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TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY OF MOMBASA. SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL AND AUTOMOTIV (GINEERING Heat Transfer and Heat Exchanger TMC 4404/TMC 4415 CLASS: BTME/A Y4S1 LECTURE NOTES Prepared by: Njeru Gatumu (mm Heat Transfer and Heat Exchanger TMC 4404 Learning Outcomes for the Unit: At the end of this course the student will be able to: Explain the relative significance of heat transfer by various modes. Describe heat exchangers designed, fabrication and use in industry. Apply the laws of thermodynamics to Heat transfer processes; Apply the laws of heat flow processes in Heat exachangers; wenn Make basic calculations of heat transfer in engineering systems.; Chapter 1 Heat Transfer by conduction and convection Learning outcomes: After completing solving of problems, and reading explanations and examples in this chapter, the student should be able to: 1, Explain the terminologies used in heat transfer, Describe heat transfer processes of conduction, and convection and radiation, Derive the expressions heat transfer through common materials and shapes, Apply derived equations of heat transfer to solve problems, Relate given heat transfer processes to their practical applications in thermodynamics sys- tems. 1.1 Introduction ‘The transfer of heat across the boundaries of a system, either to or from the system, has been considered for non-flow and flow processes; the definition of heat as simply stated that; heat is form of energy which is transferred from one body to another body at a lower temperature by virtue of the temperature difference between the bodies. When the mechanism of the transfer of heat is considered a slightly different approach is necessary compared with the approach of fundamental thermodynamics. For instance it becomes difficult to define a system. In order to illustrate this point consider a bar of metal being heated at one end and cooled at the other. Now a boundary may be put round the source of heat or round the sink for the rejection of heat, but a boundary encircling the metal bar encloses a body the temperature of which varies throughout its length. In order to apply the laws of thermodynamics to the system consisting of the metal bar, a mean temperature must be assumed. In solids, the heat is conducted by the following two mechanisms: + By lattice vibration (The faster moving molecules or atoms in the hottest part of a body transfer heat by impacts some of their energy to adjacent molecules). + By transport of free electrons (Free electrons provide an energy flux in the direction of decreasing temperature. For metals, especially good electrical conductors, the electronic mechanism is responsible for the major portion of the heat flux except at low temperature). In case of gases, the mechanism of heat conduction is simple. The kinetic energy of a molecule is a function of temperature. These molecules are in a continuous random motion exchanging energy and momentum. When a molecule from the high temperature region collides with a molecule from the low temperature region, it loses energy by collisions. In liquids, the mechanism of heat is nearer fo that of gases. However, the molecules are more closely spaced and intermolecular forces come into play. In previous studies many problems have been considered in which a certain quantity of heat has been transferred from one system to another. In this chapter we shall be concerned with the rate at which heat is transferred. The rate of heat transfer may be constant or variable, depending on whether conditions are such that the temperatures remain the same or change continually with time, Most problems in practice are concerned with steady-state heat transfer, in which heat flows continuously at a uniform rate, but there are many cases of transient heat transfer and some of these will also be considered. In general there are three ways in which heat may be transferred: Conduction, Convection and Radiation, 1.1.1 Conduction Conduction is the transfer of heat from one part of a substance to another part of the same substance, or from one substance to another in physical contact with it, without appreciable displacement of the molecules forming the substance. For example, the heat transfer in the metal bar mentioned previously is by conduction. 1.1.2 Convection Convection is the transfer of heat within a fluid by the mixing of one portion of the fluid with another. The movement of the fluid may be caused by differences in density resulting from the temperature differences as in natural convection (or free convection), or the motion may be produced by mechanical means, as in forced convection. For example, the heat transferred from a hot-plate to the atmosphere is by natural convection, whereas the heat transferred by a domestic fan-heater, in which a fan blows air across an electric element, is by forced convection. ‘The transfer of heat through solid bodies is by conduction alone, whereasthe heat transfer from a solid surface to a liquid or gas takes place partly byconduction and partly by convection. When- ever there is an appreciablemovement of the gas or liquid, the heat transfer by conduction in the gas or liquid becomes negligibly small compared with the heat transfer by convection. However, there is always a thin boundary layer of fluid on a surface, and through this thin film the heat is transferred by conduction, + Convection is possible only in a fluid medium and is directly linked with the transport of, medium itself, + Convection constitutes the macroform of the heat transfer since macroscopic particles of a fluid moving in space cause the heat exchange. * The effectiveness of heat transfer by convection depends largely upon the mixing motion of the fluid. This mode of heat transfer is met with in situations where energy is transferred as heat to a flowing fluid at any surface over which flow occurs. This mode is basically conduction in a very thin fluid layer at the surface and then mixing caused by the flow. The heat flow depends on the properties of fluid and is independent of the properties of the material of the surface. However, the shape of the surface will influence the flow and hence the heat transfer. Free or natural convection. // Free or natural convection: occurs where the fluid circulates by virtue of the natural differences in densities of hot and cold fluids ; the denser portions of the fluid move downward because of the greater force of gravity, as compared with the force on the less dense. Forced convection: When the work is done to blow or pump the fluid, it is said to be forced convection. 1.1.3 Radiation All matter continuously emits electromagnetic radiation unless its temperature is absolute zero. It is found that the higher the temperature then the greater is are so placed that the radiation from each body is intercepted by the other, then the body at the lower temperature will receive more energy than it is radiating, and hence its internal energy will increase; similarly the internal energy of the body at the higher temperature will decrease. Thus there is a net transfer of energy from the high-temperature body to the low-temperature body by virtue of the temperature differ- ence between the bodies. This form of energy transfer satisfies the definition of heat given in the previous study, and hence we may say that heat is transferred by radiation, (NG Details of heat by radiation will be studied under a separate topics due to its distinct heat transfer mechanism. In any particular example in practice, heat may be transferred by a combination of conduction, convection, and radiation, and it is usually possible to assess the effects of each mode of heat transfer separately and then to sum up the results. There are two main groups of problems; frst the desirable transfer of heat to or from a fluid as in a heat exchanger, boiler, ot condenser, and second, the prevention of heat losses from a fluid to its surroundings 1.2 Heat Transfer by Conduction 1.2.1 Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction Fourier’s law of heat conduction is an empirical law based on observation and states as follows: “The rate of flow of heat through a simple homogeneous solid is directly proportional to the area of the section at right angles to the direction of heat flow, and to change of temperature with respect to the length of the path of the heat flow”. Mathematically, it can be represented by the equation: dt Qa Are where, Q = Heat flow through a body per unit time (in watts), W, A= Surface area of heat flow (perpendicular to the direction of flow), m> dt = Temperature difference of the faces of block (homogeneous solid) of thickness ‘dx’ through which dx = Thickness of body in the direction of flow, m. ‘The law is illustrated in Figure 1.1(a) in which a thin slab of material of thickness dx and surface area A has one face at a temperature t and the other at a temperature (t + dt). ‘Then applying Fourier’s law we have for the rate of heat flow in the direction x, at ie, Rate of heat flow.Q % AT =ek-att an Thus, a where, k = Constant of proportionality and is known as thermal conductivity of the body. ‘The -ve sign of k [equation (1.1)] is to take care of the decreasing temperature along with the dt direction of increasing thickness or the direction of heat fow. The temperature gradient — is always negative along positive x direction and therefore the value of Q becomes +ve. Figure 1.1: Heat flow through a thin slab of material. Temp. (t + dt) Area A Texip. NZ Ae @ (b) The rate of heat flow in the direction x is taken as positive, hence the negative sign in equation (LI) since dt is always negative. The term A is called the thermal conductivity of the material. 1.2.2. Thermal Conductivity of Materials ‘The thermal conductivity of a substance can be defined as the heat flow per unit area per unit time when the temperature decreases by one degree in unit distance. ‘The units of A are usually written as W /m K or kW /m K. Consider the transfer of heat through a slab of material as shown in Figure 1.1 (b). At section X-X, using equation equation (1.1). Integrating or a -af kat This equation can be solved when the variation of thermal conductivity, k, with temperature, t, is known, Now for most solids the value of the thermal conductivity is approximately constant over a wide range of temperatures, and therefore k can be taken as constant, ak {at AK, Stub) 2) ie, Qx= Ak Flean) or, Q Note that in this case the area in the direction at right angles to the heat flow remains constant through the slab. Cases will be considered later in which the area varies. The thermal conductivities of some materials encountered in engineering are shown in Table 1.1. It follows from equation equation (1.1) that materials with high thermal conductivities are good conductors of heat, whereas materials with low thermal conductivities are good thermal insulators. Conduction of heat occurs most readily in pure metals, less so in alloys, and much less readily in non-metals. The very low thermal conductivities of certain thermal insulators (e.g. cork) are due to their porosity, the air tapped within the material acting as an insulator. Gases and liquids are good insulators, but unless a completely stagnant layer of fluid is obtained, heat is transferred by convection currents. Assumptions: ‘The following are the assumptions on which Fourier’s law is based: 1. Conduction of heat takes place under steady state conditions. The heat flow is unidirectional. ‘The temperatures gradient is constant and the temperature profile is linear. 2 3 4, There is no internal heat generation. 5, The bounding surfaces are isothermal in character. 6 The material is homogeneous and isotropic (i¢., the value of thermal conductivity is con- stant in all directions), Some essential features of Fourier’s Law: Following ate some essential features of Fourier’s law. 1. It is applicable to all matter (may be solid, liquid or gas) 2. It is based on experimental evidence and cannot be derived from first principle. 3. It is a vector expression indicating that heat flow rate is in the direction of decreasing temperature and is normal to an isotherm, 4, It helps to define thermal conductivity ‘k’ (transport property) of the medium through which heat is conducted. From equation (1.1), we have, k= = The value of k= 1 when Q= 1, A= Land 5 Q a Now k= 2+; unit of k: W x WimK or Wim ° ‘Thermal conductivity (a property of material) depends essentially upon the following factors: 1. Material structure, 3. Density of the material, 4, Pressure and temperature (operating con- 2. Moisture content, ditions), Table 1.1: Thermal conductivities (average values at normal pressure and temperature) of some common materials. SINo. | Material ‘Thermal conductivity (k) | S/No. | Material Thermal conductivity (k) (W/mK) (W/mK) 1. | Silver 410 8 Asbestos sheet | 0.17 2. | Copper 385 9. Ash 0.12 3. | Aluminum 225 10. | Cork, felt 0.05-0.10 4. | Castiron 55-65 11. | Saw dust 0.07 5. | Steel 20-45 12, | Glass wool | 0.03 6. | Concrete 1.20 13. | Water 0.55-0.7 7. _| Glass (window) | 0.75 14. | Freon 0.0083 Following points regarding thermal conductivity-its variation for different materials and under different conditions are worth noting 1. Thermal conductivity of a material is due to flow of free electrons (in case of metals) and lattice vibrational waves (in case of fluids). 2, Thermal conductivity in case of pure metals is the highest (k = 10 to 400 W/m*C). It de- creases with increase in impurity. The range of k for other materials is as follows: Alloys: = 1210 120 Wh Heat insulating and building materials: k = 0.023 102.9. Wim" Liquids: k = 0.2 to 0.5 W/m'C Gases and vapours: k = 0.006 to 0.05 W/m’C Thermal conductivity of a metal varies considerably when it (metal) is heat treated or mechanically processed/formed. ‘Thermal conductivity of most metals decreases with the increase in temperature (alu- ‘minium and uranium being the exceptions). + In most of liquids the value of thermal conductivity tends to decrease with tempera- ture (water being an exception) due to decrease in density with increase in tempera- ture. + In case of gases the value of thermal conductivity increases with temperature. Gases with higher molecular weights have smaller thermal conductivities than with lower molecular weights. This is because the mean molecular path of gas molecules de- creases with increase in density and k is directly proportional to the mean free path of the molecule. ‘The dependence of thermal conductivity (k) on temperature, for most materials is almost linear; k=ko(1+ Br) (1.3) where, kp = Thermal conductivity at 0°C, and B = Temperature coefficient of thermal conductivity, 1/°C. It is usually (positive for non-metals and insulating materials (magnesite bricks being the exception) and negative for metallic conductors aluminium and certain non-ferrous alloys are the exceptions) In case of solids and liquids, thermal conductivity (k) is only very weakly dependent on pressure; in case of gases the value of k is independent of pressure (near standard atmo- spheric). In case of non-metallic solids: + Thermal conductivity of porous materials depends upon the type of gas or liquid present in the voids. + Thermal conductivity of a damp material is considerably higher than that of the dry material and water taken individually. + Thermal conductivity increases with increase in density. ‘The Wiedemann and Franz law (based on experiment results), regarding thermal and elec- trical conductivities of a material, states as follows: “The ratio of the thermal and electri- cal conductivities is the same for all metals at the same temperature; and that the ratio is directly proportional to the absolute temperature of the metal.” k Mathematically, gor or —=C (4) where, __k = Thermal conductivity of metal at temperature T(K), 6 = Electrical conductivity of metal at temperature T(K), and C= Constant (for all metals) is referred to as Lorenz number (=2.45 x 107*W22/K?; Ostands for ohms) This law conveys that the materials which are good conductors of electricity are also good conductors of heat. Example 1.1 ‘The inner surface of a plane brick wall is at 40 °C and the outer surface is at 20 °C. Calculate the rate of heat transfer per unit area of wall surface; the wall is 250 mm thick and the thermal conductivity of the brick is 0.52 W/m K. Solution: From equation (1.2) Ak QZ (u-b) therefore, Q__ 10 x0.52 ye 2 J =4= 359 — * (40-20) = 41.6 W im Note that the symbol q is used for the rate of heat transfer per unit area. 1.2.3. Thermal Resistance (R,;) When two physical systems are described by similar equations and have similar boundary con- ditions, these are said to be analogous. The heat transfer processes may be compared by analogy with the flow of electricity in an electrical resistance. As the flow of electric current in the electri- cal resistance is directly proportional to potential difference (dV) ; similarly heat flow rate,Q, is directly proportional to temperature difference (dt), the driving force for heat conduction through a medium. As per Ohm’s law (in electric-circuit theory), we have Potential difference (dV) Current (1) = (1.5) By analogy, the heat flow equation (Fourier’s equation) may be written as Temperature difference (dt) (6) (ae \kA Heat flow rate(Q) = By comparing equations (1.5) and (1.6), we find that I is analogus to, Q, dV is analogous to dt and R is analogous to the quantity (©). The quantity (2) is cated thermal conduct and R i analogous to the quantity { F). The quantity (Fis called thermal conduction ax resistance (Ry, cond. (Figure 1.2) ie, (Ren)cona. = ER ‘The reciprocal of the thermal resistance is called thermal conduc- tance La : It may be noted that rules for combining electrical resistances in {9 Apap, series and parallel apply equally well to thermal resistances, ax ‘The concept of thermal resistance is quite helpful white making Rn= A calculations for flow of heat. Figure 1.2: Analogy of ther- mal resistance to electrical 1.2.4 Heat Conduction Through Plane and Com- "sistance: posite Walls Conduction through a plane wall Referring to Figure 1.3 (a). Consider a plane wall of homogeneous material through which heat is flowing only in x-direction. Let, L-= Thickness of the plane wall, ‘A= Cross-sectional area of the wall, k= Thermal conductivity of the wall material, and ti tz = Temperatures maintained at the two faces | and 2 of the wall, respectively. From equation (1.41), the general heat conduction equation in cartesian coordinates is given by: at dt at ae oe tot tae tk ¥ ala a If the heat conduction takes place under the conditions, steady state (3! = 0), one-dimensional Ta _ at : q a x 0. and with no internal heat generation x 0 then the above equation is reduced to: - ar jaro ay By integrating the above differential twice, we have ar Fez Crands = Cy 4+ Ce (1.8) where C, and C; are the arbitrary constants, The values of these constants may be calculated from the known boundary conditions as follows Atx=0t=ty Plane wall ait boa oI (Ra) cons () Figure 1.3: Heat conduction through a plane wall AUXSLt=t ‘Substituting the values in the equation (1.8), we get t) = + Cz and t = CL + Cy After simpli- = fication, we have, Cz = t; and Cy = a ‘Thus, the equation (1.8) reduces to +t (1.9) ‘The equation (1.9) indicates that temperature distribution across a wall is linear and is indepen- dent of thermal conductivity. Now heat through the plane wall can be found by using Fourier's equation, eqn. (1.9) as follows: dt /dt mm \ KA = temperature gradient (1.10) Equation (1.10) can be written as: aap where, (Rp)eond. = Thermal resistance to heat conduction. Figure 1.3 (b) shows the equivalent thermal circuit for heat flow through the plane wall Let us now find out the condition when instead of space, weight is the main criterion for selection of the insulation of a plane wall. ‘Thermal resistance (conduction) of the wall, Rr )eond. = @ Mass of the wall, m = pA L, Gi) Eliminating L from eqn.(i) and eqn.(ii), we get m= pA (Rr Jeans KA = (PI0A™(Rr ond (1.12) The equation (1.12) stipulates the condition that, for a specified thermal resistance, the lightest insulation will be one which has the smallest product of density (p) and thermal conductivity &), Heat conduction through a composite wall Referring Figure 1.4(a). Consider the transmission of heat through a composite wall consisting of a number of slabs. Let x4, Xp,Xc = Thicknesses of slabs A, B and C respectively (also called path lengths), ka,kg, Ke, = Thermal conductivities of the slabs A, B and C respectively, tu,ta(t1 >t) = Temperatures at the wall surfaces 1 and 4 respectively, and ty, ty = Temperatures at the interfaces 2 and 3 respectively. + Interfaces, 4) e 5 Lo, “4 “Temperature rote ke © K TORE Bokeko alk be te ay SAMA WWWX Raa Roe = ts - Peo air Rae @) Figure 1.4: Steady state conduction through a composite wall Since the quantity of heat transmitted per unit time through each slab/layer is same, we have ka AC =) _ ke A(oets) _ ke Alb eta) xa Xp Xe Q (Assuming that there is a perfect contact between the layers and no temperature drop occurs actoss the interface between the materials) Rearranging the above expression, we get ub p oe @ = xe O° GTA Gi) (iii) ), Gi) and (iii), we have ye 7 xa XB (aru) = CORT RA on Alum ty) as) aM lz Kp Ke_ and, tue) ft) a4 XA Xp Xe [Ra +Ra+Re] UA kp A eA | If the composite wall consists of n slabs/layers, then ti sty @ (usta) (1s) Linx In order to solve more complex problems involving both series and parallel thermal resistances, the electrical analogy may be used. A typical problem and its analogous electric circuit are shown in Figure 1.5. Moveralt a= ee (1.16) Thermal contact resistance. In a composite (multi-layer) wall, the calculations of heat flow are made on the assumptions: (i) The contact between the adjacent layers is perfect, (ii) At the interface there is no fall of temperature, and (iii) At the interface the temperature is continuous, although there is discontinuity in temperature gradient In real systems, however, due to surface roughness and void spaces (usually filled with air) the contact surfaces touch only at discrete locations. Thus there is not a single plane of contact, © J composte wat ®la Re Re Figure 1.5: Series and parallel one-dimensional heat transfer through a composite wall and elec trical analog. which means that the area available for the flow of heat at the interface will be small compared to geometric face area. Due to this reduced area and presence of air voids, a large resistance to heat flow at the interface occurs. ‘This resistance is known as thermal contact resistance and it causes temperature drop between two materials at the interface as shown in Figure 1.10. Figure 1.6; Temperature drops Composite wall at the interfaces. ~—L temperaure crop —~g~at the interface (A-B) o,f, =" + temperature sop ——geteies ts Referring Figure 1.10. The contact resistances are given by (y=) (Ras)ens = 25S and (Rae )ona = Qi Example 1.2 ‘The inner surface of a plane brick wall is at 60°C and the outer surface is at 35°C. Calculate the rate of heat transfer per m” of surface area of the wall, which is 220 mm thick. The thermal con- ductivity of the brick is 0.51 W/m"C. Solution: Referring to Figure 1.7 ‘Temperature of the inner surface of the wall, t; = 60°C. ‘Temperature of the outer surface of the wall, t, = 35°C The thickness of the wall, L = 220 mm = 0.22 m Brick wall (k=0.51 Wimec) = 0.51 Wim'C Thermal conductivity of the brick, Rate of heat transfer per mq: Rate of heat transfer per unit area, _ Q_ (ty = ty) 0.51 x (60-35) 4° Ra 0.22 = 57.95.Wim”, Example 1.3 A reactor’s wall 320 mm thick, is made up of an inner layer of fire brick (k = 0.84 W/m°C) covered with a layer of insulation (k = 0.16 W/m°C). The reactor operates at a temperature of 1325°C and the ambient temperature is 25°C. (a) Determine the thickness of fire brick and insulation which gives minimum heat loss; (b) Calculate the heat loss presuming that the insulating material has a maximum temperature of 1200°C; (©) If the calculated heat loss is not acceptable, then state whether addition of another layer of insulation would provide a satisfactory solution. Solution: Referring to Figure 1.8 > Frere Given: [— nwaten ty = 1325°C;ty = 1200°C, ty = 25°C: XatKXp 20 mm or 0.32m or xp =(0.32—x,) ky = 0.84Wim’C: ky = 0.16W/m°C. (a) Thickness of fire brick and insulation x, & xp: ‘The heat flux, under steady state conditions, is constant throughout the wall and is same for each layer. Then for 0 [enrleng->| unit area of wall from eqn.(1.13) ie., a= (ti-ts) xa, Xe, Xe Figure 1.8: The heat transfer through ig tp Ske vall for E: 3. Lia * kp x] a. composite wall for Example 1.3 rey ee (1325 - 1200) XA 084 (1300) 12: or, x 4525(032-x,) XA (1300) 125 on T08=4.25x, Xa of, 1300x4 = 125(1.68 -4.25x4) and, X4= 0.1146 m or 114.6 mm. also, Thickness of insulation xp = 320— 114.6 = 205.4 mm. (b) Heat loss per unit area, q: _ (ti-ty) _ 1325-1200 _ 2 Heat loss per unit area, q= “5 = JT gg = 91628 Wit Ks If another layer of insulating material is added, the heat loss from the wall will reduce ; conse- quently the temperature drop across the fire brick lining will drop and the interface temperature > will rise, As the interface temperature is already fixed. Therefore, a satisfactory solution will not be available by adding layer of insulation. Example 1.4 An exterior wall of a house may be approximated by a 0.1 m layer of common brick (k = 0.7 ‘Wim°C) followed by a 0.04 m layer of gypsum plaster (k = 0.48 W/m‘C). Determine the thickness of loosely packed rock wool insulation (k = 0.065 W/m°C) that should be added to reduce the heat loss or (gain) through the wall by 80 per cent. Solution: Referring to Figure 1.9 Given: ‘Thickness of common brick, x4 = 0.1 m ‘Thickness of gypsum plaster,xp = 0.04 m Thickness of rock wool, = xe (in m) =? ‘Thermal conductivities: Common brick, ky = 0.7 W/m°C Gypsum plaster, ky = 0.48 W/m Rock wool, ke = 0.065 W/m°C. From eqn.(I.13)ie., = ‘Common brick (Gypaum plaster Taking temperature difference to be At in case, Case I. Rock wool insulation not used: AAt)_A(At) [xa xa\ 01, 004 Qa (ka tip) 0770.8 bn Case Il. Rock woo! insulation used: i A(At) “a ie, Q= Xa, Xa, Xe + ky kp ke : A(At) “Tol 004 xe 07 * 048 * 0.065 But Q, = (1-0.8)Q; = 0.20, ACAD) A(At) Jor, 00f xe “OL, 004 048 * 0.065_ o7* 048 or, 0.1428 + 0.0833 = 0.2[0.1428 + 0.0833 + 15.385x] and, 0.2261 = .2(0.2261 + 15.385x) thus, x = 0.0588 m or $8.8 mm Therefore, the thickness of rock wool insulation should be 58.8 mm. Example 1.5 A furnace wall consists of 200 mm layer of refractory bricks, 6 mm layer of steel plate and a 100 mm layer of insulation bricks. The maximum temperature of the wall is 1150°C on the furnace side and the minimum temperature is 40°C on the outermost side of the wall. An accurate energy balance over the furnace shows that the heat loss from the wall is 400 W/m”. It is known that there is a thin layer of air between the layers of refractory bricks and steel plate. Thermal conductivities for the three layers are 1.52, 45 and 0.138 W/in‘C respectively. Evaluate: (a) Number of millimetres of insulation brick equivalent to the air layer, (b) the temperature of the outer surface of the steel plate Solution: Referring to Figure ?? Given: Thickness of refractory bricks, x4 = 200 mm = 0.2 m ‘Thickness of steel plate, x¢ = 6 mm = 0.006 m ‘Thickness of insulation bricks, xp = 100 mm = 0.1 m Difference of temperature between the innermost and outermost side of the wall, At = 1150=40 = 1110°C ‘Thermal conductivities: ky = 1.52 W/m°C ; kB = kD = 0.138 W/m°C ; kC = 45 Wim"C ‘Heat loss from the wall, q = 400 W/m" Figure 1.10: Heat loss through Composite wall a composite wall for Example 15. 4 -remperature drop —~g~at the interface (A-B) af © remperature op + atthe interface (BC) i ts (a) The value of xp: ‘We know, from eqn.(1.15), ie, 1110 Bee 02. xp/1000 0.006 isa * 0138 * 45 _ 1110 _ 1110 = Q.1316 + 0.0072xq + 0.00013 + 0.7246 ~ 0.8563 +0.0072xp 110 and, 0.8563 +0.0072xy = yy = 2.775 2.775 +0.8563 ie. Xo =p oory = 266.5 mm, (b) Temperature of the outer surface of the steel plate t,o: = 490 = (2749) 4=400= kp (159-40) . 400 = M40) 1 3(1,, = ” 00 = Forse = 138 40) or, ty = x 40 = 329.8" Example 1.6 Calculate the heat flow rate through the composite wall shown in Figure 1.11, Assume one dimensional flow. ka = 150 Wim"C, kg = 30 Wim'C, ke = 65 W/m"C and Kp = 50 Wim"C. Solution: Referring to Figure 1.11 Given: ‘The thermal circuit for heat flow in the given composite system (Figure 1.11) has been illustrated in Figure 1.12. Thickness : x4 =3 cm=0.03 m; xg = x¢ = 8 cm = 0.08 m; xp =5em=0.05 m Areas: Ay = 0.1 X 0.1 = 0.01 m? ; Ap = 0.1 x 0.03 = 0.003 m™ Ac =0.1 x 0.07 = 0.007 m? ; Ap = 0.1 x 0.1=0.01 m? Heat flow rate, Q: The thermal resistances are given by equation, L Rreont = ER SEsen Tol Bren Figure 1.11: One dimensional heat flow through a composite slab for Ex- ample 1.6. Xa _ 0.08 KyAa 1500.01 Rr-a= 0.02 0.03 KeAc * 85x0.007 Re pe 0.05 T-P~ Ap 500.001 — 0.176 o1 ‘The equivalent thermal resistance for the parallel ther- mal resistances Rpg and Ry-c is given by: 1 1 L Log Bq” Brow * Brac = O39 * a7 1 (Rr Jeg = GyoH = 0-147 Now, the total ther- so mal resistance is given by (Rr sora =Rr=a + (Rr eq + Ry_p = 0.02+ 0.147 +0.1 = 0.267 a 9 (Atjoverait _ (400-60) . a Let ell a Ee4Ww 1 [Reo Riot 0-267 vane ty Figure 1.12: One dimensional heat flow through a composite slab for Ex- ample 1.6. 1.2.5 The Overall Heat-transfer Coeffi- cient Newton’s law of cooling In order to consider the rate at which heat is transferred from one fluid to another through a plane wall it is nec- essary to know something of the way in which heat is transferred from a solid surface to a fluid and vice versa Newton's law of cooling states that the heat transfer from a solid surface of area A, at a temperature ty, to a fluid of temperature 1, is given by Q=aA(t,-1) (17) where @ is called the heat transfer coefficient. The units of a are seen to be W /m” K, or kW /m” K. The heat transfer coefficient, 0, depends on the properties of the fluid and on the fluid velocity; it is usually necessary to evaluate it by experiment. This will be discussed more fully in later section studies, Equation (1.17) does not include the heat loss from the surface by radiation, This effect can be calculated separately, and in many cases is negligible compared with the heat transferred by conduction and convection from the surface to the fluid. When the surface temperature is high, or when the surface loses heat by natural convection, then the heat transfer due to radiation is of a similar magnitude to that lost by convection. Figure 1.13: ‘Temperature variation for heat transfer from one fluid to another through a dividing wall Consider the transfer of heat from a fluid A to a fluid B through a dividing wall of thickness x, and thermal conductivity, 2, as shown in Figure 1.13. The variation of temperature in the direction of the heat transfer is also shown, In fluid A the temperature decreases rapidly from to ty in the region of the wall, and similarly in fluid B the temperature decreases rapidly from ty to tg in the region of the wall. In most practical cases the fluid temperature is approximately constant throughout its bulk, apart from a thin film near the solid surface bounding the fluid. The dotted lines drawn on Figure 1.13 show that the thickness of this film of uid is given by 5, for fluid A and dp for fluid B. The heat transfer in these films is by conduction only, hence applying equation (1.10) we have, considering unit surface area, from fluid A to the wall. k, a= Fant) @ from the wall to fluid B ke, 5 (o-ta) (b) Also from equation (1.17), from fluid A to the wall a= a4(u th) © from the wall to fluid B 4= ap(-ts) @ Comparing equations (a) and (c), and equations (b) and (d), it can be seen that m= In general, a = =, where 5 is the thickness of the stagnant film of fluid on the surface. ‘The heat flow through the wall in Figure 1.13 is given by equation (1.10). k ie., for unit surface area.g, = (4) 2) For steady-state heat transfer, the heat flowing from fluid A to the wall is equal to the heat flowing through the wall, which is also equal to the heat flowing from the wall to fluid B. If this were not so, then the temperatures t,, ty , tp and tg would not remain constant but would change with time. We therefore have k ) 42 a(t) = $4.) = op( ty) Rewriting these equations in terms of the temperatures, then a G-w)=Fi e-wW)=a (u-t)=4 (u-t)= gs a= a Hence adding the corresponding sides of the three equations (u-t)+(u-b) +(-W) = a foot caf tik. (u-W=4 att ap (unt) cas) te (Jaq +xik+ 1709) . 4 By analogy with equation (1.17) this can be written as, = U(ta-ts) (1.19) Q=UA(y ta) (1.20) lift x 1) where, v (am+i+a) (21) Uis called the overall heat transfer coefficient, and it has the same units as Example 1.7 A mild steel tank of wall thickness 10 mm contains water at 90 °C when the atmospheric tem- perature is 15 C. The thermal conductivity of mild steel is 50 W/mK, and the heat transfer coefficients for the inside and outside of the tank are 2800 and 11 W /m°K respectively. Calcu- late: (a) the rate of heat loss per unit area of tank surface; (b) the temperature of the outside and inside surface of the tank Solution: Referring to Figure 1.14 (a) the rate of heat loss; aa ‘The wall of the tank is shown diagrammatically in Fig- ure 1.14. : From equation (1.21), ae roelysytl ty od yd a Ben U> at kt a ~ 23007 I x50 TT ty ai 5 0.000357 + 0.0002 + 0.0909 ta 0915 Water 15°C then substituting in equation (1.19), q= Ulta stg), we have \ 2 = 820Win? Hemel 0 mm ite, Rate of heat loss per square metre of surface area=0.82KW. 1 14. tank wall for (b) temperature of the outside surface; Example 1.7. From equation (1.17), ie, q=a(te-te) or, 820 = 11x (= 15) where ty is the temperature of the outside surface of the tank as shown in Figure 1.14. 820 2, and, Frit is=a9.6°c ie, Temperature of outside surface of tank = 89.6°C 820 x 10x 107? TT +89.6 = 90.3°C k Also, 4= E(u =u) ory = ie, 90.3°C The composite wall with fluid film boundaries and the further electrical analogy There are many cases in practice when different materials are constructed in layers to form a composite wall. An example of this is the wall of a building, which usually consists of a layer of plaster, a row of bricks, an air gap, a second row of bricks, and pethaps a cement rendering on the outside surface. Consider the general case of a composite wall as shown in Figure 1.14, There are n layers of material of thickness x; , x2 , x5, etc. and of thermal conductivity ky , ky , ks , etc. On one side of the composite wall there is a fluid A at temperature ts, and the heat transfer coefficient from fluid to wall is 0%4; on the other side of the composite wall there is a fluid B, and the heat transfer coefficient from wall to fluid is dg. Let the temperature of the wall in contact with fluid A be to and the temperature of the wall in contact with fluid B be tp; the interface temperatures are then ty, fg, fy, ete. as shown. The most convenient method of solving such a problem is by making use of an electrical analogy as seen earlier. The flow of heat can be thought of as analogous to an electric current, The heat flow is caused by a temperature difference whereas the current flow is caused by a potential difference, hence it is possible to postulate a thermal resistance analogous to an electrical resistance. From Ohm's law we have, Vv R where V is the potential difference, I the current, and R the resistance. V=IRorl= Figure 1.15: Heat transfer through a.composite wall. Comparing this equation with equation (1.2), Q = kA/x(t; ~t2), we have, Thus, thermal resistance, R (1.22) where Q is analogous to I, and (t, =) is analogous to V. ‘The composite wall is analogous to a series of resistances, as shown in Figure 1.15, and resis- tances in series can be added to give the total resistance. To find the resistance of a fluid film it is necessary to compare Ohm’s law with equation (1.17) Q = @A(ty —t) 1 Thermal resistance of a fluid film, R= — (1.23) ie. . aA where, Q is analogous to I and (1,, —t) is analogous to V, Note that the units of thermal resistance are K/W ot K/KW. Referring to Figure 1.15, we therefore have, Ra Raph -ete Xn _ Rn = a dR = ok The total resistance to heat flow is then, x Rr=RtRit Rott RtRe= att Or for any number of layers of material, Total resistance, Rr = +) et (1.24) al resistance, Rr = a+) gt GK It can be seen from equation (1.24) that in this case the surface area, A, remains constant through the wall, and it is usual to calculate the total resistance for unit surface area in such problems. Cases in which the area varies through the various layers ate considered Later. Using the electrical analogy for the overall heat transfer we have, A(ta-ta) 5 Qe (1.25) (analogous to I= V/R ). In equation (1.21) the overall heat transfer coefficient, U, is defined as 1 fi x 1) Um tetas) For any number of walls we have 1 1 x ol U (x ite ) It can be seen that the reciprocal of U is simply the thermal resistance for unit area, 1 1 ie. eRrAorU= go (1.26) U RrA If the inner and outer wall surface temperatures are known then the heat transfer can be found by calculating the thermal resistance of the composite wall only, ie, R=) x ‘The overall heat transfer coefficient from one wall surface to the other is given by, Loox u d Kk It should be noted that there may be an additional thermal resistance at the various interfaces of a composite wall, due to the small pockets of air trapped between the surfaces. Example 1.8 The interior of a reftigerator having inside dimensions of 0.5 m x 0.5 m base area and 1 m height, is to be maintained at 6°C. The walls of the refrigerator are constructed of two mild steel sheets 3 mm thick (k = 46.5 W/m°C) with 50 mm of glass wool insulation (k = 0.046 W/m°C) between them, If the average heat transfer coefficients at the inner and outer surfaces are 11.6 Wim"°C and 14.5 W/m"°C respectively, calculate: (a) The rate at which heat must be removed from the interior to maintain the specified temper- ature in the kitchen at 25°C, and (b) The temperature on the outer surface of the metal sheet. Solution: Referring to Figure 1.16 Given: X4 = Xc¢ = 3 mm = 0,003 m; Xp = 50 mm = 0.05 m: ky = ke = 46.5 Wim"C ; kp = 0.046 Wim"C; hy = 11.6 Wim?°C ; hy = 14.5 Wim*C ; to=25°C: = 06°C. The total area through which heat is coming into the refrigerator A=05X05x2405x1X4=25m" a el Figure 1.16: Heat leaks through re- BPE an wall frigerator insulation for Example Mid ste 18. a oe Outside ourtace! 1 | | otretngersior | (Oi ® Sanne to} ! oo 74 thee sg —olecle— amm 50mm = 3mm (a) The rate of removal of heat, Q: From eqn. (1.18) (u-w) Bee 9 (Jaq + xIK+ Tas) And for this case, A(to=4) (1/9 +Xa/Ka +Xxp/Kp +Xc/Ke +1/0%) 2.5(25-6) T, 0.003 0.05, 0.003 116 * 465 * 0.086 * 38.2W 1 Tes, 7} 5} (b) The temperature at the outer surface of the metal sheet, t): From eqn. (1.17), ie, Q=aA(t,-t) Here, Q=aA(25-t)) 38.2 = 11.6X2.5(25-t1) 382, 16x25 ~ or, 3.68°C. and, yes Example 1.9 A furnace wall consists of 125 mm wide refractory brick and 125 mm wide insulating firebrick separated by an air gap. The outside wall is covered with a 12 mm thickness of plaster. The inner surface of the wall is at 1100 °C and the room temperature is 25 “C. The heat transfer coefficient from the outside wall surface to the air in the room is 17 ‘Wim’K, and the resistance to heat flow of the air gap is 0.16 K/W. The thermal conductivities of refractory brick, insulating firebrick, and plaster are 1.6, 0.3, and 0.14 W/mK, respectively. Calculate: (a) the rate of heat loss per unit area of wall surface; (b) the temperature at each interface throughout the wall; (©) the temperature at the outside surface of the wall. Solution: Referring to Figure 1.17 (a) rate of heat loss per unit area, @ ‘The wall is shown in Figure 1.17. Consider 1 m” of surface area. Then using equation (1.22), ie, Thus, Resistance of refractory brick = = 0.0781 KW Refractory Air gap _Firebrick Figure 1.17: Composite wall for Example 125 Resistance of insulating firebrick = ——— = 0.417 KW 10° x 1.6 23 Resistance of plaster = ——— = 0.0857 KW 10x16 Also, using equation (1.23) for a fluid film, re ie, ZA and, Resistance of air film on outside surface = 7 K/W . 17 Hence, 1 Total resistance, Rr = 0.0781 + 0.417 + 0.0857 + rT +0.16 where the resistance of the air gap is 0.16 K/W, ie, Rr =0.8K/W Then using equation (1.25) Then, Rate of heat loss per square metre of surface area= 1.344kW (b) temperature at each interface; Referring to Figure 1.17, the interface temperatures are t) t2, and ts; the outside surface is at ty. Applying the electrical analogy to each layer and using the values of thermal resistance calculated above, we have, _ 1100-4 QMO oTeT ie, ty = 1100 = (1344 x 0.0781) = 995°C Also, Q=1344= 0.16 ie, ty = 995 = (0.16 x 1344) = 780°C Again, Q= 1344 = ace ie., 780 — (1344 0.417) And, ic, ty = 220— (1344 x 0.0857) = = 104°C (©) temperature at the outside surface; The temperature ty can also be found by considering the air film, = _ 25 ie, Q=1344= Wi f 1) or, y= (1344 75 ) +25 and, ty = 104.1°C ‘Temperature at outside surface of wall = 104.1°C Example 1.10 ‘A furnace wall is made up of three layers of thicknesses 250 mm, 100 mm and 150 mm with thermal conductivities of 1.65, k and 9.2 W/m‘C respectively. The inside is exposed to gases at 1250°C with a convection coefficient of 25 W/m’*C and the inside surface is at 1100°C, the outside surface is exposed air at 25°C with convection coefficient of 12 W/m?" C. Determine: (a) The unknown thermal conductivity ‘k’; (b) The overall heat transfer coefficient; (©) All surface temperatures. Solution: Referring to Figure 1.17 x4=250mm0.25m; xp = 100 mm=0.1 m; xe=150mm=0.1Sm; ky = 1.65 Wim'C: ke = 9.2 Wim'C ; ty = 1250°C ; ty = 1100' hy =25Wim?C; = 12 Wim™C (a) Thermal conductivity, k (= ks): Figure 1.18: Composite furnace wall for Example 1.10. The rate of heat transfer per unit atea of the furnace wall is obtained from eqn.(1.17), here, ie, d= atts) = OK (tht) = 25(1250 — 1100) = 3750 Wim” Also, from equation (1.25) In this case, rte (At)overait (Rr rorat = (t-te), (Rideomai—Rrhna + Renew + Rrime + (Rit Jeomae 4 (1250-25) ic, 3750 = ————_~—__*_______ . [170 Fxa]Ka +X0/Kp+xc]Ke# 1a] or, 3750 (1225) 1025 01 O15 25 "165 "Kg ° 92 . (1225) 1225 of 01 On 0.04 +0.1515 + = +0.0163 + 0.0833] 0.2911 + h Ke & ( 0.1) 3750/ 0.2911 + = | = 1225 ° i Ka) O.1 _ 1225 and, Key 73750 7 0291 = 0.0355 thus, Ky=K= 21-2817 wie. 0355 (b) The overall transfer coefficient, U: 1 ‘The overall heat transfer coefficient, U = ——— (Reh Jrorat , 1 025) ot Now, (Run)iorat = 35+ Tes + aar7 t oa .04 + 0.1515 + 0.0355 + 0.0163 + 0.083: 1 1 (Rin)rorat 09-3266 (c) Surface temperatures ; t), ti, ti, ti: 0.3266°C m’/W U = 3.06 Wim™°C. = 4a = de = de (i=) _ (o=ts) _ (sta) or, 3750= = = xalka — Xe/ky — Xc/ke (110-t) 0.25 , i Se or ty = 1100 = 3750 x 2 = 531.8°C e, O.35/L6s 2 = 100-3750 Tes = S31.8°C _ (318-6) OL _ age ge Similarly, 3150 = “Tap gig O88 = 531-8 ~3750% 5 575 = 398.6 C (398.6-t4) and, 3750 = S$ and, 750 = T5753 0. 2, or, ty = 398.6-3750% 55 = 337.5°C 3375-25, _ (3375-25) ss eee Check using outside convection, 12 1.2.6 Heat flow through a cylinder and a sphere One of the most commonly occurring problems in practice is the case of heat being transferred through a pipe or cylinder. Less common is the case of heat being transferred through a spherical wall, but both cases will now be considered. The cylinder Consider a cylinder of internal radius r) , and external radius r as shown in Figure 1.19. Let the inside and outside surface temperatures be t, and ty , respectively. Consider the heat flow through a small clement, thickness dr, at any radius r, where the temperature is t. Let the conductivity of the material be k. Then applying equation (1.1), for unit length in the axial direction, dt dt ie, Q= AZ = -kQarx 1) or, of = -2kdt Integrating between the inside and outside sur- faces, _tHoattows rasa twas) Qi? £ ~2mk f)? dt where Q and k are both constant Fidion olsen: At Element ‘Then, Qin? = ~2mk(ty—ty) = 2k(ty-t) : Soo \ ‘recto, 2ak(u=') 27) an In(ra/n) Now from equation (1.2), ie, = Sy -n) 2,4 bg sch aie) zach! If we substitute a mean area A,, in this equa- tion, and substitute also for the thickness x = Figure 1.19: Cross-section through a cylinder. (12-1), we have KAn(ti =t2) (een) ie, Comparing this equation with equation (1.27), then = KAm(G =t2) _ k(t =) (2=n) — In(n/n) Am _ 2 * (=n) n/n) and, An 2a(m—n) _ AsmAL In(r2/t1) ~ In(r2/r1) Here Ap, is called the logarithmic mean area, and using this area in equation (1.2) an exact solution is obtained. It can be seen from the above that there is also a logarithmic mean radius given by, In the case of a composite cylinder (¢.g. a metal pipe with several layers of lagging) the most convenient approach is again that of the electrical analogy; by using equation (1.22) x ie thermal resistance, R= 7 , SKA where x is the thickness of a layer, and A,, is the logarithmic mean area for that layer. From equation (1.27), applying the electrical analogy (I= V/R), it can be seen that, pa ialn) Oak (1.28) ‘The film of fluid on the inside and outside surfaces can be treated as before using equation (1.23), where Ag is the outside surface area, 2nry , referring to Figure 1.19, and a is the heat transfer coefficient for the outside surface. 1 Also, Rinite = where A; is the inside surface area, 2nr, and aj is the heat transfer coefficient for the inside surface. It can be seen from equation (1.27), 2nk(ti-tr) In(ra/r1) ie, that the heat transfer rate depends on the ratio of the radii, t/t) , and not on the difference (tz —"). The smaller the ratio, 1 /ry , then the higher is the heat flow for the same temperature difference. In many practical problems the ratio, r2/r,, tends towards unity since the pipe-wall thickness or lagging thickness is usually small compared with the mean radius. In these cases it is a sufficiently close approximation to use the arithmetic mean radius, mtn ie, ‘Arithmetic mean radius = 5 ‘The error in the rate of heat transfer in using the arithmetic mean instead of the logarithmic mean is just over 4% for a ratio r2/r; = 2. Most heat transfer experiments in practice cannot give better accuracy than about 4 or 5%, hence it is a good approximation to use the arithmetic mean area when t/t) <2. Heat conduction through a composite cylinder Consider flow of heat through a composite cylinder as shown in Figure 1.20. Let.ty = The temperature of the hot fluid flowing inside the cylinder, . = The temperature of the cold fluid (atmospheric air), k4 = Thermal conductivity of the inside layer A, ky = Thermal conductivity of the outside layer B, ty,ta,ts = Temperature at the points 1, 2 and 3 (see Figure 1.20.), 1= Length of the composite cylinder, and fj, O = Inside and outside heat transfer coefficients, Figure 1.20: Cross-section of a composite cylinder. The rate of heat transfer is given by, kg:2a(t) -ty) in@a/n) Q oy Dey Met _ kg 2al(ty—ts) In(3/t2) Rearranging the above expression, we get + 2ats “I(t te) @ Gi) (ii) =-_£ ’) c= dal wy Adding equations (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv), we have, ala 1 ini| ten * ia inges/n) o=- te) Lyd ya ion tk Ep In(zq/r)) Ins /r2) 2nl(ty-t) = ein) . n/n) (1.29) Lien’ ky kp thon, If there are ‘n’ concentric cylinders, then emt (1.30) Tami 3 eiiealtad+ If inside the outside heat transfer coefficients are not considered then the above equation can be written as, 2ax[t tity] gine /n] Example 1.4 A steel pipe of 100 mm bore and 7 mm wall thickness, carrying steam at 260 °C, is insulated with 40 mm of a moulded high-temperature diatomaceous carth covering, this covering in turn insulated with 60 mm of asbestos felt. ‘The atmospheric temperature is 15 “C. The heat transfer coefficients for the inside and outside surfaces are 550 and 15 W /m°K respectively, and the thermal conductivities of steel, diatoma- ceous earth, and asbestos felt are 50, 0.09, and 0.07 WimK respectively Calculate: (a) the rate of heat loss by the steam per unit length of pipe; (b) the temperature of the outside surface. Solution: Referring to Figure 1.21 (a) the rate of heat loss; A cross-section of the pipe is shown in Figure 1.21 314mm Consider I m length of the pipe. From equation (1.23), 1 ie., R=aq 3 107 and, Resistance of steam film = spy agyq = 0.00579 KW "0m From equation (1.28), for the steel pipe, 13mm In(ea/21) Figure 1.21: Cross- ic, R= section through an in- sulated cylinder for Ex- 1n(57/50) ample 1.4. Resistance of pipe = >a) = 0.000417 KAW . _1n(97/57) _ Similarly, Resistance of diatomaceous earth = > ae = 0.94 KW _ 1n(157/97) _ and, Resistance of asbestos felt = =p Gz = 1.095 KW From equation (1.23), for the air film on the outside surface R ce of air flm = — 0 = 0.0675 KW sistance of air lm = > = Teae per = 0.0675 Hence, Total resistance, Ry = 0.00579 +0.000417 +0.94 + 1.095 -+0.0675 = 2.1087 KW Note that the resistance to heat flow of the pipe metal is very small; also in this case the resistance of the film on the inside surface is very small because the heat transfer coefficient for steam is high. ‘Then, using equation (1.25) thus, Rate of heat loss per metre length of pipe = 116 W (b) the temperature of the outside surface; Using the electrical analogy for the air film we have r =u6= 4 aso. Q=NS= a 9675 where, tis the temperature of the outside surface or, 1= (116 x 0.0675) +15 =22.8°C Hence, ‘Temperature of outside surface = 22.8°C Example 1.5 A thick walled tube of stainless steel with 20 mm inner diameter and 40 mm outer diameter is cov- i Resa: ered with a 30 mm layer of asbestos insulation (k= i ‘Samiess ees! 0.2 W/m‘ C). If the inside wall temperature of the + pipe is maintained at 600°C and the outside insu- Ae Jation at 100°C, calculate the heat loss per metre of length. ore Solution: Referring to Figure 1.22 Given, 26 & => =20mm=0.02m 15 = 20 +30 = 50mm = 0.05 m t, = 600°C, t; = 100°C, kg = 0.2 W/m°C Heat transfer per metre of length, Q/l: Figure 1.22: Cross-section through an insu- From equation, lated cylinder for Example 1.5 r= 5 =10mm=001m 2m\(t,—te) In(ta/m) , In(rs/r2) ke Q= and since the thermal conductivity of stainless steel is not given, then resistance offered by stainless steel to heat transfer across the tube is neglected, Q _ 2a(ta-te) Be 7 Tnles/r2) ie., g 2(600= 1000) _ 549 57 Wim 1n(0.05/0.02) 02 Negative sign indicates that the heat transfer takes place radially inward. Example 1.6 Hot air at a temperature of 65°C is flowing through a ste! pipe of 120 mm diameter. The pipe is covered with two layers of different insulating materials of thickness 60 mm and 40 mm, and their corresponding thermal conductivities are 0.24 and 0.4 W/m’ C. The inside and outside heat transfer coefficients are 60 and 12 W/m‘C. The atmosphere is at 20°C. Determine the rate of heat loss from 60 m length of pipe. Solution: Referring to Figure 1.23 Figure 1.23: Cross- section of a composite cylinder for Example 1.6 Lo el pipe Given; 1 = = 60 mm = 0.06 m 1) = 60 + 60 mm = 120 mm =0.12 m 15 = 60 + 60-4 40= 160 mm = 0.16 m y=6SC) =20°C ky =0.24 Wim°C; kp =0.4 Wim°C hy, = 60 Wim™C; h, = 12 Wim’ °C. Length of pipe, 1= 60 m Rate of heat loss, Q: Rate of heat loss as given by (1.29); 2al(ty te) T__Ine/n) , Ins/m) , 1) bt k& + kp thon _ 2m x 60(65 = 20) - In(0.12/0.06) , In(0.16/0.12) _x0.06 024 04 12x0.16 16964.6 = 3850.5 W D277 +2881 + 0.7192 + 0.5208 ie. Rate of heat loss = 3850.5 W Example 1 A 150 mm steam pipe has inside dimater of 120 mm and outside diameter of 160 mm. It is insulated at the outside with asbestos. The steam temperature is 150°C and the air temperature is 20°C. h (steam side) = 100 W/m? °C, h (air side) = 30 W/m? °C, k (asbestos) = 0.8 W/m°C and (steel) = 42 Wim’ C. Calculate the thickness of the asbestos to be provided in order to limit the heat losses to 2.1 kW/m? Solution: Referring to Figure 1.24 ‘Steam pipe (A) Figure 1.24: Cross-section of a composite cylinder for Exam- Insulation (®) ple 17, ple (Asbestos) Hot fluid film t=20°C kg = 0.8 Wim°C 100 Wim"*C; h.=30Wim? °C. Heat loss = 2.1 kW/m? Thickness of insulation (asbestos), (r3 - 2): Area for heat transfer = 2arL. (where L = length of the pipe) Heat loss = 2.1 x 2arL kW 989L kW 2.120 x 0.075 XL = 0.9891. 10° watts ( 150 where t, mean radius = —- = 75 mm or 0.075 m_—+-Given ‘Heat transfer rate in such a case is given by (1.29); nL (ty =t,) TaGia/ex) Tales Tea) kp ie, Q Substituting, 2aL (15 Lx 10° = { 0981-10 1 1n(0.08/0.06) _100x0.06 a2 also, 0.989 x 10° SEP SEPPRAEL CTL EEE 3/0.08) 1 [o 16666 + 0.00685 + “5 + xs In(rs /0.08) 1 816.81 or, “a ——. - (0.16666 + 0.00685) = 0.6524 08 3015 0.989 x 10° ( ) or, 1.25In(13/0.08) + =~ - 0.6524 = 0 3015 Solving by hit and trial, we get 1 © 0.105 mor 105 mm 05-80 = 25mm. . Thickness of insulation = 13 — The sphere Consider a hollow sphere of internal radius r, and external radius rz , as shown in Figure 1.25. Let the inside and outside surface temperatures be t, and ty, and let the thermal conductivity be k. Consider a small clement of thickness dr at any © (oat rous ratty radius 1. It can be shown that the surface area of See this spherical element is given by 4zry Then, using equation (1.1), Q dx Element ie, k=3¢ - ~ past = pam? or, Q= oka = kan ar Separating variables and Integrating, ofS = wan fa . t inky 4mk(t2—-t1) Figure 1.25: Steady state conduction through a hollow sphere. Qn-n) or, Ti 4nk(ti -t) 4nkrin(ty-t) tint, (a=) > (en) ® and, nkrit Hence applying the electrical analogy, (I= V/R), we have, (n=") R anki, a3) Ifa mean area, Ap, is introduced, then from equation (1.2), Ak ie, Q= y(t -b) then, Qs Ar b) = ©) Comparing the equations (a) and (b) above, we have Ag = 43 ‘A mean radius, r»,, can be defined, ie, Am = 4m = 4a Mean radius, ty = y/(tir2) It can be seen that r» is a geometric mean radius. Example 1.8 A spherical shaped vessel of 1.4 m diameter is 90 mm /— Spat apes fo thick. Establish the rate of heat leakage, if the temper- ature difference between the inner and outer surfaces is 220°C. Thermal conductivity of the material of the sphere is 0.083 W/m’C. Solution; Referring to Figure 1.26 Given: ney 0 m 2 =0.7-—— =0.6lm 2 1000 : Figure 1,26; Steady state conduction ty ty = 200°C; ky = 0.083 W/m"C; through a sphere for Example 1.8 ‘The rate of heat transfer/leakage is given by equation @), \ ie. @ fabri ote) (m=) 4m x0.083 x 0.61 0.7 220 =—Ter-osiy 7 M088 Ww thus, Rate of heat leakage = 1088.67 W. Heat conduction through a composite sphere; Considering Figure 1.27 as cross-section of a composite sphere, the heat flow equation can be written as follows: Amtkasrite(h to) _ 4tkprars(ti =ts) : 1 az @.427(ty te =n) (=n) lot) je, — Q= @y-4ari(t—t)) = By rearranging the above equation, we have 2 : ON aa ° Q(e=n1) dak nin, o Q(3 =") aks tors Gi a wy Figure 1.27: Steady state conduction through a composite sphere. Cold fuid (air) (3-1) Kp-nrs = (1.32) 1 " 1 aa tee tS If inside the outside heat transfer coefficients are not considered, then the above equation can be written as, (1.33) Example 1.9 A small hemispherical oven is built of an inner layer of insulating firebrick 125 mm thick, and an outer covering of 85% magnesia 40 mm thick. The inner surface of the oven is at 800°C and the heat transfer coefficient for the outside surface is 10 W/m°K; the room temperature is 20°C. Calculate the rate of heat loss through the hemisphere if the inside radius is 0.6 m. Take the thermal conductivities of firebrick and 85% magnesia as 0.31 and 0.05 W/mK respec- tively. Solution: Referring to Figure 1.28 from equation (1.31), for a hemisphere, ie _ (a=) “ © 4itkryry ‘Cod futd (air) For the insulating firebrick: 0.125 Resistance of firebric! = 0.1478 KW For the 85% magnesia TaXOSTX0.6X0.725 0.04 Resistance of 85 %magnesia = 5—a 5s yaa TGS = 0.2295 KW For the outside surface: from equation (1.23) ie, Thermal resistance of a fluid film,R=—> © ermal resistance of a fluid GA Figure 1.28: Cross-section through a composite hemisphere for Example 18. Thus, Resistance of outside air film = 10x 21x 0.765" = 0.0272 KAW Hence, Total resistance, Ry = 0.1478 + 0.2295 +0.0272 = 0.4045 KW Then using equation (1.25) latte ie, Rr 800-20 and, Q= apis = 1930 thus, Rate of heat loss from the oven = 1.93 kW 1.2.7. General Heat Conduction Equation in Cartesian Coordinates Consider an infinitesimal rectangular parallelepiped (volume element) of sides dx, dy and dz parallel, respectively, to the three axes (X, Y, Z) in a medium in which temperature is varying with location and time as shown in Figure 1.29. ‘Temperature at the left face ABCD; this temperature may be assumed uniform over the entire surface, since the area of this face can be made arbitrarily small, dt y= Temperature changes and rate of change along X-direction. (ary Then, | 5, C= Change of temperature through distance dx, and ary tt (Ft €= Temperature on the right face EFGH (at distance dx from the left face ABCD). Further, let, k,, ky, k; = Thermal conductivities (direction characteristics of the material) along X, Y and Z axes. AKY,Z) Elemental volume (tectangular parallelopiped) ool ag xyz Figure 1.29: Elemental volume for three-dimensional heat conduction analysis-Cartesian co- ordinates. If the directional characteristics of a material are equal/same, it is called an “Isotropic material” and if unequal/different ‘Anisotropic material’. 4, = Heat generated per unit volume per unit time. Inside the control volume there may be heat sources due (o flow of electric current in electric mo- (ors and generators, nuclear fission etc. (NGI 4, may be function of position or time, or both] P= Mass density of material c = Specific heat of the material. Energy balance/equation for volume element: Net heat accumulated in the element due to conduction of heat from all the coordinate directions considered (A) + heat generated within the clement (B) = Energy stored in the clement (C) Let, Q= Rate of heat flow in a direction, and Y = (Qdr) = Total heat flow (flux) in that direction (in time dt). A. Net heat accumulated in the element due to conduction of heat from all the directions consid- ered. Quantity of heat flowing into the element from the left face ABCD during the time interval din X-direction is given by: ky (dy. ant ode @ During the same time interval dt the heat flowing out of the right face of control volume (EFGH) will be: Heat efflux Qiu, = QL+-2 (Ql) w Heat accumulation in the element due to heat flow in X-direction, aQh =Q)- fot + Lada! [substracting (ii) from ()] a a Fe[bge Josey devas (134) Similarly, the heat accumulated due to heat flow by conduction along Y and Z directions in time dt will be: a at Fpl g Jocray dear (1.35) af, a 3nd] dx-dy-dz-dt (1.36) Net heat accumulated in the element due to conduction of heat from all the co-ordinate directions considered, ay, a at a ar =i [3 Jo dydzedt + 3 Wy 5, Sl onnaye sande kes Sons ayedreds PIA), 2h a) af ) ot Josey edenas (37) = oa Max) tay bay) aoe) B. Total heat generated within the element (Q,): ‘The total heat generated in the element is given by: Qh = dy(dx dy -dz)de (1.38) C. Energy stored in the element: The total heat accumulated in the element due to heat flow along coordinate axes (equation (1.37)) and the heat generated within the element (equation (1.38)) together serve to increase the thermal energy of the elemenU/lattice. ‘This inctease in thermal energy is given by: a pax dy dae St ede (1.39) [-. Heat stored in the body = Mass of the body x specific heat of the body material x rise in the temperature of body] Now, substituting equations (1.37), (1.38), (1.39), in the equation (1.1), we have a ) 8 fy a) By (Bay) + 3a (Begg) x dda det ay(drdy-de)ae a a [R(s5) = plax-dy-dr)es Mae Dividing both sides by dx.dy.dz.dt, we have af, a), af, ary Fx (8 9q) * By (Bray )* (1.40) or, using the vector operator V, we get This is known as the general heat conduction equation for ‘non-homogeneous material’, ‘self heat generating’ and ‘unsteady three-dimensional flow’. This equation establishes in differential form the relationship between the time and space variation of temperature at any point of solid through which heat flow by conduction takes place. General heat conduction equation for constant thermal conductivity: In case of homogeneous (in which properties e.g., specific heat, density, thermal conductivity etc, are same everywhere in the material) and isotropic (in which properties are independent of surface orientation) material, k, = ky = k, = k and diffusion equation equation (1.40) becomes te at _1 a oe tea et aly de K k__ Thermal conductivity where = 573 = Thermal capacity ‘The quantity, a = =~ is known as thermal diffusivity. + The larger the value of a, the faster will the heat diffuse through the material and its temperature will change with time. This will result either due to a high value of thermal conductivity k or a low value of heat capacity pc. A low value of heat capacity means the less amount of heat entering the element would be absorbed and used to raise its tem- perature and more would be available for onward transmission. Metals and gases have relatively high value of and their response to temperature changes is quite rapid. The non-metallic solids and liquids respond slowly to temperature changes because of their relatively small value of thermal diffusivity, + Thermal diffusivity is an important characteristic quantity for unsteady conduction situa tions. Equation (1.41) by using Laplacian V’, may be written as: ae _ 1 at 1ki@ a: (41a) Equation (1.41), governs the temperature distribution under unsteady heat flow through a mate- rial which is homogeneous and isotropic. Other simplified forms of heat conduction equation in cartesian co-ordinates: (i For the case when no internal source of heat generation is present. Equation (1.41) reduces oh aL S44 Fh = +A. (Unsteady state ($f #0) heat flow with no internal heat Pe ae - Gi) For the case when no internal source of hea generation is present Equation (LAN) reduces a 4 2 Lia ae 2 & [Unsteady state ($f # 0) neat flow with no internal heat aerate or ++o(Fourier’s equation) (1.42) (iii) Under the situations when temperature does not depend on time, the conduction then takes place in steady stateiie., (9 = 0) and the equation (1.41) reduces to ar a at ae 254544 a0 oe op toe tk or, «(Poisson’s equation) (1.43) (1.44) (iv) Steady state and one-dimensional heat transfer (1.45) at —=0 1.46) ie (1.46) (vi) Steady state, two dimensional, without internal heat generation ar at sata =0 1.47) ae ay aan (vi) Unsteady state, one dimensional, without internal heat generation a_i a eB (1.48) General heat conduction equation with cylindrical or spherical coordinates juations using cylindrical or spherical coordinates may be derived in a similar way, or obtained from equation (1.41) by transforming the coordinates. For one-dimensional problems (e.g. an infinitely long cylinder or a sphere), itis simpler to derive the equations directly as will be shown ahead in heat transfer through cylinder and a sphere, and as below. (a) Infinite slab (Figure 1.1(b)). From equation (1.41) we have, dr ry Figure 1.30: Cross-section through an infinitely long cylinder. 1 at le eyes l Ss 141 oe kG aay (b) Infinitely long cylinder (Figure 1.30). Applying an energy balance to an element of thick- ness, dr, we have, Rate of increase of energy of the element = mass x specific heat X rate of change of temperature with time, or, Heat generated - heat loss = rate of increase of energy of the element a gg2ar dr Rar = p2mr dre ot a(_, at or, ay2ar de 5 kar *)ar= par are st ( ar) also, ag (us 5] = port ae 1a also, (1.49) or tte (©) Sphere (Figure 1.31). Applying an energy balance, Figure 1.31: A hollow sphere. attr Rar = pan aro 2ar- 2 2\ a or, apd dr 5 kane ar = pant dre S at 2a dy 14 and, tae Lot (1.50) + oe tar k * Ge For steady-state cases the right-hand side of equations (1.41), (1.49) and (1.50) becomes zero, and the equations become ordinary differential equations. Heat generated in electrical heating: The heat generated per unit volume duc to the current flowing is given by rR de = AL where Is the current, R the electrical resistance, A the cross-sectional area, and L the length. Current density, J = VA and resistance, R = sL/A where s is the electrical resistivity of the conductor material, ast) Example 1.10 A hollow cylindrical copper conductor of 30 mm outside diameter and 14 mm inside diameter has acurrent density of 40 A/mm”. The external surface is covered with a uniform layer of insulation of thickness 10 mm, and the ambient temperature is 10°C. Neglecting axial conduction and assuming that the temperature of the insulation must not exceed 135°C at any point, calculate: (a) the heat required to be removed per unit time by forced cooling from the inside of the conductor; (b) the temperature at the inside surface of the conductor, Given data: Thermal conductivity of copper= 380 W/mK; thermal conductivity of insulating material= 0.3 W/mK; heat transfer coefficient at outside surface= 40 W/m’; electrical resistiv- ity of copper= 2 x 107° mm, Solution: From equation (1.49), for the steady state at Lat de 1 at ap Tork @e Inspection of (1.49) shows the first terms as product of differentiation; 4 ie, ¢ Hence separating variables and integrating, at ag” =—f_ "57K +C, . a ak Cy or 72K i Integrating further, now eqn.(a) 4, r (ea +C,Inr+Cy (b) where C; and Cy are integration constants. From equation (1.51) ie, a, = Gy = 40° x2 10% Wimm? = 32x 10° Win? (a) the heat required to be removed per unit time: ‘The maximum temperature of the insulation (= 135°C) occurs at the interface between the insulation and the copper tube, Hence for the insulation, using equation (1.27), 2ak(t =) In(ra/t1) ice Q 2nx0.3(135-t) and, Heat transfer to the outside, = 0 = (50/30) where t is the temperature of the outside surface of the insulation, or, 13: 271Q5 © For the heat transferred from the outside surface of the insulation by convection, from equation (7) ie, Q=aA(ty 1) in this case, Qo = GAC tyiuia) ie, Qo = 40x 2 x 0.025(t— 10) 10 = 0.159 Qo @ ‘Adding equations (c) and (4) 135-10 = 0.43Qy and, Qo = 290.7 W Total heat generated internally = q, x volume 17693.5 W 2 10° x 5 (0.03" -0.014" Hence, Heat removed from inside of conductor = (17693.5 ~ 290.7) W =174kW (b) the temperature at the inside surface: ‘Two boundary conditions are required to find the constants C, and C2 and hence to obtain the solution of equation (b). At the inside surface of the conductor \ Hence, Heat supplied to conductor = kA. (2 =-17400 W \ 9 /,<0.007 ary 17400, ths, (32) oc Bax xOOTE = 1411 Kim Substituting in equation (a) 32x10°x0.007] | Cr 2x 380 0,007 €, =9.351 At the outside surface of the conductor, t = 135 °C, hence in equation (b) 32x 10° x 0.015" } sessumo0isyscs and, C, = 179 ‘Therefore the complete solution for the temperature distribution in the conductor is, 32x 10°] 2, y Hence, at the inside surface, when r = 0.007 32x 10° x 0.0077 4x 380 } sessim 007) +179 = 116°C 1.2.8 Critical Thickness of Insulation Insulation-General aspects Definition: A material which retards the flow of heat with reasonable effectiveness is known as ‘Insulation’. Insulation serves the following two purposes: (j) It prevents the heat flow from the system to the surroundings; (ii) It prevents the heat flow from the surroundings to the system. Applications: The fields of application of insulations are ( Boilers and steam pipes Gi) Air-conditioning systems (ii) Food preserving stores and refrigerators (iv) Insulating bricks (employed in various types of furnaces) (v) Preservation of liquid gases etc. Factors affecting thermal conductivity Some of the important factors which affect thermal con- ductivity (k) of the insulators (the value of k should be always low to reduce the rate of heat flow) are as follows 1, Temperature: For most of the insulating materials, the value of k increases with increase in temperature 2. Density: There is no mathematical relationship between k and p (density), The common understanding that high density insulating materials will have higher values of k in not always true. Direction of heat flow: For most of the insulating materials (except few like wood) the effect of direction of heat flow on the values of k is negligible. 4, Moisture: Ibis always considered necessary to prevent ingress of moisture in the insulating materials during service, itis however difficult to find the effect of moisture on the values. of k of different insulating materials. 5. Air pressure: It has been found that the value of k decreases with decrease in pressure, 6. Convection in insulators: The value of k increases due to the phenomenon of convection in insulators. Critical Thickness of Insulation ‘The addition of insulation always increases the conductive thermal resistance, But when the total thermal resistance is made of conductive thermal resistance [(Ryp cond.) and convective thermal resistance [(R;p )eom. |, the addition of insulation in some cases may reduce the convective thermal resistance due to increase in surface area, as in the case of a cylinder and a sphere, and the total thermal resistance may actually decrease resulting in increased heat flow. It may be shown that the thermal resistance actually decreases and then increases in some cases. “The thickness” upto which heat flow increases and after which heat flow decreases is termed as Critical thickness. In case of cylinders and spheres it is called ‘Critical radius’. A. Critical thickness of insulation for cylinder: Consider a solid cylinder of radius ry insulated with an insulation of thickness (r2—r) as shown in Figure 1.32 Let, x = Length of the cylinder, ty = Surface temperature of the cylinder, tar = Temperature of air, (Go = Heat transfer coefficient at the outer surface of the insulation, and k= Thermal conductivity of insulating material. Then the rate of heat transfer from the surface of the solid cylinder to the surroundings is given by seat 2mx(ti = tain) ben), 1 (1.52) my K wR / From egn. (1.52) it is evident that as rz increases, factor Mt/t1) the factor “2 creases. increases but the factor de- 1 Canes ‘Thus Q becomes maximum when the denominator In(ta/t1) Kk Oe becomes minimum, Figure 1.32: Critical thickness of insu- ‘The required condition is, lation for a cylinder. 4 In(re/n1) iB (rabeing the only variable) ie, pat or, 0 of an =k me 4 and, n= (1.53) ‘The above relation represents the condition for minimum resistance and consequently *maximum heat flow rate. The insulation radius at which resistance to heat flow is minimum is called the ‘critical radius (r,). The critical radius r, is dependent of the thermal quantities k and ap and is, independent of 1 (ie., cylinder radius). “It may be noted that if the second derivative of the denominator is evaluated, it will come out to be positive. This would verify that heat flow rate will be maximum, when r, In eqn. (1.52), ie. = —24x(t = tar) ee Ini) 1 k '@m In(ta/t1) 7 nlea/n) is the conduction (insulation) thermal resistance which increases with increasing rand [/ap.t2 is the convective thermal resistance which decreases with increasing rp. Att) = 1, the rate of increase of conductive resistance of insulation is equal to the rate of decrease of convective resistance thus giving a minimum value for the sum of thermal resistances. In the physical sense we may arrive at the following conclusions (@ For cylindrical bodies with ry re, the heat transfer decreases by adding insulation[Figure 1.33 (b)]. This happens when ry is large and r, is small, viz., a good insulating material is used with low k and do is high. In steam and refrigeration pipes heat insulation is the main objective. For insulation to be properly effective in restricting heat transmission, the outer radius must be greater than or equal to the critical radius (Cynder rads) ate, Figure 1.33: Effect of insulation thickness on rate of heat loss. B. Critical thickness of insulation for sphere: Referring to Figure 1.34, The general equation of heat flow through a sphere with insulation is as given in eqn.(1.32) 4m(U, = te) ie. Trt a a 1 pm hy mss] hea Here, + Lk a] hg +13 Since the only variable here is r2, the denominator will be differentiated and equated to zero, df in-n Hee a | 4a 1 2 on oe kr} 13h or, hy = 2k} 2k and, n(=t)=— 1.54) me iy (say Figure 1.34: Critical thickness of insulation for a sphere. Example L1L A small electric heating application uses wire of 2 mm diameter with 0.8 mm thick insulation (k = 0.12 W/m’C). The heat transfer coefficient (ho) on the insulated surface is 35 W/m”°C. Determine the critical thickness of insulation in this case and the percentage change in the heat transfer rate if the critical thickness is used, assuming the temperature difference between the surface of the wire and surrounding air remains unchanged. Solution: Giveg: Q 1mm =0.001 m my =1+08= 1.8 mm= 0.0018 m k= 0.12 Wim’C, hp = 35 W/m C Critical thickness of insulation: ‘The critical radius of insulation is given by Percentage change in heat transfer rate: Case I: The heat flow through an insulated wire is given by eqn.(1.29) 2ax(, ie, Q - Toa) , Tales/ea) Tt Ka kp he, For this case; 2aL(t, = Rey Inf fry), 1 Jk tiger 2a (ty = tai 2a (ti —tair) @ ‘In(0.0018 /0.001) 1 20.77 0.12 35x 0.0018 | Case II : The heat flow through an insulated wire when critical thickness is used is given by; 2aL(t ) Q 7 { y inGe/n) 1 kK hor, 2a = tair) _ dau " in(0.00343 /0.001) “18.6 x0 _ 0.12 Percentage increases in heat flow by using critical thickness of insulation. 1 1862077, Qi 100 00 20.7 1.2.9 Transient conduction in one dimension ‘The equations for one-dimensional transient conduction, (1.41), (1.49), and (1.50), can be solved using the separation of variables method. For example,from equation (1.41), Ho ie, jerk ie, S solution to this differential equation it can be shown to be; -%?* fC) sin(px) + C2.cos(px)} where p, Cy and C; are determined by the boundary conditions. For an infinite slab of half-thickness, L, initially at a uniform temperature, t;, throughout, which is suddenly exposed to a fluid at a constant temperature, tr, the temperature at any point, x, at time, r, is given by; » [__sin(p,L-)cos(p,x) __sin(PyL-)cos( Py) 5 le 1) +sin(p,L.)e05(p,L) ass) and, (P,L)tan(p,L) = Bi (1.56) where Bi is the Biot number, oéL/k and Fo the Fourier number, kt/pe L? or 4/12. Similar equations can be derived from the cases of the infinitely long cylinder and the sphere, and graphs of non-dimensional temperature against Fourier number for various values of L/ Bi have been drawn (see for example reference 1.1) 1.2.10 Newtonian heating or cooling ‘This approach, which is sometimes known as lumped capacity, may be used when the temper- ature within a body does not vary appreciably as the body's average temperature changes with time due to exposure of the body to a fluid at a different temperature. This is the case when the surface thermal resistance is very much greater than the internal thermal resistance, and hence the heat transfer from the surface is the controlling factor. For a body of surface area, A, volume, V, specific heat, c, and density, p, with an average temperature, f, at any time, t, we have, where ot is the surface heat transfer coefficient and ty the temperature of the fluid surrounding the body, assumed constant with time. Therefore, Todt * OA j [pret where tis the initial temperature of the body, Tote) __aAr alga) ~ "pve or ° «st Equation (1.57) can also be written as, or (1.58) The dimension of length, L, may be the half-thickness of an infinite slab, or the radius of an infinite cylinder, or the radius of a sphere. The term AL/ V for an infinite slab, cylinder or sphere, may be shown to be 1, 2, or 3 respectively, e.g. for a sphere AL (4aL?)L ‘VS (4n12/3) In the previously considered exact solution, equation (1.55), it can be shown that when Fo > 0.2 then only the first term of the summation need be considered within engineering accurancy. Also, when Bi is small, then in equation (1.56) tan(p,L) approximates to (p,L), and hence Bi approximates to (p;L”). Similarly, sin(p,L) approximates to (pL) and cos(p;L) approaches ‘unity. Therefore, substituting these approximations into equation (1.55), for the centre where x =0, and hence cos(p;x) is 1, we have, tote, -siro( Pil) =2¢ — Fie uae (pL +piL) or Comparing this with equation (1.58) it can be seen to be equivalent to Newtonian cooling of an infinite slab, ic. when Fo > 0.2 and Bi is very small the problem approximates to Newtonian cooling. Example 1.12 For transient conduction in a sphere when Fo > 0.2 it can be shown that the solution of equation (1.50) at 2at dy at ar Tork Gar for the temperature at the centre of the sphere, t,, when initially at t;, and plunged into a fluid at tp, is given by, torte _ ta le L) +sin(p,L) cos(piL) } and, 1 =pLeot(piL) = Bi Using the data below determine the temperature at the centre of a sphere, initially at a uniform temperature of 500 °C, twenty minutes after it is plunged into a large bath ofliquid at a tempera- ture of 20°C: (a) from the above equation; (b) assuming Newtonian cooling. Data: Radius of sphere= 50 mm; density of sphere= 7600 kg/m’; thermal conductivity of sphere = 40 Wim K; specific heat of sphere = 0.5 KI /kg K; heat transfer coefficient from sphere surface to liquid = 88.8 W /m” K. It may be assumed that the heat transfer coefficient and the temperature of the liquid remain constant over the time period. Solution: (a) Using transient equation for conduction; Bi = oL/k, ,= (88.8 x0.05)/40 = 0.111 os 1=p,Lcot(p,L) on, piLcot(p;L) = 0.889 ‘This equation may be solved by trial and error, pL 07 06 05 © piLcot(pL) 0.831 0.877 0.915 By further trial and error, or by drawing a graph, it can be shown that pi L = 0.57. Also; Fo = 2.2/R? = kt/peR? = (40x 20x 60) /(7600 x 0.5 x 10° x 0.057) = 5.053 ‘sin0.57 = 0.57.c0s 0.57), —(0.57)*xs,053, hus, {sin S75 0.57 6080-577 thus, (0.57 =sin0.57c0s0.57) -te <—* = 0.5161 x2x0.1936 = 0.2 ue or, or, t. = 20+0.2(500= 20) = 16°C (b) assuming Newtonian cooling; For Newtonian cooling of a sphere, from equation (1.58) inte tote ie, Ue SA BBiFo _.=3x0.1115.053 and, 1.2.11 Numerical methods for conduction ‘The most commonly used numerical method is the finite difference method in which a differential equation is replaced by an approximate algebraic expression. The set of equations thus produced can be solved using a computer. The reader is recommended to consult references 1.2 and 1.3 for a fuller treatment of numerical methods and their application in heat transfer. A different method known as the finite element method is increasingly being used for heat trans- fer applications, but is not considered in this book. In specialized texts the derivation of finite difference expressions is given in detail, using for example the Taylor series, but in this book only the following brief illustration will be given. Referring to a graph of ( against x (Figure 1.35), three approximations to the true tangent to the curve di/dx are illustrated, dt _ (yotesr) ie, backward difference (1.59) x — (htde ne ox forward difference (1.60) central difference (1.61) (7 Figure 1.35: Disgrammatic defini tion of backward, forward, and cen- | Truc tangent \ tral difference approximations Forward difference ‘entra difference Backward difference It can be seen from the Figure 1.35 that the central difference approximation, equation (1.61), is a more accurate approximation to the true slope. The second derivative, dr /dx*, is the rate of change of slope at the point x. This may be approximated as the change of dt/dx over the distance 5x. From Figure 1.35 it can be seen that the slope at x + (5x/2) is approximately (t,43—t,)/5x, and the slope at x — (5x/2) is approximately (t, —t,-g,)/5x. Hence the rate of change of slope over the distance 5x is given by ie. ar [ (tarts) (um toss)} 1 ‘bx bx bx Pt _ tort hobs 25x we St (1.62) ie, To solve a conduction problem by the finite difference method the relevant partial differential equation is replaced using expressions such as the above. The space and time dimensions are divided into a number of increments of finite size and the approximate expression which replaces the differential equation applies to every point in the grid of points, or nodes; separate equations are derived for the boundary conditions. Hence the relevant differential equation is effectively replaced by a large number of identical algebraic expressions for the temperature at each point in the space at any time, A set of simultaneous equations can be put in the form of a matrix and solved by matrix inversion methods. However, in the case of conduction the matrix of temperature coefficients has a small number of non-zero terms and hence matrix inversion is not recommended. It is better to solve such a matrix by a direct method such as Gaussian elimination. In the case of steady conduction in two dimensions the initial temperatures ate unknown and hence the set of equations is more conveniently solved by a relaxation method such as Gauss- Siedel iteration. Errors Using a finite difference method the answer obtained converges towards the exact solution as the size of the increments chosen approaches zero. Finite difference expressions must be chosen such that the computer solution converges towards the exact solution; in certain cases the solution will become unstable because errors generated are increasing in size as the solution proceeds, or are growing at a faster rate than the rate of convergence. ‘There are basically two types of error: round-off error and discretization error. Round-off error occurs when the answer is taken to a specific number of significant figures, and is cumulative; fortunately in modern computers this error is not usually important. Discretization error is mainly due to the inaccuracy of the finite difference expression, see Figure 1.35, and can be reduced by reducing the size of the increments. Notation Referring to Figure 1.36, a two-dimensional space may be divided into a grid of nodes as shown. ‘The temperature at any point may then be designated as t, j. Note that i increases from left to right, and j from bottom to top, of the grid, following the normal x-direction and y-direction respectively. Fj; the next time is therefore ¢ + 1 and the temperature at that instant is t{J". For transient problems in one-dimension the j-direction will be omitted. For a problem in transient conduction the temperature at any time will be denoted by ¢ 1.2.12 Two-dimensional steady conduction Figure 1.36: Grid definition for two-dimensional steady conduc- tion. From equation (1.41) where, But, for zero internal heat generation and for steady conduction in two dimensions, the equation reduces to the Laplace equation (1.47), ie. This equation may be put into finite difference form using the central difference expression, equation (1.62). Using the notation outlined in above (see Figure 1.36), we have, (ny tents 2s) Cie tye 728i) ox by? The grid may be chosen such that 5 x = 5 x, then ty = Giger then Hh pet then )/4 (1.63) All the internal points within the boundaries of the two-dimensional space are represented by equation (1.63). Conducting rod analogy Equation (1.63) may be derived using the basic Fourier equation and the concept of heat flow paths. In Figure 1.37 conducting paths of width, 5x, from each point towards the centre point, are shown cross-hatched. Fourier’s law can be applied to each conducting path; for example, the heat transferred from point (i +1) to point (ij) is given by ‘Thermal conductivity x area X temperature gradient ox Figure 1.37: Conducting rod anal- ogy for two-dimensional steady ijt conduction. ox. bx R iS i+ x nd =k(5x 5) ae Then a simple energy balance gives, ) (brs) ox fee ) WD u(x) =i ox ( Chie K(5x, +k(5x) ox +k(5x) ‘This equation reduces to the same expression as in equation (1.63), ‘The conducting rod analogy can be used in more complex cases, including the case with internal heat generation or at a boundary convecting to a fluid; it may be found easier to apply since it relates to a simple physical model. Boundary conditions Surface convecting to a fluid For a point (.j) on the surface (see Figure 1.38): ‘Using a central difference expression for di/dx, equation eq:HTTFRS6 at _ (topdemtnss) dx bx ie, (ust hey) 26x. then, = A(tr-t;) (1.64) The point (i- 1, is fictitious and can be eliminated from the equation by assuming that it lies on the extrapolated temperature distribution line (see Figure 1.39), i.e. from equation eq:HTTFRS8: Figure 1.38: Grid for a left-hand True temperature surface convecting to a fluid in two- distribution dimensional steady conduction Fluid Fictitious point True temperature distribution ued) tien = Ai ma Substituting in equation (1.64) 2a5x, bay 4hy they Phy Hie = (hy te) Figure 139: Fictitious point True temperature for a left-hand surface in two- distribution dimensional steady conduction. Fluid Fictitious point True temperature distribution ce Diu Hija Hyer t (2adx/K) a 4+ (20.5x/k) (1.65) Similar expressions may be obtained for a surface with the fluid on the right, or at the top or bottom, Equation (1.65) can be derived using the conducting rod analogy with a rod of half- width, 5 x/2, running from point (ij + 1) to point (ij), and from point (i,j - 1) to Gj), (5x) (tint ti) | (8x) (th tks (. ive. k(5x)< +k! Simplifying this equation the same expression as in equation (1.65) is obtained. Insulated surface At an insulated surface, - k dt/dx = 0, or o = 0, and hence for a left-hand surface which is insulated equation (1.65) reduces to, ting thn th iy It should be noted that a line of thermal symmetry within a two-dimensional space will act as an insulated surface Comers Expressions can be derived for the temperatures at outside comers (top left, bottom right, ete.) and at inside comers, For example, for a top left outside comer tigny thijer + (2a@dxtp /k 2+ (2a8x/k) For a bottom right inside comer i jet than + (2QSxty /k 6+ (2a5x/k) The derivation of expressions for comer points such as the above is left as an exercise for the reader; the conducting rod analogy is the best method, particularly for inside corners. 1.3 Heat Transfer by Convection The rate equation for the convective heat transfer (regardless of particular nature) between a sur- face and an adjacent fluid is prescribed by Newton’s law of cooling (Figure 1.39) and governed by equation (1.17) ie, Q=aA(,-Y) where, Q= Rate of conductive heat transfer, A= Area exposed to heat transfer, surface temperature, Fluid temperature, and 0 = Co-efficient of conductive heat transfer. ye The coefficient of convective heat transfer ‘ct’ (also known as film heat transfer coefficient) may be defined as “the amount of heat transmitted for a unit temperature difference between the fluid ‘and unit area of surface in unit time.” ‘The value of ‘ce’ depends on the following factors: (@) Thermodynamic and transport properties (¢.g., viscosity, density, specific heat etc.) (ii) Nature of fluid flow ; (ii) Geometry of the surface ; (iv) Prevailing thermal conditions. Since ‘a’ depends upon several factors, it is difficult to frame a single equation to satisfy all the variations, however a dimensional analysis gives an equation for the purpose which is given as under: KD 4, D\* or,Nu =Z(Re) es"(2) where, Re = Reynolds number, | Pr = Prandtl number, c kD _,(pCD\" /cuyr(D\* ROR) TIAL) Nu = Nusselt number, (2) (1.66) cL a {pa \ 7 (cH) Va) D T_ = Diameter to length ratio, Z=A constant to be determined experimentally, p = Density, H = Dynamic viscosity, and = mean Velocity C= Velocity c= specific heat capacity. ‘The mechanisms of convection in which phase changes are involved lead to the important fields of boiling and condensa- tion. Referring to Figure 1.40 (b).. 1 The quantity, =) (yaa From equation(1.17) ie. [2 is called convection thermal resistance [(Rjh)com:] to heat flow. Other dimensionless numbers used in heat transfer: , 40 surface COTTTIORTTTTTITTETTITTRTOTTTOTTTLO (a) Physical confizuraticn ha 6 Sw (x) (© Equivalent creat Figure 1.40; Convective heat-transfer a Nu Stanton number, St= > = Raye uL, Peclet number, Pe = (= Re Pr) is fluid velocity, L is a characteristic dimension, and o is thermal diffusivity \ Graetz number, G = Pe (2 } 4} p’ Beat? Grashoff number, Gr = "= Hu 1.3.1 Forced convection The study of forced convection is concemed with the transfer of heat between a moving fluid and a solid surface. In order to apply Newton’s law of cooling, given by equation (1.17), it is necessary to find a value for the heat transfer coefficient, a. It is stated that or is given by k Fr Where k, is the thermal conductivity of the fluid and 5 is the thickness of the fluid film on the surface. The problem is then to find a value for 6 in terms of the fluid properties and the fluid velocity; 5 depends on the type of fluid flow across the surface and this is governed by the Reynolds number ‘The various kinds of forced convection, such as flow in a tube, flow across a tube, flow across a flat plate, etc. can be solved mathematically when certain assumptions are made with regard to the boundary conditions. It is exceedingly difficult to obtain an exact mathematical solution to such problems, particularly in the case of turbulent flow, but approximate solutions can be obtained by making suitable assumptions. It is not within the scope of this study to approach the subject of forced convection fundamentally. However, many of the results used in heat transfer are derived from experiment, and in fact for many problems, no mathematical solution is available and empirical values are essential. These empirical values can be generalized using dimensional analysis, which will now be considered. Dimensional analysis In order to apply dimensional analysis it is necessary to know from experience all the variables ‘upon which the desired function depends. The results must apply to geometrically similar bodies, therefore one of the variables must always be a characteristic linear dimension. Consider the dimensional analysis for forced convection, assuming that the effects of free con- vection, due to differences in density, may be neglected. It is found that the heat transfer coef- ficient, of, depends on the fluid viscosity, #, the fluid density, p, the thermal conductivity of the fluid, ,k, the specific heat capacity of the fluid, c, the temperature difference between the surface and the fluid, A, and the fluid velocity, C. Therefore we have, a= f(u,p,k, c,At, C,1) (67) where | is a characteristic linear dimension and f is some function. Equation eq:HTTFR62 can be written as follows 4 = App kc att cf 18 4 By pK! ae? CPI 4 ote (1.68) where A and B are constants, and a; , by , ¢) , etc. are arbitrary indices. Each term on the right-hand side of the equation must have the same dimensions as the dimen- sions of ot. Considering the first term only, we can write, Dimensions of = dimensions of (Au, p”!,K!,c",Ar',C% 8) Each of the properties in the equation can be expressed in terms of five fundamental dimensions; these are mass, M, length, L, time, T, temperature, t, and heat, H. Ww. H Forathe units ae——, ie, — mK vn kg M Forpthe units ares, ie, Tp Ww H Fork the units rep, ie, pay k M Forpthe units are~=, ie, im vp Ww H Forcthe units recog, ie ForAt the units are K, i.e., t mo oL For C the units are 1.0.5 For | the units are m, ie., L Hence, substituting, MY ( HY 13) (LT) H Un ie. (Myc yt PET 3 (NO EN For the dimensions of each side of the equation to be the same, the power to which each funda- mental dimension is raised must be the same on both sides of the equation. Therefore, equating indices we have, ForH: l=c+d Fork: -2=f+g-a-3b-c For T: a-c-f Fort ForM: O=a+b-d We have five equations and seven unknowns, therefore a solution can only be obtained in terms of two of the indices, It is most useful to express a, b, c, e, and g in terms of d and f Then it can be shown that, a=(d-f);b=fc=(1-d);e=0;g=(f- 1) Substituting these values in equation (1.68), we have, = AWAD yh IME Ph AAD 4 yO, yf ME) oa? Ch AD 4 ote oy 1\fi dy 1\2 ie. = ak (Hey (pC Hey (8) ete. k " CEA) Vie} iE) (Ge Hence it ean be seen that, al fyuey (pcl $= we((@)(5)} where K is a constant and F is some function. Example 1.13 Aire 1.5 mm in diameter and 150 mm long is submerged in water at atmospheric pressure. An electric current is passed through the wire and is increased until the water boils at 100°C. Under these condition the convective heat transfer coefficient is 4500 W/**C Evaluate the quantity of electric power that must be supplied to the wire to maintain the wire surface at 120°C. Solution: Diameter of the wire, d= 1.5 mm = 0.0015 m, Length of the wire, 1 = 150 mm = 0.15 m .. Surface area of the wire (exposed to heat transfer), A= ndl = 1x 0.0015 X 0.15 = 7.068 x 10 ‘Wire surface temperature, t, = 120°C ‘Water temperature, tf = 100°C Convective heat transfer coefficient, h = 4500 W/m?°C Electric power to be supplied: Electric power which must be supplied = Total convection loss (Q) Q= A(t, -1/) = 4500 x 7.068 x 107*(120— 100} = 63.6 W. Example 1.14 Calculate the heat transfer coefficient for water flowing through a 25 mm diameter tube at the rate of 1.5 kg/s, when the mean bulk temperature is 40°C. For turbulent flow of a liquid take, Nu =0.0243Re"* xPr°4 where the characteristic dimension of length is the tube diameter and all properties are evaluated at mean bulk temperature. ‘olution: First it is necessary to ascertain whether the flow is turbulent or laminar. For flow through a tube it can be assumed that the flow is turbulent when Re > 2100 approximately. The properties of water can be taken from the steam tables. Then, Volume flow = 1.5 x vy = 1.5% 0.001 = 0.0015 m*/s 0015 x4 ie, Velocity in tube, C = 290154 - 5.05 avs #X0.025 Cd Cd 3.06 x 0.025 Re= Pee = 117500 H* NpH~ 0.001 x 651 x 10-® ‘The flow is therefore well into the turbulent region and the formula given for turbulent flow can be applied. From tables, Pr = 3, hence substituting, Nu = 0.0243 x (117500)"* x (4.3)°4 = 0.0243 x 11377 x 1.792 = 495.5 495.5 x 632 x 10 0.025 = 12.53 kW/m°K ie, Heat transfer coefficient = 12.53 kW /m”K For laminar flow in a tube an exact mathematical solution has been found; this gives Nu = 3.65. It can be seen that, since Nu = ord/k = 3.65, the heat transfer coefficient, at, for any one tube, depends only on the thermal conductivity of the fluid. In the foregoing dimensional analysis five fundamental dimensions, heat H, length L, time T, temperature t, and mass M, were chosen. The units of work, or energy in general, are given by (Force x distance) = (mass x acceleration x distance) Since heat is a form of energy it can be seen that there is no need to choose heat as one of the fundamental dimensions. If the dimension, H, is omitted, and the units of heat are replaced by ML’/r” whenever they occur, then four dimensionless groups are obtained from the dymensional analysis done earlier, ef ‘Le., Nu = KF} (Pr), (Re),| |0.00,(S3) 2\ ¢ Now if the group | = | is divided by (7- 1), which is a constant for any one gas, and if At is } replaced by the absolute bulk temperature of the gas, T, then we have, ime T(y-1) RT where a is the velocity of sound in the gas and Ma the Mach number (discussed in study of nozzles) Hence, Nu = K’F(Pr), (Re), (Ma)” where K’ is another constant. ‘The influence of the Mach number, Ma, on the heat transfer is negligible for most problems. For high-speed flow however, large amounts of kinetic energy are dissipated by friction in the ‘boundary layer near the surface, and the Mach number becomes an important parameter. Reynolds analogy Reynolds postulated that the heat transfer from a solid surface is similar to the transfer of fluid momentum from the surface, and hence that it is possible to express the heat transfer in terms of the frictional resistance to the flow. Consider turbulent flow. It can be assumed that particles of mass, m, transport heat and momen- tum to and from the surface, moving perpendicular to the surface. Then on the average, Heat transferred per unit area,q = tcAt where c is the specific heat capacity of the fluid and A t the temperature difference between the surface and the bulk of the fluid. Also, the rate of change of momentum across the stream is given by, m(C-C,) = mC where C is the velocity of the bulk of the fluid and C,, the fluid velocity at the surface = 0. Then, Force per unit area = ty = tC where 1, is the shear stress in the fluid at the wall. Combining the equations for heat flow and momentum transfer, then, A: tyedt or, = : = (1.69) For turbulent flow in practice there is always a thin layer of fluid on the surface in which viscous effects predominate, This film is known as the laminar sublayer. In this layer heat is transferred purely by conduction. Therefore, from Fourier’s law, for unit area; where k is the thermal conductivity of the fluid and y the distance from the surface perpendicular to the surface. Also, for viscous flow, Shear stress,z = 41 x (velocity gradient) Hence the shear stress at the wall is given by, where 11 is the fluid viscosity and C the fluid velocity. Now since the laminar sublayer is very thin it may be assumed that the temperature and velocity vary linearly with the distance from the wall, y, 1A ona ie, KE and ty is where 6) is the thickness of the laminar sublayer. ‘Then eliminating 5, and neglecting the minus sign, we have ie., when, cM - <= =lorPr=1 ‘Therefore for fluids whose Prandtl number is approximately unity the simple Reynolds analogy can be applied, since .the heat transferred across the laminar sublayer can be considered in a similar way to the heat transferred from the sublayer to the bulk of the fluid. For most gases, dry vapours, and superheated vapours Pr lies between about 0.65 and 1.2. For unit surface area, q = aAt, therefore substituting in equation (1.69), we have, at ce Dividing through by pC, where p is the mean density of the fluid, we have, a _% pec © pc? Both sides of this equation are dimensionless. The term on the left-hand side is called the Stanton number, St, ie. (1.70) A dimensionless friction factor, fis defined by, Sw amy (pC?/2) ‘Therefore we have for the Reynolds analogy. s=! any =3 ‘The Stanton number, St, can be written as, a_al Sta ee = Ea Nu ie, Pad (173) The friction factor, f, can be derived mathematically for some cases, but in other cases a practical determination is necessary. For turbulent flow in a pipe a simple measurement of the pressure drop gives f, and then, using equation (1.69) or equation (1.72), the approximate heat flow can be found. For flow in a pipe of diameter, d, the resistance to flow over unit length is given by, Ro Resistance = td = Apyd where Ap is the pressure drop in unit length. (74) ie, ‘An important factor in heat exchanger design is the pumping power required. The pumping power is the rate at which work is done in overcoming the frictional resistance, i.e. for flow in a pipe, Pumping power per unit length, W = 1,2dC Also, from equation (1.69), yet Heat flow per umt area,q = == At Heat flow per umt length,Q = 2" o ‘Then the ratio of the pumping power, W, to the rate of heat flow, Q, can be expressed as, W a,adcc_ CP as @ 7 t,churd ~ cat °) (for a heat exchanger, At is the log mean temperature difference, AT;,, - to be shown in later study) It can be seen from equation (1.75) that the power required for a given heat transfer rate can be reduced by decreasing the velocity of flow, C. However, a reduction in fluid velocity means that the required surface area must be increased, and hence a compromise must be made. Example 1.15 Water flows inside a tube 45 mm in diameter and 3.2 m long at a velocity of 0.78 m/s. a Given the following data: the mean water temperature = 50°C and the wall is isothermal at 70°C. For water at 50°C, k = 0.66 W/mK, kinematic viscosity, v = 0.478 x 107°m?/s and Prandtl number = 2,98, Determine; (a) the heat transfer co-efficient, and (b) the rate of heat transfer. Solution: Given: Diameter of the tube, D = 45 mm = Length of the tube, 1= 3.2 m Velocity of water, = 0.78 m/s For water at 60°C, k = 0.66 W/mK Kinematic viscosity, v = 0.478 x 10-°m”/s Pr=2.98 (a) the heat transfer co-efficient; Reynolds number (Re), is given by, 045 m Re Da 0.045 0.78 _a3451 0478 x 107° From Dittus and Boelter equation, Nusselt number, aD soa 023(Re)” *(Pr)’ = 0.023(73431)"8(2.98)"* ax 0045 and, Fe = 0.023 7810.9 1.547 = 4076 Wim’K thus, Heat transfer co-efficient = 4076Wim?K (b) the rate of heat transfer,Q Q=aA (ty -ty) = 4076 x DL(70- 50) = 4076 x x 0.045 x 3.2 20 = 36878 or 36.878 kW ie. Rate of heat transfer = 36.878 kW. Example 1.16 ‘When 0.5 kg of water per minute is passed through a tube of 20 mm diameter, it is found to be heated from 20°C to 50°C. The heating is accomplished by condensing steam on the surface of the tube and subsequently the surface temperature of the tube is maintained at 85°C. Determine the length of the tube required for developed flow. . Take the thermo-physical properties of water at 60°C as: Density, p = 983.2 kg/m”, ki/kg K, k = 0.659 W/m°C, kinematic viscosity, v = 0.478 x 107° Solution: Given: m =0.5 kg/min, D = 20 mm = 0.02 m, t; = 20°C, tp = 50°C. Length of the tube required for fully developed flow, = 4.178 1 20+50\ The mean film temperature, ty = 5 (35 +> }= 60°C First, the type of the flow should be determined; 7 Os m = pAu = 983.2x 7 x (0.02) x ay (kes) 4 os 4 ane 60 * 983.2 (0.02) 0.0269 m/s Di _ 0.02 0.0269 Then, Reynolds number, Re = Re = se = 2720070" _ 195 5, 0.478 x 10~ Since Re < 2000, hence the flow is Jaminar. With constant wall temperature having fully devel- oped flow, an) Nus $= =3.65 ee = 05K _ 3.650.659 20 bo 120.26 Wim™*C and, ‘The rate of heat transfer, Q = Aya(t,—toc) = mep(t, i) 20+50 2 Here, te: =35°C=th 0.5 (40.02 x1) x 120.26 x (85-35) = E> X (4.178 x 103}(50—20) or, 377.8L = 1044.5 1044.5 and, arg = 276m. Example 1.17 In a 25 mm diameter tube the pressure drop per metre length is 0.0002 bar at a section where the mean velocity is 24 m/s, and the mean specific heat capacity of the gas is 1.13 kJ Akg K. Calculate the heat transfer coefficient Solution: For a1 m length From equation (1.74), ‘Then from equation (1.71) Also, from equation (1.72) Ap = 0.0002 bar Apd ina 10° and, ty = 00008 25 = 0,125 Nim? 4x10 ie. f-— ° (pc?/2) 5 and, p= 220105 @ pc foa@ ie, St= 3° 5¢¢ Gi) Substituting for f from eqn.(i) and equating the two terms in St. no, equation in eqn. (ii), 2x0125 a 2pc2 ~~ pCc 0.125pcC _ 0.125 1.13 pot wu 00588 kW/m” K and, Heat transfer coefficient = 5.88 Win’K Various modifications have been made to the simple Reynolds analogy in an attempt to obtain an equation which will give a solution for turbulent heat transfer over a wide range of Prandtl numbers. (For very viscous oil the Prandtl number is of the order of thousands, whereas for liquid metals it may be as low as 0.01). Equations based on modern theories of turbulent flow give the Stanton number as a function of the Reynolds number, the Prandt! number, and the friction factor, and in general these equations reduce to St = f/2, when the Prandtl number is put equal to unity (see for example references 1.1, 1.3, and 1.5). Colburn found experimentally that for a wide range of Prandtl numbers, sur? = £/2 The term, StPr”’?, is known as the Colburn j-factor. Large temperature differences ‘When the temperature difference between the surface and the bulk of the fluid is very high, then the property variations become large enough to be taken into consideration, It is then no longer sufficient to use a mean film temperature to evaluate the properties, as given by equation (22), Why ie, teat The variation of each property with temperature across the stream must be known; sometimes itis sufficiently accurate to use an equation of the form, Na-K { (PE) (Re) where T,. and T,, are the absolute temperatures at the axis of the pipe and at the pipe wall respectively, and fluid properties are taken at the mean film temperature. Entry length The equations for flow in a pipe do not usually allow for the effects of the entry length. At the entry to aheated tube the hydrodynamic and thermal boundary layers start to build up on the wall, gradually thickening until the flow becomes fully developed. In this initial region of the tube the heat transfer coefficient is much larger since the resistance to heat flow of the boundary layer is less, and hence an equation which neglects this effect will give a low value for the calculated heat transfer. The effect is more marked for laminar flow than for turbulent flow, and is much ‘more important for fluids with high Prandtl numbers. In most heat exchange processes the flow is turbulent and the tube length is sufficiently long to make the entry length effect negligibly

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