AP Bio

Download as docx, pdf, or txt
Download as docx, pdf, or txt
You are on page 1of 15

All life on earth is carbon based.

Our carbon basis allows for the formation of complex


molecules. Pick three of the four groups of complex carbon based molecules (macromolecules)
and for each:

a) For each group, discuss the structural components of the molecule group
Carbohydrates: consists of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Like most biochemical
compounds, carbohydrates are built of small repeating units, or monomers,
which form bonds with each other to make larger molecules, called polymers

Lipids: Lipids are composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms. Lipid molecules
consist mainly of repeating units called fatty acids. There are two types of fatty
acids: saturated fatty acids and unsaturated fatty acids

Proteins: Proteins are organic compounds that contain carbon, hydrogen,


oxygen, nitrogen, and, in some cases, sulfur. Proteins are made of small units
called amino acids.

b) For each group, discuss two examples of molecules that belong to each of the groups
that you choose. Briefly describe their function

Carbohydrates: 1)Starch is a complex carbohydrate that is made by plants to


store energy.
2) Glycogen:Glycogen is a polysaccharide of glucose .Animals store the extra
energy as the complex carbohydrate glycogen.

Lipids: 1) Steroids: Steroids are lipids with a ring structure. Each steroid has a
core of seventeen carbon atoms arranged in four rings of five or six carbons each
2) Triglycerides: they are formed by combining a molecule of glycerol with three
fatty acid molecules.

Proteins: 1) Keratin is the protein of hair, horns,feathers, and other skin


appendages. Insects and spiders use silk fibers to make their cocoons and webs,
respectively. 2) Collagen and elastin proteins provide a fibrous framework in
animal connective tissues.

c) All of these groups of molecules are created from monomers joining to form polymers.
Explain the process that joins these molecules.
Dehydration Synthesis is responsible for joining monomers to create polymers by dehydrating
the water between them. The only exception is LipidsIn a fat, three fatty acids are joined to
glycerol by an ester linkage, creating a triacylglycerol, or triglyceride

3.1:

1. Why do you think Mohinder’s father having diabetes increases his risk of getting
diabetes?

Mohinder is at increased risk of diabetes partly because there is a genetic component to


the disease. DNA

2. What is the difference between refined (simple) carbohydrates and complex


carbohydrates? Why are refined carbohydrates particularly problematic for people with
diabetes?

Complex carbohydrates are digested more slowly and supply a lower more steady release of
glucose into the bloodstream. As with simple sugars, some complex carbohydrate foods are
better choices than others. Refined grains, such as white flour and white rice, have been
processed, which removes many nutrients and fiber.

Because carbohydrate is converted directly into glucose, the majority of people with diabetes
will struggle to achieve good sugar levels on a carbohydrate-focused diet.

3. Insulin is a peptide hormone. In which class of biochemical compounds would you


categorize insulin?

Peptide hormones are also protein hormones so they're proteins.

4. Sometimes “eating clean” is described as avoiding “chemicals” in food. Think about the
definition of “chemicals” and how it relates to what we eat.

A compound that has been artificially prepared. I think food that has been chemically altered
isn't considered “clean eating” as it can have drawbacks.
3.2

1. What is an element? Give three examples.

An element is a pure substance. It cannot be broken down into other types of substances like:
Oxygen, Hydrogen and Carbon

2. Define compound. Explain how compounds form.

An element is a pure substance. It cannot be broken down into other types of substances

3. Compare and contrast atoms and molecules.

An atom is the smallest particle of an element that still has the properties of that element while
molecules are bigger and they consist of atoms.

4. The compound called water can be broken down into its constituent elements by
applying an electric current to it. What ratio of elements is produced in this process?

Since water is H2O so its two parts hydrogen to one part oxygen..

5. What is the most important element of life?

Carbon because Living organisms consist mostly of carbon-based compounds

6. Iron oxide is often known as rust — the reddish substance you might find on corroded
metal. The chemical formula for this type of iron oxide is Fe2O3. Answer the following
questions about iron oxide and briefly explain each answer.
1. Is iron oxide an element or a compound? Compound
2. Would one particle of iron oxide be considered a molecule or an atom? A
molecule
3. Describe the relative proportion of atoms in iron oxide. Iron oxide contains 2
atoms of iron (Fe) and 3 atoms of oxygen (O).
4. What causes the Fe and O to stick together in iron oxide? It’s held together by
chemical bonds.
5. Is iron oxide made of metal atoms, metalloid atoms, nonmetal atoms, or a
combination of any of these? Iron oxide is made of both metal (Fe) and nonmetal
(O) atoms.

7. Explain why ions have a positive or negative charge.

It is charged because the number of electrons do not equal the number of protons in the atom or
molecule

8. Name the three subatomic particles described in this section.

Protons, neutrons and electrons

3.3

1. How is a covalent bond different from an ionic bond?

Ionic - One atom loses and electron, the other gains one and two oppositely charged ions are
produced which are attracted to each other.

Covalent - A shared pair of electrons resulting in both atoms having full outer shells.

2. Why is a hydrogen bond a relatively weak bond?

Because hydrogen bonds involve no formal electron exchange

3. What is a chemical bond?

A chemical bond is what holds atoms together in molecules.

4. How many valence electrons does sodium have? one valence electron

How many valence electrons does chlorine have? 7 valence electrons


What is the charge on a sodium ion? Positive one. What about the chlorine ion? Negative one

5. When does covalent bonding occur? How does it work?

Covalent bonding occurs when pairs of electrons are shared by atoms. Atoms will covalently
bond with other atoms in order to gain more stability, which is gained by forming a full electron
shell. By sharing their outer most (valence) electrons, atoms can fill up their outer electron shell
and gain stability.

6. How many valence electrons does oxygen have?

six valence electrons

3.4

1. Why is carbon so important to life on Earth?

This is in part due to carbon's ability to readily form bonds with other atoms

2. What are the biochemical compounds?

Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins and Nucleic Acids

3. Describe the diversity of biochemical compounds, and explain how they are classified.

A biochemical compound is any compound that contains carbon and is found in living things.
Although there are millions of biochemical compounds, all of them can be grouped into just four
main classes: carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids

4. Identify two types of carbohydrates. What are the main functions of this class of
biochemical compounds?

Sugar and Starch. They provide cells with energy, store energy, and make up organic
structures, such as the cell walls of plants.

5. What roles are played by lipids in living things?


They serve as structural components of cell membranes, function as energy storehouses, and
function as important signaling molecules.

6. The enzyme amylase is found in saliva. It helps break down starches in foods into
simpler sugar molecules. What type of biochemical compound do you think amylase is?

Amylase is an enzyme and enzymes are proteins

7. Explain how DNA and RNA contain the genetic code.

The information stored in the order of bases is organized into genes: each gene contains
information for making a functional product. The genetic information is first copied to another
nucleic acid polymer, RNA (ribonucleic acid), preserving the order of the nucleotide bases.

8. What are the three elements present in every class of biochemical compound?

Carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen

9. For each of the following terms (nucleic acid; amino acid; monosaccharide; protein;
nucleotide; polysaccharide)
1. Determine whether it is a monomer or a polymer.

. Amino Acid: monomer, Monosaccharide: monomer, Protein: polymer, Nucleic Acid:


Polymer, Nucleotide: monomer, Polysaccharide: polymer

2. Match each monomer with its correct polymer.

Amino Acid and Protein. Monosaccharide and polysaccharide. Nucleotide and nucleic
acid

3. Identify which class of biochemical compound is represented by each


monomer/polymer pair.

Amino Acid and Protein: proteins. Monosaccharide and polysaccharide:


carbohydrates. Nucleotide and nucleic acid: nucleic acids
10. Is glucose a monomer or a polymer? Explain your answer.

Sugar Monomers: Glucose is the most common natural monomer. It links together to form
polymers of Starch, Cellulose and Glycogen.

11. What is one element contained in proteins and nucleic acids, but not in carbohydrates?

Nitrogen

12. Describe the relationship between proteins and nucleic acids.

Our cells make proteins by following the instructions encoded in your DNA, which is genetic
material and a type of nucleic acid.

13. Why do you think it is important to eat a diet that contains a balance of carbohydrates,
proteins, and fats?

A balanced diet helps give us the energy and nutrition to continue on with our daily lives.

3.5

1. What are carbohydrates? Describe their structure.

Carbohydrates are biological molecules made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a ratio of
roughly one carbon atom

2. Compare and contrast sugars and complex carbohydrates.

There are two major types of carbs: simple and complex. The difference between them lies in
the number of sugar molecules they contain. Simple carbs (monosaccharides and
disaccharides) — also known as simple sugars — contain one or two sugar molecules, whereas
complex carbs (polysaccharides) have three or more.

3. Identify the four main types of complex carbohydrates and their functions.

Complex carbohydrates that are found in living things include starch, glycogen, cellulose, and
chitin. Each type of complex carbohydrate has different functions in living organisms but they
generally either store energy or make up certain structures of living things.
4. If you chew on a starchy food such as a saltine cracker for several minutes, it may start
to taste sweet. Explain why.

you start to taste the sugars released as the starch is digested.

5. Put the following carbohydrates in order from smallest to largest: cellulose; fructose;
sucrose

Fructose, Sucrose, Cellulose

6. Name three carbohydrates that contain glucose as a monomer.

lactose, maltose, and sucrose

7. Jeans are made of tough, durable cotton. Explain how you think this fabric gets its tough
qualities, based on what you know about the structure of carbohydrates.

Cotton is a soft, fluffy fiber that grows in a protective case around the seeds of cotton plants.
The fiber is almost pure cellulose.

8. Which do you think is faster to digest — simple sugars or complex carbohydrates?


Explain your answer.

Simple sugars because they are made up of shorter chains of molecules and are faster to
dismantle

9. True or False. Cellulose is broken down in the human digestive system into glucose
molecules.

False, Humans cannot digest cellulose

10. Which type of fiber dissolves in water? Soluble fiber. Which type does not dissolve in
water? Insoluble fiber
11. What are the similarities and differences between muscle glycogen and liver glycogen?
Muscle glycogen is converted to glucose for use by muscle cells, and liver glycogen is
converted to glucose for use throughout the rest of the body.

12. Which carbohydrate is used directly by the cells of living things for energy?

Glucose

13. Which of the following is not a complex carbohydrate?


1. chitin
2. starch
3. disaccharide
4. none of the above

3.6

1. What are lipids?

Lipids are a major class of biochemical compounds that includes oils as well as fats.
Organisms use lipids to store energy

2. Compare and contrast saturated and unsaturated fatty acids

Saturated fatty acids lack double bonds between the individual carbon atoms, while in
unsaturated fatty acids there is at least one double bond in the fatty acid chain. Saturated fats
tend to be solid at room temperature and from animal sources, while unsaturated fats are
usually liquid and from plant sources.

3. Identify three major types of lipids, and describe differences in their structures.

Triglycerides are formed by combining a molecule of glycerol with three fatty acid molecules

Phospholipids: Each phospholipid molecule has a "tail" consisting of two long fatty acids and a
"head" consisting of a phosphate group and glycerol
Steroids are lipids with a ring structure. Each steroid has a core of seventeen carbon atoms
arranged in four rings of five or six carbons each
4. How do triglycerides play an important role in human metabolism?

In the human bloodstream, triglycerides play an important role in metabolism as energy sources
and transporters of dietary fat.

5. Explain how phospholipids form cell membranes.

Phospholipids are able to form cell membranes because the phosphate group head is
hydrophilic (water-loving) while the fatty acid tails are hydrophobic (water-hating). ... To form
membranes, phospholipids line up next to each other with their heads on the outside of the cell
and their tails on the inside

6. What is cholesterol, and what is its major function?

Cholesterol is a fat-like, waxy substance that helps your body make cell membranes, many
hormones, and vitamin D.

7. Give three examples of steroid hormones in humans.

In humans, steroid hormones include cortisone, a fight-or-flight hormone; and the sex hormones
estrogen and testosterone.

8. Which type of fatty acid do you think is predominant in the steak and cheese of the
cheesesteak shown above? Explain your answer

Saturated fatty acid because .Saturated fatty acids have relatively high melting points,
hey are solids at room temperature

9. Which type of fat would be the most likely to stay liquid in colder temperatures — bacon
fat, olive oil, or soybean oil? Explain your answer.

Soybean oil because it has a relatively low melting point

10. Why do you think that the shape of the different types of fatty acid molecules affects how
easily they solidify?

Because the structure of the molecules determines the solidity.


11. High cholesterol levels in the bloodstream can cause negative health effects but explain
why we wouldn’t want to get rid of all the cholesterol in our bodies.

We need a small amount of blood cholesterol because the body uses it to: build the structure of
cell membranes. And also make some hormones

12. Name two types of lipids that are part of the cell membrane.

phospholipids, cholesterol,

13. True or False. Fatty acids are made up of triglycerides.

False

14. Which type of lipid often functions as chemical messenger molecule

Steroid hormones

3.7

1. What are proteins?

Proteins are organic compounds that contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and, in some
cases, sulfur. These compounds have many essential functions within the cell

2. How do two amino acids combine together to make a dipeptide?

A dipeptide is formed when two Amino acids join together by one Peptide bond.

3. Outline the four levels of protein structure.

The four levels of protein structure are primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary.

4. Identify four functions of proteins.

It helps repair and build your body's tissues, allows metabolic reactions to take place and
coordinates bodily functions. proteins also maintain proper pH and fluid balance.
5. Explain why proteins can take on so many different functions in living things.

The chief characteristic that allows proteins' diverse functions is their ability to bind specifically
and tightly with other molecules.

6. What is the role of proteins in the human diet?

As proteins are made of amino acids, the human body uses amino acids to build and repair
muscles and bones and to make hormones and enzymes. They can also be used as an energy
source.

7. Can you have a protein with both an alpha helix and a beta-sheet?

One type of protein that clearly shows both an alpha helix and a beta pleated sheet is a zinc
finger protein, which helps regulate DNA expression in a cell's nucleus. This relatively small
protein is only 28 amino acids long but includes a four-turn alpha helix and a two strand beta
pleated sheet.

8. What is the region of a protein responsible for binding to another molecule called? the
binding site

Which level/s of protein structure create this region?

determined largely by the tertiary structure of the protein

9. Arrange the following in order from the smallest to the largest level of organization:
peptide; protein; amino acid; polypeptide

Amino acid, peptide, polypeptide and then protein

10. True or False. You can tell the function of all proteins from their quaternary structure.

False
3.8

1. What are the nucleic acids?

Nucleic acids are the class of biochemical compounds that includes DNA and RNA. These
molecules are built of small monomers called nucleotides.

2. How does RNA differ in structure from DNA?

There are two differences that distinguish DNA from RNA: (a) RNA contains the sugar ribose,
while DNA contains the slightly different sugar deoxyribose (a type of ribose that lacks one
oxygen atom), and (b) RNA has the nucleobase uracil while DNA contains thymine.

3. Describe a nucleotide. Explain how nucleotides bind together to form a polynucleotide.

Nucleotides are connected to form DNA. The sugar molecule of one nucleotide binds to the
phosphate group of the next nucleotide. These two molecules alternate to form the backbone of
the nucleotide chain. Nucleotides are joined together by covalent bonds

4. What role do nitrogen bases in nucleotides play in the structure and function of DNA?

In DNA, hydrogen bonds form between bases on the two nucleotide chains and hold the chains
together.

5. What is the role of RNA?

the primary role of RNA is to convert the information stored in DNA into proteins.

6. Explain why Mark and Scott Kelly look so similar, using what you learned about nucleic
acids in this article.

They have the same DNA code . DNA makes up genes, and the sequence of bases in DNA
makes up the genetic code.

7. True or False. A, C, G, and T represent the bases in RNA.


8. True or False. The two polynucleotide chains of RNA twist into a double helix shape.
9. True or False. Cytosine always binds to guanine in DNA.
10. If part of a chain of DNA has the sequence of bases: ATTG, what is the corresponding
sequence of bases that it binds to on the other chain?

TAAC. A binds to T, T binds to A, and G binds to C. If the other chain is an mRNA chain, it will
be UAAC.

11. Arrange the following in order from the smallest to the largest level of organization: DNA;
nucleotide; polynucleotide

Nucleotide, polynucleotide and DNA

12. As part of the DNA replication process, the two polynucleotide chains are separated
from each other, but each individual chain remains intact. Which bonds are broken in
this process?
1. Bonds between adjacent sugars and phosphate groups
2. Bonds within nucleotides
3. Bonds between complementary bases
4. Bonds between adenine and guanine
13. Adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine are:
1. Nucleotides
2. Nitrogenous bases
3. Sugars in DNA and RNA
4. Phosphate groups
14. Some diseases and disorders are caused by genes. Explain why these genetic disorders
can be passed down from parents to their children.

Some disorders that affect multiple family members are caused by gene variants (also
known as mutations), which can be inherited (passed down from parent to child).

You might also like