct perpendiculare through

to the one in exercise #1.
Explain why a segment from 0 te the eidea on either cide of
O to any vertex A, of the A,. Call the pointe where theee
n-gon is the angle bisector ‘ é
of the angle at that vertex. perpendiculanre intersect the vides
(Hint: Show, as you did in a and b. Simce dai erp. to
ex.#1, that angle OA ,A,_, is : Bae
congruent to angle OA ,A,,,, A,A,-,,9nd Ob de perp.to A A,.,,
showing that for any vertex truer .
A,, segment OA , bisects glee eet Al thse a g
tiianglee. Because aand b are on
the circle, Oa = Ob and therefore
tiianglea Oaa, and ObA, ane
comgruent day RE. Jhue angle
OA, A,_1 42 congruent to angle
OA, A,.,, making oa, the Ligecton
of angle A, .
 Construction exercises: C20e inlz/

3. Using the information from Amn exerciee #2, we ehowed that

ex.#2, explain why the any wement from the center 0
conclusion leads to the
following “Generalized of the imecriled cincle to a rentex
Concurrence Theorem for of the polygon avar the angle
Angle Bisectors of a
Polygon”: Linecton fon that vertex. Ao, if
If it is possible to
inscribe a circle inside a there ia am imecriled cincle, ite
polygon, then the angle conten mut Le a common poimt
bisectors of the polygon
meet in a common point. on all the angle Ligectonrd, of the
polygon ‘

4. Looking at the drawing We &now that angle 0A, X, 1a

of the n-gon below,
assume that the segment congruent te angle 0A, xX, (eince
OA, bisects the angle it wae given that OA, id an angle
A, of the polygon.
Ligectonr), and we know that angle
Suppose we construct
OX, and OX, such that OX, OX, A, 44 congruent to angle OX, Ay
is perpendicular toA,A,, (Loth ane 90°, Lecaude the eegmente
and OX, is perpendicular
to A,A,. Explain why ane comatructed to Le
[OX,! = 10X,1. perpendiculana). We now that
OA, = OA,, do triangle OX,A, 10
comgriuent to triamgle OX, A,
All angles
of the polygon Ly Gad. Jhue, ox, and ox, are
have measure
< 180",

5. Looking at the drawing Ramee aw exercise #4.

of the n-gon above,
assume that the segment
OA, bisects the angle
A, of the polygon.
Suppose we construct
OX, and OX, such that OX,
is perpendicular to A,Az3,
and OX, is perpendicular
to A,A;. Explain why
JOX>] = [OX zs].
118 Construction exercises: C20e

6. Suppose the n-gon in ex.#4 We &now that angle OA, X,.,

has the property that the
angles bisectors at A,, congruent te angle OA, X,,, (dimce
Ay, -, A,_4, all pass it wae given that OA, 12 am angle
through a common point O. Ligecton), and we know that angle
TEEOKi O%s 55OX<)es oe ONE
are perpendiculars to the OX, A, 4a congruent to angle OX, .1 Ay
sides of the n-gon passing
through O, explain why
(Loth ane 90°, Lecaude the eegmente
|OX,] = ]OX,| = ... = JOX,I. ane comatriucted to Le perpendiculare).
(Hint: Repeat the reasoning We know that OA, = OA,, do triangle
in exercises #4 and
#5 over and over.) OX, A, 4& congruent to triangle OX, ,. Ay
hay AAR. Ihue, OX, and OX,,, are
comgruent, fet “*" num trough the
imtegere from | te m-1 to get that all
the OX's are congruent te each other.

7. Use exercise #6 to explain Jhe definition of a cncle atatea

the following converse to the thot it ig the eet of all pointe
theorem in ex.#3: If all
(except possibly one) of the ofa fixed distance from ite
angle bisectors of the polygon
eemter. Aince the dietance from
below meet in one point O,
one can inscribe a circle in any of the “x” pointe to 0 ia the
the polygon. (Hint: Name the
vertices of the polygon A ,, 2ame, a circle alout 0 of nadine
A,, .--, A,, making A, the OX, would touch the cides of the
vertex whose angle bisector
you don't know about.)
polygon at the “x” pointe. dhe
circle ia, tamgent at theee pointe
oince each Ox Legment ia
All angles
of the polygon pripendiailan to ite cide of the
have measure
<a OO polygon (125e, ex.4#6).

8. Explain why, if all but one Ry CKMALL #7, one cam

of the angle bisectors of the
above polygon pass through imecrile a circle im the
the common point O, the last polygon. By CXVLCIL? #2,
angle bisector must pass
through O also. (Notice that the center of the circle ia
this gives another proof of
on ah? the angle Ligectone
the Concurrence Theorem for
Angle Bisectors of a triangle— of the polygon.
see Cl1l8e, exercise #5.)
 Construction exercises: C2le 119

Below is an n-gon with a Aince 0a 44 perp. to AA,,

circumscribed circle with
center O. The vertices of the tiianglee Oar, and Oar, ane right
n-gon are A,, Az, Az, ... A,. tiiamgles. Because A, and A, ane
Explain why the segment aA ,
on the cinrcke, |OA,| = |0A,| and
is the bisector of side A ,A,.
In other words, explain therefore triangles Oaa, and 0aA,
why side aA, is congruent
ane congruent day HE. (118e). Ro
to side aA.. (Hint:
Show that the two right aA, & congruent
to aA,.
triangles in the picture
are congruent.)

Below is an n-gon identical Aince OX, 10 prrp. to ALAL, 4,

to the one in exercise #1. triangles Ox,A, amd OX,A,,1 Ae
Explain why a perpendicular
from O to any side of the night triamglee. Becauee A, and
n-gon is the bisector
of that side. (Hint: A,., wre on the circle, JOA! = JOA,,4!
Show, as you did in ex. #1, and therefore triangles OX,A,
that segment A, X, is
congruent to segment X,A ,,,.-)
and OX,A,,, are congruent dy RL
(118e). Ro X,A, ia congruent to
A, nt KAY.
120 Construction exercises: C2le

Using the information from Ln CXeLcLe #2, we ehowed that

ex.#2, explain why the any perpendicular from the
conclusion leads to the OP 1 ee ;
following “Generalized center 0 of the circumecriled
Concurrence Theorem for ire! ;
Perpendicular Side eto a cide of the polygon cpbated
Bisectors of a Polygon”: the Ligectonr of that aide. Ao, if
If it is possible to : P ;
Ale cansani Bata taivelo there ie a cinrewumecribed circle, ite
eT ce it avon the conten mudrt & a common poimt
side bisectors o e
polygon meet in a common om all the aide Linectone of the
tres polygon ka ex.#2 of Ce.

eee at one oa Jniamgles OX,A, and OX,A, ane

° e n-gon below,
assume that the segment congruent Wy &AX.
OX, bisects the side
A,A, of the polygon.
Explain why
JOA,| = [OA].

All angles
of the polygon
have measure
<2180",

Looking at the drawing Rame ad exereiger #4

of the n-gon above,
assume that the segment
OX, bisects the side
A,A, of the polygon.
Explain why
JOAs| = JOAz].
 Construction exercises: C2le 121

6. Suppose the n-gon in ex. #4 Jniamglee Ox, A, and Ox, A wed oie
has the property that the
perp.side bisectors of A,A,, congruenthy adr. Let "*" run
re Az, pit A,-1Ay ee a through all the Imtegerre from 1
rough a common point O. '
Tf 0X7, OX, OX os sera e> thal to n-1 to get ald the on'e congruent.
are perpendiculars to the
sides of the n-gon passing
through O, explain why
JOA,] = JOA,| =... = JOA].
(Hint: Repeat the reasoning
in exercises #4 and
#5 over and over.)

7.Use exercise #6 to explain

the following converse to the dhe definition of a circke etatee
theorem in exercise #3: If i+; ‘
all (except possibly one) of that U ia the act of alt ea
the perp. side bisectors of of a fixed diatance from ite
the polygon below meet in : ;
dnetecinteo Manobean cemter. Limce the digtance from
circumscribe a circle about amy of the "A" pointe to 0 ie the
the polygon. (Hint: Name the ;
vertices of the polygon A ,, eame, a cincke alout 0 of
A,, ..-, A,, making A, A, the nadiud OA, would pace through
side whose perpendicular bi- “am :
sector you don't know about.) all the "A pointe of the polygon.

All angles
of the polygon
have measure
<1 B0">

8. Explain why, if all but one By exerciae #7, ome can

of the side bisectors of the ; : :
above polygon pass through circle about
aite
cinceumecr
the common point O, the last the no rity, exenciee#2
angle bisector must pass e ye g i i
through O also. (Notice that the cemter of the cinicke ia. om
this gives another proof of ,
the Concurrence Theorem for all the aide Ligectone of,the
Side Bisectors of a Triangle— polygon.
see Cl7e, exercise #5.)
122 Construction exercises: C22e

Describe the construction Finret, draw a epherical Line or

of a spherical triangle
when given two angles great circle om ryour ephenre to act
and the side between them. ad a Lave fon 4rour triangle. Tank off
the given. aide AB along thie great
cincke. Cometruct a epherical Lime that
meete the given gide at Ato make one
of the queen angler. Now comdetruct a
epherical Line that meets the given
cide at B to make the other given
angle. Jhe two ephenrical Limes will
imtereect im two poimte Cand C'. Jf
C 4d the finet point we get to when
ave Leave A (on B) im the dinection
imdicated hay the given angle, the
triangle ABC 44 the one we want.

Use a balloon of radius 7 Check the cometruction hay AMA

centimeters to construct
a spherical triangle with the Lengthe of the cided with wring.
sides 8cm, 5cm, and 7cm.
 Construction exercises: C23e 123

Construct, with only compass

and straight edge, the
hyperbolic line throught the
points P and Q.

Construct, with only compass

and straight edge, the
hyperbolic line through the
points Q and O, the “center”
of hyperbolic-land. (Hint:
See I40.)
Proot
Answers to exercises
 Proof exercises: Ple 127

. Let m(x) = -x. Where does Ihe pointe ane -1, 0, 3, and 1 ‘156
this rule send 1? 0? -3?
neepectinely, theee are obtained
-1 he i
through putting the point in
place of x im the formula and,
volving, Like we did om P1.

. For m as in exercise #1, Ihe diatance from am(-3) te »m(1) da

what is the distance
four, Lecaude, day the formula fon
between m(-3) and m(1)?
Is it the same as the distance:
distance between -3 and 1?
[|m(1) - m(-3)| = |-1 - (+3)] =
j-1 - 3] = 4
Tlow Let'a check the diatamce Letween
the onigimal two poimte: -3 and 1:
fa = (=3) 1 = 12 4+ 3l-—= 4
Ao, thie rule preserved the dietance
Letrween -3 and 1.

. For m as in exercise #1, Jhe digtamnce from am(x) to am(ay) ia

what is the distance
lx - al Lecauce, by the formula for
between m(x) and m(y)?
Is it the same as the digtamce:
distance between x and y?
WCUVi) rte) | ay)
=e |i ety
Now Let;'e check the dietance Letween
the onigimal twe pointe: x amd Ay:
yo ct hy hate are
Ao, thie rule preserved the dietance
Retween x amd Ay.
128 Proof exercises: Ple

4. Now, repeat exercises #1, The only thing that changes im thie
#2, and #3, only this time
use the rule m(x) = -x + 2
proklem ia the formula fon »m(x).
as your formula. At every, im CXerceee #1, #2, and #3
avhere we had m(x) = -x, put m(x) =
-% + 2. Ro, for examepe,
mm(-3) = -(-3)+2=5, eo now m takee
-3 to 5. Noticethat m(1) =-1+2 = 1,
20 thie m deedmn't move one at all.
Ihie m id amotion of the numer
Lime Lecaude:
bm (4y) - m(x)] = [(-ay+ 2) - (xe + 2)] =
l-yy+ 24x -2] = lxe-vyl = W-xl

5. Explain why m(x) = 6x is The leat way to check if a rule ie

not a motion.
a true motion ie to put dome pointe
imte itamd find out if the diaetancea
Letween them are preverred.
Put
im 0:
m(0) = 6x0
m(0) = 0
Put im 1:
m(1) = 6x1
m(1) = 6
Put im 3:
m(3) = 6x3
m(3) = 18
Tow, Lay the digtance formula
from Pl, the dietance Letween
Oamd 1 de 1, tut Lay the came
formula the dietance Letween
am(0) amd +m(1) ia 6. Moneoren,
the dietance Letween 1 and 3 ie
2, Lut the diatance Letween
amm(1) and 2m(3) da 12. Bo, dimece the
nuke m(x) = 6x doee not preserve
the distances, it ia not a motion.
 Proof exercises: P2e 129

Find the lengths of the

sides in the triangles
shown below:

(-2,1)
®
130 Proof exercises: P2e

The definition of pee Y>)

distance in the plane is c t
motivated by the
Pythagorean theorem (see ‘
Seer e
I9). Use the Pythagorean
(X4, Y,) a (Xo, Y4)
theorem to find the length
c in the picture below:

a = (X%2 - %)
b= (y> = y,)

(X4,Y4) (X5, ¥4)

Ry the Paythagerean theorem,
ec? = a* + b?

Ao:
= (7%)? + (Yo-¥4 2
c= \V/ (x, -x,)? + (Y¥> -y,)?

The formula for the square wf %1,%>,¥,, andy, aneall

of the distance between
two points is easier than imtegerna, them:
the formula for the distance
sa lll |
itself. Show that, if the
points (x,,y,) and (x,,y2) in am integer, and
have coordinates which ¥ 90 wary
are integers, then the
square of the distance in an integer. Xo,
between them is an integer,
(x2 - x)? + (yy - Yy
\*

but the distance between

them need not be an integer. ia am imtegen. Rowever, when we
take the equane root, the mumher
wwe get mary not Le am imteger.
Fon example,
Ni2+ 12 = Ao
ia mot am integer, in fact, it ia
mot een a rnational numer.
 Proof exercises: P3e 131

1. Show that the rule We must check that thie rule preeerred
m(x,y) = (x+5, y~-2) :
is a motion of the digtamcee:
plane.
d(m (x, 1Y4) , m(X, 1Y2) ) = a (x, +5, Y4 =2)5 (xX, +5, yo a-))

= VJ ( (x, +5) -(x,45))?2 + (ly, -2)=(y,-2))?

= \/ (x, +5-x,-5)? + (yy -2-y, +2)?

= V(x, -x)? + (y- y4)?

a d ( (x, Y,) ’ (Xo, Y>) )

2. Show that the rule

n(x,y) = (x-5,y+t2)
is a motion of the
plane.

3. What happens if you you get Lack where Ayou gtanited from:
do the motion m and n(m(x,y)) = n(xt+5,y-2)
then follow that
motion by the motion ((x+5) -5, (y—2) +2)
n? (See exercises #1
and #2. ) = (x,y)

4. What happens if you Again you get Lack where Apou etanted
do the motion n and F
than Eo ikow thet from. dhe tiameformations m and m
motion by the motion ane called inversed of each other.
m?
132 Proof exercises: P3e

Oldville

Using your tracing paper

copy the (Euclidean)
coordinate system at the
right (Oldville):

The motion m(x,y) =

(*/. x NEVE Yr

V3 7, Si Ge 25 y)

moves a point (x,y)

in Oldville toa
point (z,w) in New-
ville where

z= ‘/,x 37 y
and

wa¥3o x + '/,y

Place your tracing of Newville

Oldville over Newville
in such a way that each
point (x,y) is on top
of the (z,w) it goes to
under the rule om.
So (x,y) = (0,0) is on
top of (z,w) = (0,0),
(x,y) = (1,0) is on
top of (z,w) = ela ey
and (x,y) = (0,1) is
on top of (z,w) =
cdc Aw
In fact, putting (0,0),
(1,0) and (0,1) down
in the correct places
forces all other (x,y) 's
to come down on top of
the points given by the
rule m. This is because
m is a motion and so it
doesn't stretch, bend, or
rip your tracing paper.

Test this by marking some points (x,y) on your tracing paper,

and seeing if the (z,w)'s underneath them have coordinates
given by the formula for nm.
 Proof exercises: P3e 133

. We are now ready to check This computation is a bit

that the rule complicated. The notation
KE
will be simpler if we
m(x,y) = (ci > Syl We vr */> xo +/3 y)
show that the square of the
given at the end of P3 is distance is preserved by mM.
actually a motion. Fill in Taking square roots, that's
the missing entries: enough to show that
distance is preserved,

fd (mix, ¢¥4) 7m(x%>,¥5)))* =

Bact? fae V3), Ale % + 7/2 Vad Oly % 37, Yeas x + “fp Y2)) 1°
Shy 2 osvolnbonauim Voy) + (05/, xt Uys yy) OO meaty.)17
= 42 Oy - x )-"%2 (yo-vy))? + 8/2 (x —my)+ Mp (yy - Yd)?
Sees) tix val (aC 7) G5 =e) yo-vd +a) ey)
+ (%9/.)2
(x -x,)2 4275/5) (1/5) 5-2) (ye mya) + (7/5)
22 -¥4)7
= (492 + (%8/,)2) (4 -x)? + (8)? + 72)7) (yD -yy)?
= (%)-%)? + (yy -¥4)?
mowiford (sq 7] K0795)) 1°

The important thing guet copy the computation im

about the pair of exercige #6, replacing */, with
numbers Cs, 370)
“co” every time dt occund, and
in exercise #5, was
that: neplacing V3), avith “oe” every time
(2/4)? + (¥37,)2 me it ocound.

Let (c,s) be any pair

of numbers such that:

co? + s*=1.

Show that the rule

m(x,y) = (cx - sy, sx + cy)

is a motion of the plane.

 Proof exercises: P4e

Let m(x) = x-3, and let Ihe motion m wonke on numienre

n(x) = x+2. What rule
do I get altogether if
that hare already Leon moned Lay am:
I follow the motion m
by the motion n?
mirm(x<)) = m(x<-3) = (2-3) +2 = x-1

Let m(x) = x-3 and n(x) mam(x)) = m(x«%-3) = -(-3) = -xX+3,

= -x. What rule do I
get altogether if I
AwAeLead
follow m by n? am(m(2x)) = am(-2) = (-2¢)-3 = -x-3.
What rule do I get
altogether if I follow Notice that theee are not the came
n by wm? nule.

3. Complete the proof of the following:

Proposition: If a motion of the line m(x) is followed by

another motion of the line n(x), the rule

P(x) = n(m(x) )

obtained is again a motion.

Proof:
d(m(x),m(y)) = d(x,y) since m is a motion.

d(n(u),n(v)) = d(u,v) since n is a motion.

u and v can be any numbers.

Suppose u happens to be
equal to m(x) and v
happens to be equal to m(y).

d(n(m(x)),n(m(y))) = d(m(x),m(y) ) by substitution.

d(n(m(x)),n(m(y))) = d(x,y) by transitivity of equality.

So the rule p(x) = n(m(x)) is

a motion since, by the previous step,
it satisfies the condition
in the definition of a
motion.

4. Will the Proposition in Yeo. Juet write (x, ~y,) metead

exercise #3 be true if m
and n are motions of the of x, amd (xX, Ay.) indetead of ay.
plane instead of motions Ctherwide the etatement and
of the line? Explain
your answer. proof of the Propodrition ia
exactly the came.
 Proof exercises: P5e 135

1. We can make the line Gm the lime:

into the subset of .
all points (x,0) of A (x4,X2) = 1X2 -%4|
the plane, where x
can be any real
number. z mn the plane:
d( (x4, 0), (%>40)) = W(x -x,)? + (0-0)?
Line inside
But
plane

Ixy-x | = VQ -x,)?

Show that the distance

between the points
x, and x, on the line
is the same as the
distance between (x, ,0)
and (x,,0) in the plane.

2. We could also put the

line inside the plane
by making it the y-axis.
Show again that distance
between points on the
line is the same whether
we use the line or plane
formula for distance.

Can you think of other Fix amy cometant b and put

ways of putting the : :
line inside the plane the Lime in aa the act of abl
so that line-distance is (x,b) fon
ald neal mumenre x.
the same as plane-distance? i :

problem harder,
: ' do it so comdtante c and s and put
that the line is on a slant.
the lime im aa the eet of ald
(cx, Sx) for all neal
MUMILE x. For inatance, take
cm), and s = ¥3/,.
136 Proof exercises: P5e

In exercise #4 of Ple We use the motion n(x) = x+2. When

we saw that the rule
m(x) = -x +2 isa aur precede thie with the motion
motion of the line. p(x) = x, we get
Theorem 4 says that
this m is the motion nip (xy)+= (p(x)) 4 2-= (=x) + 2. =e~x.+ 2.
of Theorem 2 followed
by one of the motions Xo,m(x) = n(p(x)).
listed in Theorem 1.
Which motion from
Theorem 1 do we use?

Suppose m(x) = -x, and p(x) = n(m(n(x))) = n(m(x+5)) =

n(x) = x + 5. Then n(-(x+5)) = (-(x+5)) + 5 = -x-54+5 = -x.
P(x) = n(m(n(x))) is
a motion because it is Ro the eign im front of x ia
made up of motions. So mimuse, and c = 0.
by Theorem 4 we must be
able to write
p(x) = ix +c.
What is the sign in front
of x? What is c?

Suppose p(x) = m(n(m(x))) p(x) = m(n(m(x))) = m(n(-x)) =

in exercise #5. Answer m((-x)+5) = -((-x)+5) =x - 5.
the questions about p.
Ao the dign in front of x ia
plue and c= -5,
 Proof exercises: Pé6e 137

In the exercises in
Startville
this section (and
later), we will
practice composing
motions, that is,
doing one motion to
get from Startville
((x, y) -coordinate
land) to Middletown
((z,w)- coordinate
land), and then
following that by
another motion to
get from Middletown
to Endville ((u,v)-
coordinate land).

Middletown

v Endville
138 Proof exercises: P6e

Trace the (x,y) -coordinate 2. Trace the (z,w)-coordinate

system (Startville) on a system (Middletown) on a
piece of tracing paper. piece of tracing paper.
Suppose we have a trans- Suppose we have a trans-
lation from Startville to lation from Middletown to
Middletown given by the rule Endville given by the rule
(z,w) = m(x,y) = (x+3,y-5), (u,v) = n(z,w) = (z-3,wt5),
that. is, that is,
z= x+3 u = z-3
w= y-5. v = wt5.
Make the motion m by Make the motion n by
picking up your tracing picking up your tracing
paper and putting it down paper and putting it down
over the (z,w) -coordinate over the (u,v) -coordinate
system (Middletown) so that system (Endville) so that
each (x,y) -point on the each (z,w)-point on the
tracing paper comes down tracing paper comes down
on top of the (z,w)-point on top of the (u,v) -point
in Middletown for which in Middletown for which
z= xt3 u = z-3
w= y-5. v = wt5.

. Now we want to see what happens when we follow the motion m

by the motion n. To do this we will need a strong light
under Endville. Put the tracing paper copy of Middletown
down on Endville by the motion n as is exercise #2. (Use
paper clips to hold the tracing paper in position.)
Now, put the tracing paper copy of Startville down on
the tracing paper copy Middletown as in exercise #1.
So we have a stack three pages high, with Startville
((x,y)-land) on top, Middletown ((z,w)-land) in the
middle, and Endville ((u,v)-land) on the bottom:

(u,v)

(z,w)

A point (x,y) in Startville is taken to (u,v) = n(m(x,y) )

in Endville by passing through the papers in the stack
to the point directly underneath. If your tracing paper is
transparent enough, and the light underneath everything is
strong enough, check that the motion n is the inverse of
the motion m by checking that n(m(0,0)) = (0,0),
n(m(6,2)) = (6,2), n(m(-4,3)) = (-4,3), in fact, for any
point (x,y), (u,v) = n(m(x,y)) = (x,y). That is, if we
start with a point (x,y) in Startville and do the motion n,
and then do the motion n, the point we get to in Endville
has (u,v)-coordinates which are the same as the original
(x,y) -coordinates. In other words, (u,v) = (9,7) is
directly under (x,y) = (9,7), (u,v) = (-1,8) is directly
under (x,y) = (-1,8), etc., etc. We have that, if (u,v) =
n(m(x,y)), then u=x and v= vy.
 Proof exercises: Pé6e 139

Verify what we did in u = 2-3 (x+3)-3 = x

exercises #1, 2 and 3
by algebra: Vv wt5 (y-5)+5 = y
z= xt+3 u = z-3
w= y-5 v = wt5
Use substitution to
give a formula for
u and vin terms
Of >x “and! ‘y'.

What is the inverse (4MUVE1Le m) (x,y) = (x-10,y-9)

motion of the trans-
lation

m(x,y) = (x+10,yt9)?

What is the inverse (muvee m) (x,y) = (x+10,yt9)

motion of the trans-
lation

m(x,y) = (x-10,y-9)?
140 Proof exercises: P7e

1. Show that every rotation dhe formula for a notation in,

of the plane takes (0,0) m(x,y) = (cx-sy,sxt+cy)
to (0,0) and takes (1,0)
Xo
to (c,s).
m(0,0) = ((c°0)-(s:0),(s:0)+(c*0)) = (0,0)
m(1,0) = ((c°1)-(s-0), (s°1)+(c-0)) = (c,s)

(We use ”:” te mean “times” when

other wymhole for multiplication
might Re comfudcing.)

2. Show that c* + s*=1 (c,s) om the unit cincle meane

exactly when (c,s) is d((c,s),(0,0)) = 1 ~which meane
a point on the circle
of radius 1 around (0,0) A/(c-0)? + (s-0)? =:1
(called the ynit circle). avhich meane
A oc? + 5%? = 1
~which meande
Code 6a 1

3. Is there a scans ge which Aimnce

takes
If so,
(1,0)
what
to
is
(
its
apy N27) 2
formula?
illOE agMed4 aS
Awe cam use Jheonem 7 with
ES =¥2/, s = vay,

Xo:
m(x,y) = on
Cx (2y, (Y%/)
x4 (Y%)y) .

4. Is there_a rotation which Ihe imrveree of m im exercire #3

takes (¥7/,,%7/,) to (1,0)? will take
If so, what is its formula?
(87, Yep)
Rack te (1,0). Ry Iheornem 8, the
formula for the imrue1ee
notation ix:
n(x,y) =
((427,) x4 (yy, - (V2) xt 4%.) y) .
 Proof exercises: PTe 141

Where does the rotation Jhe notation im exercine #4 ia

nh in exercise #4 take
(1,0)? n(x,y) =

((527,) x4 (927) y, - (¥2/5) xt (427, y) .

£0

n(1,0) =
COV 14 C2) 07~ (97/,) 14.87} 0) .
= (¥2/,,-( 4%,
. Verify exercises #4 and
#5 with tracing paper—
put
(z,w)_ = n(x,
= CCFpyae ce
275),~( ¥2/5)
xt (2/5)y)
and make a tracing paper
copy of the (x,y) -coordinate
system, and put it on top
of the (z,w) -coordinate
system so that (1,0) is
v2 2
on top of ( °*/2,-(" “/2))
(and, of course, (0,0)
is on top of (0,0)).
See that ian Jae is
on top of (1,0).
 Proof exercises: P8e

Given a point (a,b) in m(x,y) = (x-a, y-b) takede (a,b) to (0,0).

the plane, find a motion
Ro the imrverie motion
of the plane which takes
(a,b) to (0,0). Find n(x,y) = (xta, ytb)
a motion of the plane
which takes (0,0) to mmudt take (0,0) to (a,b).
(a,b).

Given a point (e,f) in (e/d)? + (£/d)?=

the plane, let
d = d((0,0), (e, £)) (e/Me2+£2)2
+ (£/Ne2+£2)2 =
= Ve? + ay e*/(e7+£*) + £2/(e74+£7) = 1.
Show that (e/d, f/d) is
on the unit circle,
that is,
(e/d) 27+ (£/d)2
= 1.
(e/d, f£/d)

Noy,
. Given the points (0,0) Put c= e/d amd s = f/d.
and (e,£) in the plane,
find a motion n of Ihe rotation
the plane which leaves m(x,y) = (cx-sy, sx+cy)
(0,0) fixed and is such
that leaves (0,0) fixed and
n(e,f) = (d,0) m(1,0) = (c,s) = (e/d, f/d). Ao,
for some positive number
d. (Hint: Use exercise m(d,0) = (cd-s0, sd+c0)
#2.) = (cd,sd) = (e,f).
Xo the motion we want ic the inreree
notation:
n(x,y) = (cx+tsy, -Sx+cy).
n(e,f) = (cet+tsf, -set+cf)
= ((e/dje + (f/d)f, -(f/d)e + (e/d) £)
It
((e7+£7)
/d, 0) = (d2/d, 0) = (d,0)
 Proof exercises: P8e 143

Given two distinct points Ueeh(x,y) = (x-a, y-b) to get (a,b)

(a,b) and (a',b') in the
plane, find a motion m to (0,0). Follow h Lay a notation
of the plane so that k(x,y) = (cx-sSy, sxtcy)
m(a,b) = (0,0) auvtich retatee h(a',b') down onte the
m(a',b') = (d,0)
for some positive number d. poritive M-AKik,, Now
(Hint: Use exercise #1 and
then exercise #3.) h(a',b') = (a'-a, b'-b).
Ao, We cam ULe exercigr #3
(with (e,f) = (a'-a, b'-b))
and write
k(x,y) = (cxt+sy, -sxtcy)
where c= (a'-a)/d amd s = (b'-b)/d
and d = A[(at-a)? + (b'-b)?
Ao put m(x,y) = k(h(x,y)),
the motion
Ayou get awhon Ajou follow the trane-
lation h hay the notation k.

Show that, in exercise #4, Look at the formula fon d

d = d((a,b), (a',b')).
im the amewer to exercineg #4.

Given the points (a,b) and dhe flip f(x,y) = (x, -y) deeam't
(a',b') in exercise #4,
AMLOUe AMNAY of the pointe on the
find another motion p,
different from m, so that X-axkrik,, Ao, if
it is again true that
m(a,b) = (0,0) amd m(a',b') = (d,0),
p(a,b) = (0,0)
p(a',b') = (d,0). and if we put
p(x,y) = £(m(x,y)), them
p(a,b) = f£(m(a,b)) = £(0,0) = (0,0)
and
p(a',b') = f(m(a',b")) = £(d,0) = (d,0).

Given two distinct points Jhe motions we want are the imreraee
(a,b) and (a',b') in the
plane, find two motions
of the motiona m and p im exencigesa
of the plane, both of #4 and #6. Xo:
which take (0,0) to (a,b)
and take (d,0) to (a',b'). (imveree m) =
(Remember: d has to be (imvenree h)((amverde k)(x, y)) and
the distance between (a,b)
and (a',b') for this to (imueree p) = (imveree m)(f (x,y) ).
be possible.) (Remember that (imrerdce f) = f.)
144 Proof exercises: P9e

Finish the proof of Suppose the bad possibility mentioned at

Theorem 11. The model the bottom of P9 actually happens:
for the reasoning that
will be needed is given d(m(x,,¥,),M(X2,Y2)) = A( (x, 1¥1) 1 (%7¥2))
in the last half of the So, by substition:
proof of Theorem 3. A( (x, ,Y¥,) 7 (%, -y>)) ae d( (X,Y, ) 4 (Xr ¥2))
Fill in the missing and, by the definition of distance:
steps in the reasoning
given to the right: (x5 -x,)? ¥ ((-y>) -y4)? at

A (x2 -%)? + (yg -¥,)?

and so, by algebra

feYas¥s 4 PVs 12
Vales
So,
either y,ty, = Yo-¥,, So y, = 0,
or “Yo -¥1 = Yo°Y1r 80 yo = 0.
she yy alae
Y,=0, m(x,,y,) = (x,,0) = (x, —y4)
contradicting the assumption at
end of P9. And, if
y2=0, m(X,,Y>) = (x, ,0) a (X> + Y>)
contradicting the assumption at
end of P9.

So the bad possibility we were worried

about at the end of P9 can't happen.
So Theorem 11 is proved.
Using the coordinates
for Oldville and
Newville in exercise
#5 of P3e and your
tracing paper, copy
the (x,y) -coordinate
system of Oldville
onto your tracing
paper and mark the
points (0,0) and
(2,0) on the tracing
paper. “Show” Theorem
11 by putting your
tracing paper down on Remember, you
the (z,w) -coordinate can't stretch,
system of Newville in bend or rip
all possible ways so your tracing
that (x,y)=(0,0) comes paper.
down on top of (z,w)=
(0,0) and (x,y) =(2, 0)
comes down on top of
(z,w)=(2,0).
 Proof exercises: pP10e 145

Give the formula for

the motion of the plane
which takes the old
figure to the new figure:

Jo mone the old figure to the

Mew One, we mud mone it 4
umite to the night and one
umit dowm. Lo we mudi add
4 to the x-coondimate of any
point and take | away from
the Ay-coondimate. Ihe motion
auvbich doen that ia m(x,y) =
(x+4,y-1).

Rene we need a notation that

takee (1,0) to (0,1). Ro, Wy
exerciae #1 of P7e, we chould
putc=Oamnds= 1 inthe
formula
m(x,y) = (cx-sy, sxt+cy).
Xo
m(x,y) = (-y, x).

Ae a check:
m(0,0) = (-0,0) = (0,0)
m(1,0) = (-0,1) = (0,1)
m(1,1) (-1,1).
146 Proof exercises: P10e

Finat notate the plane 90°

uding the notation from
exeiciee #2: m(x,y) = (-y,x).
Jhig mores the old triangle
te the podcition Relow:

Tlow mone the aleve triangle 1

umit to the left avith
Dix,Vow = (x=L, yy).

Altogether awe have p(x,y) =

n(m(x,y) ) mit=V 7c)
UENO RS, FS),
hard poten

We need to more the circle 2

umite down and two unite
to the Left. Ro we can ure
m(x,y) = (x=2, y=2).
 Proof exercises: P10e 147

Jhe notation we need here

mudt take (1,0) te a poimt
(c,s) om the diagonal Lime
given hay the equation
y = xX.
Ro we need
s = c
Burt

G +s? =1
Xo
c7+ c%= 1

2c* = 1

onan /5

es mee
We get the new figure above from
the old by rotating 45° ina Cm Ss
counter-clockwise direction.
Xo

m(x,y) = ((%7/.)x - (Y/)y,

(Y27)x + (Y/)y).
Agaim we get the mew
figure from the old Lay
notating 45° im the
COUMt*YL-cLoch
wide
dinection, do the formula
for the motion »m ia the
Lame ag Mt wad im
exXUicee #5.
148 Proof exercises: Plle

Te Tf A:=2(0;1,5))7, 8 = (-1,073), z
and C = (2,-1,-1), plot the .
points A, B, and C in the
three-dimensional coordinate
system at the right.

2. Graph the set given by the

equation z = 2 in the
coordinate system below:
Zz

3. In the coordinate system

below, graph the set
given by the two equations
z= 2
x+y = 0. : y

d(A,B) = V(-1-0)? +(0-1)? +(3-5)?

4. Find d(A,B), d(B,C), and ‘ V6.
d(A,C) for the points A, a :
B, and C, whose coordinates 2 2 2
are given in exercise #1. a{B,C) = ¥ (2~(o22)" +{ein0)° +t=1=3)
= ¥26.

d(A,c) = V(2-0)? +(-1-1)? +(-1-5)?

= a4,
 Proof exercises: Plle 149

We will use the Pythagorean

theorem twice to see why the
formula for the distance d
between (% ,Y¥4, 24) and
(X,,Y2, 22) should be

Al (x_ -24)? + ly -y4)? +(z5 -z,)2.

(Compare with exercise #2
of P2e.)
By the Papthagonean theorem
We start in the horizontal
plane z= 2z,. Give the c? = (x5 -x,) 7 + (y2 -¥,)?
formula for the distance c (x5, Y2: Zo)
between the two points
(X%,,Y4,24) and (x4, yo, 24)
in this plane:
(2,2. 22)

Xo, Y2: Z)
90

(4, ¥4. 24 "x9,

4 24)
90° c =Nixy-x)? + (yp-¥,)?
Ry the Paythagonrean theorem:
Next show that the distance
d we want is given by d* = o7 + (z5-z,)?
c? + (z, -z,)?
Xo:
(X5,Yo, Z>)
d= Nc? + (z.-z,)?
Now, im thie Laat equation,
auk-
(X,Y 24) otitute (x,-x,)? + (y,-y,)?
(4,4,
Xs, ,z
24) oh for c*.

Finally substitute the formula

for c from the first step
to get that d=

AJ (x -%1,)? +ly2-¥1)? +(z2 -Z,)?.

150 Proof exercises: P12e

There is one more theorem Jheonem 17: fet c and s hetwo

which has the same form as
Theorems 15 and 16. We neal mummers auch that
will call it Theorem 17. oe? fg herd:
Can you state it?
Ihe nule
m(x;,¥,2) =x, eCcy-s2, sytcz)

ig a motion of apace (called a

notation).

Each of the rotations in Jheorem 15: z-axtie

Theorems 15, 16, and 17,
leaves one of the axes of Jheorem 16: y-axie
space fixed. The axis left Jheorem 17: x-axie
fixed is called the axis of
the rotation. What is the
axis of the rotations in
Theorem 15? In Theorem 16?
In Theorem 17?

Prove the following: guet repeat the proof im

Proposition: If a motion of
space m(x,y,Z) is followed exeLcidne #3 of P4e, putting
by another motion of space (x,y,z) im place of (x), ete..
n(x,y,Z), the rule
p(x,y,z) = n(m(x,y,zZ))
obtained is again a motion.
(p is called the composition
of m with on.)

Let A = (a, ,€a,a), B = fet m(x,y,z) = (x-a,, y-a, Zaz).

(b,,bD5,bz), and C = (c,,C.5,¢
be three points of space. 3) Jhen m(a,,a,,a,) = (0,0,0). Aho
Find a translation m of
space which moves A to
m(b,,b2,bg) = (by —a, ,b2 -a2 ,b; -a3),
(0,0,0). Where do B and C M(Cy Co 4g) = (Cy “Ay, C2 AQ, Cz —s).
go under this translation?

Now find a rotation n of fete = (b,-a,) and f = (b,-a,).

space which moves m(B) toa
point (s,0,t). (Notice Set n(x,y) = (cx+sy, -sxtcy) Me the
that any rotation leaves notation of the plane awith n(e,f) =
m(A)=(0,0,0) fixed.)
Hint: Use exercise #3 of (s,0). Uae Jheonem and put
P8e and Theorem 15.
n(x,y,Z) = (cx+sy, -sxtcy, 2).
 Proof exercises: Pl12e 151

Continuing from exercise Uae exenrcige #3 of P8e again to find

#5,find a rotation p
which moves (s,0,t) toa a notation p(x,z) = (c'x+s'z, -sS'x+c'z)
point (b,0,0). (Hint: Use of the plane do that p(s,t) (b, 0).
Theorem 16.)
Jhen ure dheonem 16 and put
p(x,y,Z) = (CHESS
IZ TRY peas OTC.
Za

Let xr be the motion of r(A) =°(0;0,0)" and ©r(B)"=9{b,; 0,0).

space which we get when
we compose the motions of
exercises #4, 5, and 6,
that is,
r(x,y,z) = p(n(m(x,y,z))).
Find r(A) and r(B).

For rotation r in Let (e,,€,,€,) Le the coondimatee of

exercise #7 and the points
A, B, and C from exercise r(C). Uae exenciae #3 of P8e to find a
#4, find a rotation s of notation s(y,z) = (c"yts"z, Sy tue zy)
space that leaves r(A) and
r(B) fixed and takes r(C) of the plane do that s (e, , ez) (e,0).
to a point (c,e,0). (Hint: Jhen use Jheonem 17 and put
Use Theorem 17.)
S(x,y,Z) = (x, c"yts"z, -—s"ytc"z).
Notice that
s{b,0,0),.= (b,. c"0+s40,, —s*0tcr0)
= (b,0,0).

Prove the following: guet put together CXL ALLd #4-8.

Lemma: Given three points
A,B, and C in space, there Jhe motion we want ix
is a motion of space which s(p(n(m(x,y,Z))).
moves A to (0,0,0), B to
a point (b,0,0) with b 2 0,
and C to a point (c,e,0)
with e 2 0.

10. Use a globe with an (old-

fashioned) bowl-type holder
to illustrate the rotations
of Theorems 15, 16, and 17.
152 Proof exercises: Pl3e

Suppose that A = (1,0,-2), d(A,B) = (3-1) 2+(-1) 2+ (-1-(-2))? =V6

B = (3,-1,-1), and C =
(GQ) ta Eanas a (A, Cc)
d(A,B), and d(B,C). Use
d(a,c) = Af
24(1)24+(1-(-2))?
(1-1) =410
your
directly
calculator
that
to check
d(B,c) = V(1-3)7+(1-(-1))
24 (1-(-1))2
d(A,C) IA
d(A,B) <
d(A,B) + d(B,C),
d(A,C) + d(C,B),
23%
d(B,C) < d(B,A) + d(A,C).
Now use youn calculator to ewaluate
the three numbene and chow that the
eum of any two of them i2 greater
Suppose that A = (1,1,2),
Ble (3,3,6); and
c= tham the thind.
(4,4,8). Graph these three
points in the coordinate d(A,B) = V 27427442 = 2V6
system below:
d(B,c) = 1241242? = V6
d(A,C) = V 37432462 = 3V6.
Nlow to check the dmequalitied, we
just mortice that

2V6 eV + ive
VG% 2V6r+ 3 VG.

Fon the equality

3V¥6=2V6+ V6.
Show that
dad(A,B) < d(A,C) + d(C,B)
d(B,C) < d(B,A) + d(A,C)
but
dad(A,C) = d(A,B) + d(B,C).

Can you explain (without Jhe poimt B Lied on the etraight Lime
worrying about proving it)
why wegment Letween A and C. Rothe
d(A,C) = d(A,B) + d(B,C) chontest path from A te C padded
in exercise #2?
through B. Since the dietance ia the
Length of the chonteat path, and thie
path ie judt the chonteet path from
A to B, followed Ly the chontest path
fyrom. B to C,
d(A,C) = d(A,B) + d(B,C).
 Proof exercises: Pl3e 153

Let A, B, and C be
three points of space.

B
i
' set
r] ~>ec
1 --
Pes
A

If A, B, and C, make If A happens to lie on the

up the vertices of an segment between B and C,
actual triangle, check check which of the
off which of the following are true:
following are true:

d(A,C) < d(A,B) + d(B,C) ~ a(A, C) <cdi(AyB) + dige7c) I\

d(A,B) = d(A,C) + d(C,B) __ d(A,B) = d(A,C) + d(C,B)

d(C,B) < d(C,A) + d(A,B) ~ d(C,B) IA d(C,A) + d(A,B) IS

|
d(C,A) = d(A,B) + d(B,C) __ d(C,A) d(A,B) + d(B,C)

d(A,B) << d(C,A) + d(C,B) ~ d (A,B) dad(C,A) + d(C,B)

d(C,B) < d(C,A) + d(A,B) ~ d(C,B) fay d(C,A)
as + d(A,B)

d(A,C) lA d(A,B) + d(C,B) ~~ da (A, C) lA d(A,B) + d(C,B)

d(B,A) < d(A,C)
lA + d(C,B) ~ d(B, A) 1A a(A;,C) + d(C, B)
d(B,C) = d(B,A) + d(A,C) __ d(B,C) = d(B,A) + d(A,C) IISI
I
d(A,C) < d(A,B) + d(B,C)

d(A,B) = d(A,C) + d(C,B)

d(C,B) s d(C,A) + da({A,B)

If it happens that B = C, d(C,A) = d(A,B) + d(B,C)
check which of the statements
at the right are true: d(A,B) < d(C,A) + d(C,B)

a(C,B) < d(C,A)*+'d(A,B)

d(A,C) IA d(A,B) + d(C,B)

d(B, A) IA dad(A,C) + d(C,B) KIKI

d(B,C) = d(B,A) + d(A,C) __
154 Proof exercises: Pl4e

The definition of angle

in P14 has a built in = - G
notion of “direction
of the angle.” We call
the ray corresponding to
{(x,0,0): x 2 0} under the
motion the initial side of
the angle, and the ray ° ° e
corresponding to
{(cx,sx,0): x 2 0} under the
motion the final side.
Draw two angles in the (x,y)-
plane with initial side
CG cr se) ek oe a1) ° ° ® e e M
having c = s = 2/2.

e e e e e e

e r e e e e

a i4 oltaimed uring the motion m(x,y) =

((N2/2)x - ( N2/2)y +1, (N2/2)x + (N2/2)y + 1).
Big oltaimed uring the motion n(x, y)
avhich ie a vertical flip (P8) followed hay
the motion m(x, y) fet alone,

There are two possible dhe angle cam he oltaimed from

values for the sine of
this angle:

What are s = -N2/2

they?
initial
side 4s°
eee
final hay a notation,
j or from

s = 2 /2

hay a uertical flip amd a notation.

 Proof exercises: Pl4e 155

When our angles are in a fixed plane, we

don't want two angles with the same initial
side and the same cosine and sine. Also we
want each angle to have a unique number for
its cosine and a unique number for its sine.
To achieve this, we require that the angle
be obtained from
{(x,0): x 2 0} and {(cx,sx): x > 0}
by a motion of the plane which is made up
of rotations and translations only (no vertical
flips). In the plane below, draw the following
list of angles:

Initial sid am

{(x,x): x 2 2} 0
{(x,x)? x 2 -1} V3/2
{(0,y): y Ss -1} V2/2
{(0,y): y < -1} 2/2
pw
ao
on {(2x,x): x 2 1} =i
(Hint: Use I27e or I28e
or INV COS and INV SIN
functions on your
calculator to help find
angles whose sines and
cosines you know.)

Let P = (0,0,0) and Q = (s,0,0). Suppose R is any point

(x,y,z) in space. Complete the proof below that
d(P,Q) = d(P,R) + d(R,Q)
only when R = (x,0,0) for some x with OS x<Cs.

(1) d(P,Q) = d(P,R) + d(R,Q) Given

Definition of distance
(2)

(3) s 2Vx? + V(s-x)* = Ix] + Is-x| 2 x + (s-x) = s Algebra

2 2 Inequalities in (3)
(4) s = Vx* + V(s-x) must be equalities
Ax? +y? +2? es 4 (s-x) 2 +y2 +22 = ‘x? + V (s-x) 2 Steps (2) and (4)
(5)

(6) y=z=0 an ene ee ee ee

(7) O Sx ss |x| + |s-x] = x + (s-x)

by Step (3)
156 Proof exercises: Pl14e

. Define what we should dhe eegment ia gotten hay mmoving

mean by the “endpoints”
{ (0201710) pia.0 Saxe SeSie Ate endnointe
of a segment.
ane the pointe conrecponding te (0,0,0)
and (s,0,0) under
the motion.
. Given two points P and Q, By ex.#9 of Pl2e, thene ia a motion m
explain why there is a taking P to (0,0,0) and Q to (s,0,0) for
segment with endpoints P
and Q. (Hint: Use exercise a2ome s 2 0. dhe imrerde motion to m
#9 of P12e.)
obtained Ly doing the oppodite
notations and tranelationea im the
oppodite onden, takeo
{(x,0;0) +70 <<. x Spas} to a Legment
~with endpoimte P and 0.

. Suppose a segment with d(P,Q) = d(m((0,0,0)),m((s,0,0)))

endpoints P and Q is given = d((0,0,0), (s,0,0))
by a motion m of
{(x,0,0): 0S x S€ s}. dimce motionda preaerwe distanced.
Explain why s = d(P,Q).
But d((0,0,0),(s,0,0)) =
(Hint: By definition,
motions preserve distances.) al(s-0)? $0 78+ of! a= S

. Suppose R is on a segment The eegment ia

with endpoints P and Q.
Explain why mic ( (x7) JOPAe COs Ss 8}).
d(P,Q) = d(P,R) + d(R,Q). P = m((0,0,0)) amd Q = m((s,0,0)).
(Hint: Move the segment
back to the x-axis.) Jhen, dimnce Ria on the Legment, R =
m((a,0,0)) for come awitth 0s as.
d(P,Q) =s = a+ (s-a)
= d((0,0,0), (a,0,0))
+ d((a,0,0), (s,0,0))
= d(m((0,0,0)),m((a,0,0)))

+ d(m((a,0,0)),m((s,0,0)))
ince motione preserve digtanced.
But m((0,0,0)) = P, m((a,0,0)) =R,
and m((s,0,0)) =Q. &o purt euletitute
P,Q, and R im the Lagat exaneddion alone.
 Proof exercises: Pl5e 157

Let P and Q be points in dhe Legement avith endpointe P

space. Show that there is
a path from P to Q of length and Q hae Length s hay OxX.#7 of
s = d(P,Q). P14e.

Suppose we have a path from Aimce R' doed not Lie on the
P to Q made up of two or more
segments: eegment ~with endpoimte P and
RES d(P Re) <P, Rear, OCR aR
R'

Ay P13 amd P15. Ao we cam ~make

Pp Re Q
the path ba neplacing the firet
Explain why there is a two eegmente Ly the eingle
shorter path made up of
one fewer segments. eegment avith endpointe P amd R".

Explain why the shortest Dy CXV1cide #2, if the path hae

path (of segments) between mone than one Legment we can
points P and Q is the
segment with endpoints P find a ahonter one with fewer
and Q.
eegments. Repeat thie until
there ia only one eegment Left.

Explain why any motion m Fon example, if m id compoded

of the plane has a formula
m(x,y) = (cx-syta, sxt+cytb) of the rotation
or r (x,y) =(cx-sy, Sx+cy) followed Lay
m(x,y) = (cxtsyta, -sx+tcytb)
for some constants c, s, a, the tramelation t (x,y) =
and b. (Hint: Use Theorem 12 (xt+a, ytb), them m(x,y) = t(r(x,y)) =
in P10.)
t(cx-sy,sxt+cy) = (cx-syta,sxt+cytb).

A line in the plane is a set Udeimg ex.i 4, Wuppedee m(x,y) =

which can be taken to the
(z,w) = (cx-syta,sxtcytb).
x-axis by a motion m of the
plane. Explain why any line Jhem m(x,y) Vier on the x-axrtie
is given by an equation
ex + cy + b= 0 if amd omly if w = 0, that
ia, if
for some constants e, c, and and only if sxtcytb = 0. &o
b. (Hint: Use exercise #4.)
(x,y) Liee om the Line if and only
if sxtcytb = 0. (dm the othen cace
im vx.4#4, Let e = -s.)
158 Proof exercises: Pl15e

6. Suppose a set in the Set dD = 3? + 42 = 925 = 5,

plane is given by the
equation Jhen (3/5)2 + (4/5)? = 25/25 = 1,40
3x + 4y +2= 0. m(x, y) =
Show that this set is ((4/5) x-(3/5)y, (3/5) x+ (4/5) y+(2/5) )
a line. (Hint: Divide
both sides of the ig a motion, and m(x,y) 44 om the
equation by some number x-anXde exactly awhon
D so that
(3/D)? + (4/D) 7 = 1. (3/5) x+ (4/5) y+(2/5) = 0,
Then use a motion m
that ia, when 3xt4y+2 = 0. Rothe
with .
s = 3/D and c = 4/D motion m taked the eet given hay thie
and b = 2/D to take the
set to the x-axis.)
Laat equation to the x-axid. Ao the eet
given dy thie Laet equation ie a Line.

7. Suppose a set in the Seto = Va2 + B?

plane is given by the
equation Jhen (A/D)? + (B/D)? = D*/D* = 1, ae
Ax + By + C = 0. m(x,y) ‘od
Show that this set is
a line. (Hint: Divide
({B/D)x-(A/D)y, (A/D) x+(B/D) y+(C/D) )
both sides of the i, a motion, and m(x,y) ia on the
equation by some number
D so that x-0Xig exactly when
(A/D)? + (B/D)? = 1. (A/D) x+ (B/D) y+(C/D) = 0,
Then use a motion m
with that ia, when AxtBy+C = 0. othe
s = A/D and c = B/D amotion m takes the set given Ly thie
and b = C/D to take the
set to the x-axis.) Laat equation to the x-axid. Ao the eet
given day thig Lart equation ie a Line.

8. Suppose three points P, Ry the definition of Lime, there i a

Q, and R, in space lie
on a line. Show that mmotion m do that m((a,0,0)) = P,
one of the points must m((b,0,0)) = Q amd m((c,0,0)) = R, for
lie on the segment
whose endpoints are come real mumensa a,b,andc. Ome of
the other two given theee three nmumenre ia Letween the
points. (Hint: Remember
that the line is other two, 2.g., asb<sc. dhen
obtained from the x-axis d((a,0,0),(c,0,0)) =
by a motion. Look at ~d((a,0,0), (b,0,0)) +
the corresponding points
on the x-axis.)
d((b, 0,0), (c,0,0))
Ao, d(P,R) = d(P,Q) + d(Q,R) dimce m
prederred distanced. Lo 21d on the
Legment Ret~ween Pand R day P15.
 Proof exercises: Pl6e 159

In P16 we said that there Rene ia the proof:

are three possibilities for
positions of the points if d((0,0,0), (a,b,c) )= CHO; ORO), (s,0,0))
+ 10\(('S7105
0) pha, bypc)))
(0,0,0), (s,0,0), and (a,b,c)
are all on K. We considered 73
a+ b* + of = Vs? + V (ans) b* + z*
the possibility that (0,0,0)
was between (s,0,0) and
a+ b? + ee = s* Toes V (a-s)? + b? + e*
(a,b,c), and we showed that
both b and c were zero. We
+ (a-s)? + b? + ee
also said that the method
for showing b = c = 0 in the 2 2
a tub" 4 ¢
other two cases was similar.
Show that both b and c are
= 5? + 2s Vaz - 2as + s* + b* + oe
zero in the case that (s,0,0)
is between (0,0,0) and
+ a’ = Zaser oe ER Be a“
(a,b,c).
0 = s*+ 2s a” = 2g hier al+ e+ ce

= Zast ae

~23° + 2as = 2s an - 2as + s? + b? + oA

=S\t a= a’ = 2as\+ a + b? 1s o?

47a agate
s° <2as, ase ache bok C-

0 = b? + e

Now show that both b and Rene ie the proof:

c are zero in the case
that (a,b,c) is between ai( (0,00)7 (s,,0,,0)) 0= aC (0, 07 0) a,b,c) +
(0,0,0) and (s,0,0). d((a,b,c), (s,0,0))

ls? V a’ a b? + or + V (a-s)? + b* + a3

s = ata b? + a + V (a-s) 2 + b? + e?

$= Va2 # b? + ee = Via-s)? + b? + e

s* = 28V a + bem of Le at ib? tice

a? = 2as ot s% + b? +26

~25 a° + b? + ¢2 “= -2as

ae + b? + XS = a

a’ + b* + c* = a?
160 Proof exercises: Plve

1. We can do some nice things By I7e, the anea of the

with areas using the ideas adlevo
from the “P” pages, too. To pour gumin
begin, given four numbers a, Lae) -(wentical height)
b, c, and d, write ( ) :
that in a-d.
a 1)
(ey (el

to denote the number

a-d - bec.
Show that
a 0
(en (0!

is the area of the

parallelogram:

(cra)

(0,0) (a,0)

2. Now show that the formula :

for the area of the By I7e, the anea of the triangle ia
triangle ial one-half the area of the
connee ponding parallelogram,
that in, 1/2 - (Lage)
- (rentical height),
(a,0) :
(0,0) ‘ that ig */>-a-d. Ao,
cid e180 0 = ti
is: 0 0 a «0 ;
1/2.) 4 a =
Cz a

Tapenade
Cad OREO a 0

Ihe de Just alot of algebra. oppose

motion of the plane, and if that la, m(x,y) = (Cx+Sy,-Sx+Cy),

(a',b') = m(a,b), etc., then whore c* 452 = 1. dhem
we need te
A sine Poo flRogen Rd HSA ben check, fon example, that
. i (Ce+S£) (-Sa+Cb) - (-Se+Cf) (Ca+Sb)
eevtewesioe B: +fe' a'} ye ae = eb-fa, but you get that Ly juet
> e' f a' b' multiplying out the expreadcion on
(Hint: Show the formula for a the vpsctontiting aos! -
translation, for a rotation, 1 MY me Aou gu C™+S™ Mf m 4a
and for a vertical flip (this a tranelation, that ie, m(x,y) =
is where the “-” comes in), : ;
and then use that every (x+P,y+Q),
you han te amplify
eee prereset ence of a+P bsQ exp aie nye
motions o ese e+ +
three types.) c+P d+Q| + Je+P £+Q a+P b+Q

hay (evmpke) algebra. Ihe vertical {Up

Ad Cased (hut gqivea a. mMinud in the
ONA/wer).
 Proof exercises: Pl7e 161

4. Use Problems 2 and 3 to By ex. # 2, the formula

ia true if
show that the formula for
the area of any triangle (e,f) = 0) amdb = 0. fut amy
triangle cam Le moned to one Like
(c,d)
that Ly a tramelation followed
Lay a rotation. Bry ex.# 3, the
(a,b)
formula givee the came anwer if
(e,f)
awe tramdlate on rotate the figure
is: (and, of courde, the area of the
tiers Ce Pig he a 1 be -f./ 5
tuiangle deeem't change either
e a e f aeb
when we tramelate on rotate the
plane). &o the formula alwaye
works to give the area.

5. Use Problem 4 to give a

formula for the area of
an n-gon in terms of the
coordinates of its vertices.

(X5, Ys)
aay ge (X, Y,)

Laing the formula in

exercince 4 for the area of each
triangle amd then adding up,
Ave get:
(Hint: Assume that you can
break the region up bo
en ea yay:
into triangles and do some z bay el -l22l-Pat a.
algebra. To get a “nice”
formula, you will need to *3 YZ
use that:
1/2 PR:
23] Baal a
a b <td
ire hiees, *4 Y4
a. sD
1/2 PS
abel
:
The formula you get is the
precursor of a famous
theorem in two-variable
calculus called Green’s
Theorem. )
162 Proof exercises: Pl7e

6. We have seen in exercise #4 Opplying the formula IN CXULCALL #4,

that the area of the
triangle ue get that the area io,

(c,a) IPA cosa sing

cosB sinB

that in,
(a,b)
1/2 -(sinB-cosa—sina-cosB).
(0,0)

is ee?
12 al Uae :
Use this formula to
compute the area of the
triangle below:

(cos B, sin B)

(cos a, sindM)

7q% Show that the area of the

triangle in exercise #6 is
also given by
1/2 - sin (B-a) .
Conclude that
sin (Ba) = sinB-cosa-sina-cosf.
Compare this formula with
exercise #10 of I30e.
Rare of the triangle hae Lemgth
1. Height of the triangle ia
sin (B-a). Ro the anea in
1/2 - sin (Pa) .
dhe formula in exercice #10 of,
130e cam ke oltaimed friom the one
im thid exercine Lay awritin.g
sin (B+a) = sin (B-(-a)) =
sin B-cos(-a) - sin(-a) -cos B
and uring the identities
cos-Q@ = cosa sin-@ = -sina,
Index
The index is referenced by section/topic
number, rather than by page number. For
example, “I31" refers to the Intuition section,
topic number 31 (not page 31). Similarly,
“C” refers to Construction, “P” refers to Proof,
and “CP" refers to Computer Programs.
 Index 165

3-gon, construction of regular: C8, 8e circle, definition: I2

4-gon, construction of regular: C8, 8e eirele, in co-ordinate geometry: P14
5-gon, construction of regular: C9, 9e circle, inscribed in polygon: I27e, Cl0e, 20, 20e
6-gon, construction of regular: C10, 10e circle, inscribing in angles: C19, 19e
7-gon, construction of regular: Cris Lie circle, inscribing in triangles: Cl19e
AAS property, and trigonometry: I30e, 31, 3le circle, with inscribed angles: 124, 24e
acute angle, definition of: I23e circumference, of circle: Il6e, l7e
acute triangle: Cl6, l6e circumscribed, definiton of: I27e
adding, angles: l4e collar: 134, 34e
adding, angles of a hexagon: I8e collar, surface area: 134, 34e
adding, angles of a pentagon: I8e compass, notation: Cl
adding, angles of an N-gon: I8e concurrence theorem for altitudes of a triangle:
adding, angles of quadrilateral: I8e 123
adding, angles of triangles: I8, 8e concurrence theorem for medians of a triangle:
addition, construction of: C5, 6e I22e
altitude, construction of: CP8 cone: 134, 34e
altitude, locating point of intersection: fa3¢ cone, surface area: 134, 34e
altitude, of triangle: 123, Cl6, lێe congruence: 14, 4e
angle: 14, 4e congruence, notation: 110
angle bisector: C18, 18e, CP5, 7 congruence, of triangles: 110e, 118, 18e
angle bisector, concurrence theorem for: C18e corresponding angles, principle of: Il4e
Angle Side Angle property: 118, 18e corresponding angles, principle of, converse: Il4e
angle, acute: I23e corresponding parts of congruent triangles are
angle, adding: C2e congruent: 110e
angle, construction of bisector: C18, 18e cosecant: 127, 27e, 29, 29e
angle, copying: C2, 2e cosine: 127, 27e, 29, 29e
angle, definition: 14 cosines, law of: 130, 30e
angle, in co-ordinate geometry: P14, 14e cotangent: 127, 27e, 29, 29e
angle, in sphereworld: 136, 36e cross-ratio: I3le
angle, inscribing circles in: C19, 19e cube, construction of: C13, 13e
angle, obtuse: I23e cube, volume of: I37, 37e
angle, radians: I36e cylinder, surface area of: T33e sieve seyecee
angles (radians), construction of: 126 cylinder, volume of: 137, 37e
angles, circles and: 124, 24e degrees, conversion to radians: 126, 26e
angles, degrees: 126, 26e, 28e degrees, in angle size: 14
angles, inscribed in circles: 124, 24e distance: P15, 15e
angles, magnification and: 119 distance in space: Pll, lle, 14e
angles, radians: 126, 26e, 27e, 28e, 29; 928e distance in the plane: P2, 2e
apothem, definition of: I27e, C9e distance in the plane, formula of: P2e
arc, definition of: I124e distance in the plane, motions and: P3, 3e
arc, major: 125 distance on the line: Pl, le
arc, minors, 125 distance, hyperbolic: 140
arc, notation: I24e distance, notation: Ile
area (of triangle), figuring from SAS,ASA, and distance, under magnification: 115, 16
AAS: 131, J31e division, construction of: C5, Se
area: 113, 13e ‘ dodecahedron, constuction of: C14
area, in magnification: 115, 15e, 16, l6ée, 32, 32e dual solids: Cl3e, Cl4e
area, of circle: 117, ~“17e ellipse: 132e, CP1l
area, of parallelogram: I7e endpoint, of ray: I1
area, of rectangle: I5e, 6 endpoint, of segment: I1
area, of trapezoid: Il3e equlilateral triangle, construction of: C8, 8e
area, of triangle: I7, 7Je,-9e, 13, 13e final side of angle, definition: Pl4e
ASA property: 118, 18e first magnification principle: I15, 15e, 16, .CR9
ASA property, and trigonometry: 130e, 32, 32e fractions, construction of: CSe
baricenter, of triangle: C15, 1l5e fun facts about circles: 125, 25e
base, of triangle: I7 golden ratio: C6e
box, volume of: I37, 37e great circle: I35, 35e
can of paint: I5e half-circle, definition of: I36e
center, of circle: 12 height, of triangle: I7
center, of polygon: C9e hexagon: I3, 3e
center, of triangle: C15, 15e hexagon, construction of regular: C10, 10e
Ceva's Theorem: I23e HL theorem: 118e
chord, definition of: I24e hyperbolic line, construction of: CP22

circle through three points, construction of: C17, hyperbolic-land: 140, 40e, C23, 23e, CP22
lie, 23.1286 .-cRas hypoteneuse: 19e
circle: I2, 2e, 24, 24e, 25, 25e, 40, CPll icosahedron, construction of: C14
circle, and magnification: I32e initial side of angle, definition: Pl4e

circle, circumscribed about polygon: I27e, C9e, inscribed, definition of: I27e
106,21 ele inscribing angles in circles: 124, 24e
circle, construction of: CP17 inside, of angle: 14, 6
166 Index

isosceles triangle: I18e perpendicular, notation: I20e

law of cosines: 130, 30e perpendicularity, hyperbolic: 140e
law of sines: 130, 30e pi (x) 3) fa
legs, of triangle: 19e pi (x), estimating: I17e
length, and magnification: I32 plane: 12, 2e
limiting case, definition of: 125 Plane, definition: I2
Hine: 11,> Llemcra plane, distance in the: P2, 2e
line, construction of hyperbolic: C23, 23e, CP22 plane, in co-ordinate geometry: P14
line, distance on the: Pl, le plane, motions of the: P3, 3e, 6, 6e, 7, Te, 8,
line, hyperbolic: 140, 40e 8e, 9, Ye, 10, 10e, 14e, 15e, CP12-16
line, in co-ordinate geometry: P14, 14e polygon (spherical), area of: 139e
line, motions of the: Pl, le, 4, 4e, 5, Se polygon: 13
line, spherical: 135, 35e polygons, circumscribing circles about: C21, 21
line, unique line through two points: P16, lée, polygons, inscribing circles in: C20, 20e
CP2 principle of magnification, first: I15, l5e, 16
LOGO, description of: CPl CP9
lune, area of: 138e principle of magnification, second: 132, 32e, C
lune, definition of: I36e principle of proportionality of segments cut by
magnification: 119, 19e parallels, the: 121, 2le
magnification principle, first: 115, 15e, 16, CP9 principle of similarity, the: 120
magnification principle, second: 132, 32e, CP10 Ptolemy's Theorem: I3le
magnification, angles and: 119 pyramid, four-dimensional: I133e
magnification, area and: 119e pyramid, volume of: 133, 33e
magnification, in similarity: 120 Pythagorean theorem: 19, 9e
magnification, length and: 119e pythagorean theorem, and magnification: 132, 32:
magnification, parallel lines and: 119 pythagorean theorem, and trigonometry: 130
major arc, definition of: 125 quadrilateral: 13, 3e
measure, of angle: 14 quadrilateral, construction of regular: C8, 8e
median, definition of: I22e quadrilateral, definition: 13
median, of triangle: I22e, C15, 15e radians, conversion to degrees: 126, 26e
medians, construction of: CP6 radius (of polygon), definiton of: I27e
midpoint, construction of: C6 radius, of circle: I2
midpoint, definition of: 122 ray: I1, Fe, 4/8cP2
midpoint, finding coordinates of: I22e ray, in co-ordinate geometry: P14, 14e
minor arc, definition of: 125 ray, unique through two points: CP2
motion, inverse: P6ée reciprocal points, construction of: CP21
motions of space: P12, 12e rectangle: 16, 12
motions of space: Pl2e rhombus: I18e
motions of the line: Pl, le, 4, 4e, 5, Se right angle: 14
motions of the plane: P3, 3e, 6, 6e, 7, Je, 8, 8e, right angle, notation: 123
97 oe, 0, L0e, l4e,. 15e7—CPl2=<1'6 right triangle: Cl6, l6e
motions, set of many: CP16 rotations in the plane: P7, te, €PL3
motions, set of two: CP15 SAS property: I4e, I18, 18e
multiplication, construction of: C5 SAS property, and trigonometry: I30e, 31, 3le
multiplication, notation: 115 secant: 127, 27e, 29, 29e
N=gon? I3, 3e second magnification principle: 132, 32e, CP10
numbers, construction of: C5, 5e, 6, 6e segment: I1, le, 2e, CP2
obtuse angle, definition of: I23e segment, copying: Cl
obtuse triangle: Cl6, l6e segment, in co-ordinate geometry: P14, 14e
octohedron, construction of: Cl3e segment, in sphereworld: 136, 36e
octohedron, definition of: C13 segment, unique through two points: CP2
outside, of angle: 14 Side Angle Side property: 118, 18e
parallel lines: I11, 12, l2e, 14 Side Side Side property: I10, 10e, 18, 18e
parallel lines, magnification and: 119 side, of triangle: I2
parallel lines, notation: I11 similar triangles: I29e
parallel slices, principle of (in 3 dimensions): similarity: I20, 20e, 21, 2le
i3)3 sine, definition of: I27
parallel slices, principle of: 113, 13e, 32e sine: I27e, 29, 29e
parallel lines, construction of: C4, 4e, CP3 sine of a sum of two angles: 130e
parallelism of planes, definition: I34e sines, law of: 130, 30e
parallelogram: I7e size, of angle: I4, 4e
parallelogram, construction of: C7, Je Space, distance in: Pll, lle
parallelogram, definition of: C4e space, motions of: P12, 12e
pentagon, construction of regular: C9, 9e sphere: 135, 35e
pentagon, definition of: 13 sphere, in co-ordinate geometry: P14
perpendicular bisector: C3e, 17, CP4 sphere, surface area of: I38e
perpendicular bisector, concurrence theorem for: sphere, volume of: I37, 37e
Clie sphereworld: 135, 35e, C22, 22e
perpendicular lines: [11 square root, construction of: C6, 6e
perpendicular lines, construction of: C3, 3e, CP3 Square, construction of: C8, 8e
 Index 167

SSS property: 110, 10e, 18, 18e triangle, definition: 12

SSS property, proof of: P17 triangle, definition of acute: Cl6, l6e
straight angle: 14 triangle, definition of
obtuse: Cl6, l6e
subtracting, angles: I4e triangle, definition of
right: Cl6, lée
subtraction, construction of: C5 triangle, finding center of: 122, 22e
supplementary angles: I8e triangle, hyperbolic: 140e
tangent (to a circle), definition of: 125 triangle, in co-ordinate geometry: P14
tangent (to a polygon), definition of: C9e triangle, in sphereworld: I36e
tangent: 127, 27e, 28, 28e, 29, 29e triangle, notation: 110
tangent, to circle and from point on circle: CP19 triangle, right: I27
tangent, to circle and from point outside of triangle, similarity of: 120, 20e, 21, 2ie
circle: CP20 trigonometry: I27, 29, 29e
tetrahedron: Cl3e vertex, of angle: 14
tetrahedron, construction of regular: C12 vertex, of triangle: I2
translations in the plane: P6, 6e, CP12 vertical angles, principle of: I14e
trapezoid: I13e vertical flips in the plane: P8, 8e, CP14
triangle (spherical), area39e of: 139; volume: 133, 33e, 37, 37e
triangle: I2, 2e, 18, 18e, P13, 13e, aWi Be CP6-8 volume, in magnification: Il5e, 16, lée, I32e
triangle inequality: P13, 1l3e, 14e, 15, 15e Walking north, east, south, and west in the plane:
triangle, altitudes of: C16, l6e [5, Se¢,, 2
triangle, area of: 131, 3le widget: I5
triangle, construction of baricenter: C15, 15e Z-principle: 1r2, 12e
triangle, construction of regular: C8, 8e Z-principle, converse: I1l2e
triangle, construction of spherical: C22, 22e
triangle, copying: Cl, le
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