My Revision Planner

My Revision Planner

8 Exam breakdown

Unit 1 Key concepts in the application of science

10 Key concepts in the application of biology
10 Introduction
10 Cell structure
15 Transport mechanisms
17 The heart
19 Homeostasis
23 Breathing and cellular respiration
26 Photosynthesis and food chain productivity
29 Summary
30 Exam practice

33 Key concepts in the application of chemistry

33 Introduction
33 Atomic structure
38 The Periodic Table
42 Amount of substance
51 Bonding and structure
56 Enthalpy changes
64 Summary
64 Exam practice

66 Key concepts in the application of physics

66 Introduction
66 Useful energy and efficiency
73 Electricity and circuits
80 Dynamics
87 Summary
88 Exam practice

Unit 2 Applied experimental techniques

92 Introduction
93 Risk assessments

93 Applied experimental techniques in biology

93 Rate of respiration
96 Light-dependent reaction in photosynthesis (the Hill reaction)

98 Applied experimental techniques in chemistry

98 Volumetric analysis
103 Colorimetric analysis

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 108 Applied experimental techniques in physics
108 Resistivity

My Revision Planner
111 Specific heat capacity

Unit 3 Science in the modern world

116 Introduction
116 Dealing with the pre-release document
117 Assessment objective 1: Topical scientific issues obtained
from a variety of media sources
118 Assessment objective 2: The public perception of science and
the influence that the media have
121 Assessment objective 3: The ethical, moral, commercial,
environmental, political and social issues involved in scientific
advances, and how these are represented in the media
122 Assessment objective 4: The roles and responsibilities that
science personnel carry out in the science industry
123 Summary
124 Exam practice

Unit 4 The human body

129 The digestive system and diet
129 The digestive system – structure and functions
131 Absorption in the small intestine

133 The musculoskeletal system and movement

133 Structure and functions of the skeleton
134 Bone formation and resorption

139 Oxygen transport and physiological measurements

139 Haemoglobin and oxygen transport
140 Oxygen transport and high-altitude training
140 Oxygen saturation
140 Blood pressure and its measurement

141 The structure and function of the nervous system

and brain
141 The nervous system
141 The brain

142 Nerve impulses

142 Nerve structure
145 The importance of the myelin sheath
145 Synapses
146 Synapses and disorders
147 Summary
148 Exam practice

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 Unit 5 Investigating science
150 Introduction
My Revision Planner

151 Prepare for a scientific investigation

152 Carry out the investigation and record results
154 Analyse results, draw conclusions and evaluate the
investigation
156 Present findings of the investigation to a suitable audience

Unit 6
158 6a Microbiology
158 The main groups of microorganisms in terms of their
structure and function
160 Using aseptic techniques to safely cultivate microorganisms
162 Using practical techniques to investigate factors that affect
the growth of microorganisms
166 The use of microorganisms in biotechnological industries

167 6b Medical physics

168 Imaging methods
169 Radiotherapy techniques and the use of radioactive tracers
171 Working with radioisotopes in the laboratory
174 The medical uses of optical fibres and lasers

177 6c Organic chemistry

177 Molecular structure, functional groups and isomerism
180 Reactions of functional groups
183 Preparing organic compounds

188 Glossary
191 Answers to Now test yourself and
Maths skills practice questions
200 Index

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 Countdown to my exams

Countdown to my exams
6–8 weeks to go One week to go

✚ Start by looking at the specification — make sure you ✚ Try to fit in at least one more timed practice of an
know exactly what material you need to revise and entire past paper and seek feedback from your
the style of the examination. Use the revision planner teacher, comparing your work closely with the mark
on pages 4–6 to familiarise yourself with the topics. scheme.
✚ Organise your notes, making sure you have covered ✚ Check the revision planner to make sure you haven’t
everything on the specification. The revision planner missed out any topics. Brush up on any areas you find
will help you to group your notes into topics. difficult by talking them over with a friend or getting
✚ Work out a realistic revision plan including time help from your teacher.
for relaxation. Set aside days and times for all the ✚ Attend any revision classes put on by your teacher.
subjects that you need to study, and stick to your Remember, he or she is an expert at preparing people
timetable. for examinations.
✚ Set yourself sensible targets. Break down your revision
into focused sessions of around 40 minutes, divided
by breaks. These Revision Notes organise the basic
facts into short, memorable sections to make revising The day before the examination
easier.
✚ Flick through these Revision Notes for useful
reminders, for example, examiners’ tips, examiners’
summaries and key terms.

2–6 weeks to go ✚ Check the time and place of your examination.

✚ Make sure you have everything you need — extra
✚ Read through the relevant sections of this book and pens and pencils, highlighter pen, tissues, a watch,
refer to the exam tips, summaries and key terms. bottled water, sweets.
Tick off the topics as you feel confident about them. ✚ Allow some time to relax and have an early night to
Highlight those topics you find difficult and look at ensure you are fresh and alert for the examinations.
them again in detail.
✚ Test your understanding of each topic by working
through the ‘Now test yourself’ questions in the book.
Look up the answers at the back of the book.
My exams – when and where
✚ Make a note of any problem areas as you revise, and
ask your teacher to go over these in class. ................................................................................................
✚ Look at past papers. They are one of the best
................................................................................................
ways to revise and practise your exam skills.
Write or prepare planned answers to the exam ................................................................................................
practice questions provided in this book. Check
your answers online and try out the extra quick ................................................................................................
quizzes at www.hoddereducation.co.uk/
myrevisionnotesdownloads ................................................................................................
✚ Try out different revision methods. For example, you ................................................................................................
can make notes using mind maps, spider diagrams or
flash cards.
................................................................................................
✚ Track your progress using the revision planner and
give yourself a reward when you have achieved your ................................................................................................
target.
................................................................................................

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 Exam breakdown
These pages outline how AQA Level 3 Applied Science will be examined.
There are two qualifications available following this specification – Certificate
Exam breakdown

and Extended Certificate. This book covers both, but you should check which
qualification you are taking with your teacher, so that you only learn the
material relevant to you.
The qualifications break down as follows.
Level 3 Certificate in Applied Science consists of three mandatory units:

Unit/Chapter Unit title Assessment type Unit weighting (%)

1 Key concepts in science Written examination 33.3
2 Applied experimental techniques Portfolio 33.3
3 Science in the modern world Written examination with pre-release material 33.3

Level 3 Extended Certificate in Applied Science consists of five mandatory

units and one optional unit from a choice of three. Again, it is worth checking
which optional unit you are studying:

Unit/Chapter Unit title Assessment type Unit weighting (%)

Mandatory
1 Key concepts in science Written examination 16.6
2 Applied experimental techniques Portfolio 16.6
3 Science in the modern world Written examination with pre-release material 16.6
4 The human body Written examination 16.6
5 Investigating science Portfolio 16.6
Optional
6a Microbiology Portfolio 16.6
6b Medical physics Portfolio 16.6
6c Organic chemistry Portfolio 16.6

Assessment details
Each unit may be assessed in January and June of each year – check when you
are likely to be assessed so you can ensure you’re prepared well in advance.
Below is a quick summary, but you can find more information including past
papers, mark schemes and Examiner’s Reports on the AQA website.

✚ Unit 1 Key concepts in science.

This is a written examination that takes place over 1 hour and 30 minutes.
It has three sections:
✚ A Applications of biology
✚ B Applications of chemistry
✚ C Applications of physics
Each section will be allocated 20 marks and will consist of short-answer
questions set in applied contexts.
You will be given a Formulae Sheet containing all the mathematical
formulae required for Unit 1 plus a copy of the Periodic Table.

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 ✚ Unit 2 Applied experimental techniques.
This is a portfolio of six experimental reports based on the following
experiments:
✚ 1(a) Rate of respiration

Exam breakdown
✚ 1(b) Light-dependent reaction in photosynthesis (the Hill reaction)
✚ 2(a) Volumetric analysis
✚ 2(b) Colorimetric analysis
✚ 3(a) Resistivity
✚ 3(b) Specific heat capacity
plus written risk assessments for one applied experimental technique
from each of biology, chemistry and physics (three in total).

✚ Unit 3 Science in the modern world.

This is a written examination (with pre-released materials) that takes
place over 1 hour and 30 minutes and has an allocation of 60 marks. It is in
two parts:
✚ Section A – short and extended answer questions (usually) based on
four ‘sources’ published in the pre-release material, provided to centres
approximately 2 months before the examination
✚ Section B – short and extended answer questions not based on the pre-
release material, although they may or may not be based on the same
topical scientific issue. Questions will generally include some form of
analysis of data presented in the examination paper.

✚ Unit 4 The human body.

This is a written examination, taking place over 1 hour and 30 minutes.
It has an allocation of 60 marks, and comprises short-answer questions.

✚ Unit 5 Investigating science.

This is a portfolio of reports (which can be in a variety of formats) based
on one practical investigation approved by AQA – either from their
pre-approved list or approved through your centre.

✚ Unit 6 is in three parts:

✚ 6a Microbiology is a portfolio of reports (which can be in a variety of
formats):
– identifying the main groups of microorganisms in terms of their
structure
– using aseptic techniques to safely culture microorganisms
– using practical techniques to investigate factors that affect the
growth of microorganisms
– identifying the use of microorganisms in biotechnological
industries.
✚ 6b Medical physics is a portfolio of reports (which can be in a variety of
formats):
– understanding imaging methods
– understanding radiotherapy techniques and the use of radioactive
tracers
– demonstrating the ability to work with radioisotopes in the
laboratory
– understanding the medical uses of optical fibres and lasers.
✚ 6c Organic chemistry is a portfolio of reports (which can be in a variety
of formats):
– identifying molecular structure, functional groups and isomerism
– understanding reactions of functional groups
– preparing organic compounds.

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 Unit 1 Key concepts in the
application of science

Key concepts in the application

of biology
Introduction
In this section you will learn that cells are the basic units of life, and that a
knowledge of their structure and function is vital for the understanding of
diseases, fertility, growth and development as well as the effect of a variety of
environmental chemicals, including drugs.
You will also learn about the heart. Heart and circulatory system disease
cause more than a quarter of the deaths in the UK.
Then you will learn that life consists of a series of co-ordinated chemical
reactions. For the chemical systems to work efficiently, certain factors must
be kept at a constant or near constant level. The maintenance of this steady
state is called homeostasis. Factors controlled include: body temperature; the
concentration of body fluids; and blood sugar and pH levels.
You will also discover that respiration is the process which provides all cells
with the energy they need for living processes. The energy comes from food
materials, but its efficient extraction requires oxygen and, in many animals,
including humans, oxygen enters the body by the process of breathing.
Finally, you will learn that the world’s food supply depends upon the process
of photosynthesis, by which plants make food. Animals rely on plants for
their food supply, either directly or indirectly.

Making links
You can learn more about the roles and responsibilities of biomedical scientists,
pharmacologists, biochemists, environmental scientists, research scientists and sport
and exercise scientists in Unit 3. See page 122.

Cell structure
Cell types have differences in ultrastructure Eukaryotic Cells which
The development of high-magnification electron microscopes has led to contain membrane-bound
discoveries about the ultrastructure of cells. organelles and a nucleus.

Cells come in two types: Prokaryotic Prokaryotic

1 prokaryotic cells are simple cells that
2 eukaryotic. do not have a true nucleus
or other membrane-bound
Prokaryotic cells are those found in bacteria and blue-green algae, while organelles.
eukaryotic cells make up animals, plants and fungi. Both types of cell have
cytoplasm and a cell membrane. The differences between the two types of Ultrastructure The fine
structure of cells which is
cell are shown in Figure 1.1 and Table 1.1.
only visible with electron
microscopes.

10

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 Table 1.1 Differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
Making links
Feature Prokaryotic cells Eukaryotic cells You can learn more about
Nucleus Absent Present the characteristic structural

Unit 1 Key concepts in the application of science

features of prokaryotes
DNA Free in the cytoplasm Inside the nucleus
and eukaryotes in Unit 6,
Plasmids (small rings of DNA) Present Absent page 158.
Membrane-bound organelles Absent Present
Capsule Present Absent
Exam tip
Mesosomes Present Absent
If asked for a set number
Ribosomes Smaller (called ‘70S’) Larger (called ‘80S’)
of differences between
Pili Sometimes present Never present prokaryotic cells and
Size 0.1–5.0 micrometres (µm) 10–100 µm eukaryotic cells, do not
include both the absence of
a nucleus and the absence
Maths skills of membrane-bound
Cell structures are usually measured in micrometres (µm). 1 mm is 1000 µm, e.g. organelles in prokaryotic
12.4 mm = 12 400 µm, 8 µm = 0.008 mm. cells as separate
differences. The nucleus is a
Cytoplasm Capsule Cell wall Cell membrane membrane-bound organelle
and there will be a mark for
Pilus (plural: pili) either difference, but not
Flagellum both.
(plural: flagella)
Plasmid

Ribosomes
DNA free Mesosome
in cytoplasm

Nuclear membrane
Nucleolus
Nuclear pore
Mitochondrion

Free ribosomes Rough endoplasmic

reticulum
Smooth endoplasmic
reticulum

Vesicle
Cytoplasm
Centrioles

Cell membrane
Golgi body

Lysosome

Figure 1.1 Structure of a typical prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell. The eukaryotic cell
show here is an animal cell

Note that the eukaryotic cell shown in Figure 1.1 is an animal cell. Plant cells
have a cell wall and sometimes chloroplasts, and no centrioles.

Ultrastructure and functions of cell organelles

Organelle Structure found
Both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells have specialised organelles inside
inside a cell which has a
them, each of which carries out a particular function. The functions of each
specific function. 11
organelle are shown in Table 1.2.

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 Table 1.2 Functions of organelles

Organelle Function Notes

Nucleus Contains the DNA which Only in eukaryotes.
Unit 1 Key concepts in the application of science

controls the manufacture of

proteins by the cell.
Smooth A variety of functions, but The endoplasmic reticulum is a
endoplasmic mainly concerned with the system of membrane channels
reticulum (SER) manufacture and transport of running through the cytoplasm,
lipids. connected to both the nuclear
Rough endoplasmic The manufacture and and plasma membranes. The
reticulum (RER) transport of proteins for RER has ribosomes attached to Secretion The release of a
secretion out of the cell. it. Only in eukaryotes. substance from the inside
of a cell to the outside.
Mitochondrion (pl: Carries out aerobic respiration. Only in eukaryotes.
mitochondria)
Vesicles Transport substances to the A vesicle is a membrane ‘bag’.
cell membrane for secretion. Only in eukaryotes.
Lysosome A special type of vesicle which Found in old cells near death
contains protein-digesting and white blood cells (to kill
enzymes, which can digest its bacteria). Only in eukaryotes.
own or invading cells.
Golgi apparatus Combines and ‘packages’ A stack of membrane sacs. Only
chemicals from the SER and in eukaryotes.
RER.
Chloroplast Carries out photosynthesis. Only in eukaryotes, and only
ever found in plant cells.
Vacuole Storage of sugars. Large central membrane-bound
space in the centre of plant
cells.
Cell wall Provides support. Made of cellulose in plant cells,
peptidoglycan in bacterial cells.
Ribosome Manufacture of proteins. Larger in eukaryotic cells,
where they are both free in the
cytoplasm and attached to the
RER.
Flagellum (pl: Moves the cell. More often found in prokaryotic
flagella) cells, but occasionally in
eukaryotic cells.
Nucleoid The region of prokaryotic cells The nucleoid is not a structure,
where most of the DNA is but an ‘area’. Cannot really be
found. classed as an organelle.
Plasmid Controls the manufacture of Circular strand of DNA. Only in
proteins. prokaryotes.
Mesosome Carries out respiration. Infolding of a bacterial cell
membrane.
Pilus (pl: pili) Helps some bacterial cells
attach to other cells.
Capsule Protection of bacterial Only in prokaryotes.
Exam tip
cells from desiccation and Polysaccharide layer outside
chemicals. the cell wall. There may also be You should familiarise
a ‘slime’ layer on its surface. yourself with the appearance
of these organelles in
electron micrographs
Making links
(photos taken using an
You can learn more about the characteristic structural features of prokaryotes and electron microscope) as
eukaryotes in Unit 6, page 158. well as in diagrams.
12

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 Now test yourself DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid;
a self-replicating nucleic
1 Which of these features would NOT be found in eukaryotic cells? Mesosome, acid which is found in
chloroplast, ribosome, mitochondrion, capsule, endoplasmic reticulum. nearly all living organisms

Unit 1 Key concepts in the application of science

2 Both bacteria and plant cells have a cell wall. What features of these structures and provides a chemical
suggest they may have had a different origin? code for the formation of
3 State one similarity and one difference between ribosomes in prokaryotic and proteins.
eukaryotic cells. Enzyme A protein molecule
which catalyses a chemical
Nucleic acids: DNA and RNA are central to life reaction in the body.

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a chemical which is central to life. It forms RNA Ribonucleic acid; a
a chemical code which instructs ribosomes how to make specific proteins. single-stranded nucleic acid
Many of these proteins are enzymes, which control all the chemical reactions which plays a role in protein
in the body. As DNA is in the nucleus, but the ribosomes are in the cytoplasm, synthesis.
DNA is partially copied as another nucleic acid, ribonucleic acid (RNA), which
can pass through the nuclear membrane and into the cytoplasm. You do not
need to know the mechanism for the manufacture of proteins, but you do
need to be aware of the structures of DNA and RNA.
DNA consists of two chemical chains, held together by nitrogenous bases,
twisted into a double helix shape. Its structure is shown in Figure 1.2.
Two polynucleotides
held together by hydrogen
bonds between adjacent bases Deoxyribose
Phosphate
Pi adenine thymine Pi

Pi thymine adenine Pi
A links with T
(with 2 H bonds)

Complementary base pairs

Pi cytosine guanine Pi
C links with G
(with 3 H bonds)

Pi adenine thymine Pi

Pi thymine adenine Pi

Pi guanine cytosine Pi

Phosphate is combined with carbon-3 of one deoxyribose

and carbon-5 of the next.

In the chromosomes, the helical structure of DNA is

The DNA molecule is twisted
stabilised and supported by proteins. into a double helix

Figure 1.2 The double strand of DNA showing the antiparallel chains

Features of DNA
✚ The strands are made of alternating sugar (deoxyribose) and phosphate
molecules.
✚ The bases which hold the chains together are attached to the deoxyribose.
✚ There are four bases – adenine, cytosine, guanine and thymine.
✚ They form specific pairs – adenine and thymine always pair together, as do
cytosine and guanine. 13

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 ✚ The basic ‘unit’ of DNA is a nucleotide. A nucleotide consists of a
phosphate group, a pentose sugar and its attached base.
✚ DNA is a very long molecule (in humans, between 50 million and 260
million nucleotides in length).
Unit 1 Key concepts in the application of science

Features of RNA
RNA has the same structure as a single strand of DNA, but with the following
differences:
✚ RNA is not coiled into a helix.
✚ The sugar is ribose instead of deoxyribose.
✚ Thymine is not found in RNA. Another base, uracil, takes its place.
✚ The RNA molecule is much shorter (only a few thousand nucleotides in
length).

Now test yourself

4 Name the chemical molecules that make up a nucleotide.

5 State two chemical differences between DNA and RNA.

You can calculate magnification as observed size

actual size
If we know the magnification used in a light or electron microscope, it is easy
to calculate the actual size of the object using the equation:
observed size
actual size =
magnification

Maths skills
The magnification equation allows us to calculate the magnification of a diagram/
photo (if we know the actual size of the structure) or the actual size of a structure
(if we know the magnification).
Worked example
An object’s image down a light microscope (magnification ×40) is measured as
0.5 mm. Calculate the actual size of the object.
observed size 0.5
actual size = = = 0.0125 mm
magnification 40

The same equation can be rearranged to calculate the magnification if we know the
actual size of an object (this is done to calculate the magnification of a drawing or
electron micrograph, as when using a microscope, we know the magnification).
Worked example Exam tip
Red blood cells have an average diameter of around 7.5 µm (0.0075 mm). In a
Note that the magnification
photograph of red blood cells down a microscope, the average cell diameter is 3 mm.
of a drawing or photograph
What is the magnification of the photo?
is not necessarily the
observed size 3.0 same as the magnification
magnification = = = × 400
actual size 0.0075 used by the microscope.
Drawings and photographs
Practice questions are rarely ‘life size’.
1 A structure in an electron micrograph is 2 cm (20 000 µm) long. The magnification is
given as ×3000. What is the real length of the structure?
2 An electron micrograph of a cell is printed in a textbook. The microscope
magnification used is ×20 000. Explain why the magnification given for the
photograph in the textbook is ×40 000.

14

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 Transport mechanisms
The cell membrane surrounds the cell

Unit 1 Key concepts in the application of science

All living cells have a cell (plasma) membrane. In eukaryotic cells it consists of
a lipid bilayer with protein molecules embedded in it. The structure (known
as the fluid mosaic model) is shown in Figure 1.3.

Extrinsic proteins –
Sugar chain Glycoprotein Attached to surface of lipid bilayer
Outside of cell Protein
Sugar chain
Glycolipid

Lipid

Lipid
bilayer
Phospholipid

Inside of cell

Transmembrane protein Channel protein

that spans the membrane with pore
and is exposed at both Cholesterol
surfaces Protein on one
side of the Intrinsic protein –
membrane Embedded in the lipid bilayer

Figure 1.3 Structure of a eukaryotic plasma membrane

Most of the membrane consists of a double layer of phospholipids, known as a

bilayer. Phospholipid molecules have a hydrophilic head which readily mixes
with water, and a hydrophobic tail which is repelled by water. They naturally
form a bilayer in water as it is the most stable structure. The heads are
Aqueous medium A
towards the outside in the aqueous medium and the tails are as far away
liquid which contains water,
from it as possible; see Figure 1.4). Any substance which is soluble in lipids can
i.e. water or an aqueous
easily get through this bilayer, but water-soluble substances cannot. solution.
Concentration gradient
Aqueous fluid
outside cell The difference in the
concentration of a solute
Phospholipid
molecule between two areas. The
bigger the difference, the
Hydrophobic ‘steeper’ the concentration
tail gradient.
Hydrophilic Intrinsic protein A
head protein embedded in the
Aqueous lipid bilayer of the cell
cytoplasm
membrane, sometimes
Figure 1.4 Structure of the phospholipid bilayer completely penetrating it.

Now test yourself

6 Which two classes of chemical make up the bulk of the cell membrane?
7 The cell membrane is more permeable to lipid-soluble chemicals than to water-
soluble chemicals. Suggest a reason for this.
8 Explain how the hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails of lipid molecules lead to
the bilayer structure seen in cell membranes.

15

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 Transport by intrinsic proteins allows water-soluble
substances to pass through the cell membrane
The presence of intrinsic proteins spanning the width of the membrane
Unit 1 Key concepts in the application of science

allows water-soluble substances to pass through. The intrinsic proteins are

of two types, channel proteins and carrier proteins. The two types transport
substances in slightly different ways. Exam tip

Substances naturally move from an area of higher concentration to an area When referring to the
of lower concentration if there is no barrier in the way, by diffusion. Lipid movement of substances
molecules can diffuse through the membrane at any point in the lipid bilayer, by diffusion or facilitated
but water-soluble (polar) molecules can only diffuse through where there is an diffusion, it is always
intrinsic protein. This conditional form of diffusion is called facilitated diffusion. best to use the term net
Channel proteins have a pore which allows water-soluble substances to pass movement. This is because
through the membrane (Figure 1.5). The channel proteins mainly transport the movement is not one-
ions and small polar molecules. way.
Substances move in both
Carrier proteins can transport substances by facilitated diffusion (including
directions, but more move
larger molecules) but can also transport molecules against a concentration
down the concentration
gradient (i.e. from a lower concentration to a higher concentration) by active
gradient than up it.
transport. Active transport requires energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate
(ATP) (Figure 1.6).

Extracellular Extracellular
fluid fluid
Carrier protein
changes shape

Channel protein
Ion or polar
Ion or polar molecule Carrier protein molecule
Cytoplasm Cytoplasm

Figure 1.5 Facilitated diffusion

Extracellular Making links

fluid
You can learn more about
intrinsic proteins and
their role in absorption of
digested products in the
small intestine in Unit 4,
Transported particle page 129.
Carrier protein
ATP
Cytoplasm

Figure 1.6 Active transport by carrier proteins

Channel proteins can transport any small water-soluble substance, but carrier
proteins are specific and only transport a specific substance or group of
substances.

Extrinsic proteins have many functions, including

acting as antigens and receptors
Extrinsic proteins can be pure proteins or glycoproteins. Glycoproteins are
Extrinsic protein A
proteins with a short carbohydrate chain attached. Extrinsic proteins have a
protein attached to the
variety of functions, but the main ones are as follows:
outside or inside of the lipid
✚ Acting as antigens (molecules which allow the cell to be recognised by the
bilayer in a cell membrane.
immune system).
✚ Acting as receptors. There are many instances where a chemical (e.g.
hormones) needs to act on some cells but not on others. Receptors allow
the chemical to detect the cells which it needs to affect or not affect.
16

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 Now test yourself

9 Explain the difference between simple diffusion and facilitated diffusion.

10 State two differences between the processes of active transport and facilitated

Unit 1 Key concepts in the application of science

diffusion.
11 What is an antigen?

The heart
The structure of the heart ensure blood flows
through it in one direction
The structure of the mamallian heart is shown in Figure 1.7.

Superior Aorta
vena cava
Pulmonary artery
to left lung

Pulmonary veins
from left lung
Semilunar Left
valves atrium

Right Valve
atrium tendons

Atrioventricular Left
valves ventricle
Inferior
vena cava

Right
ventricle Septum

Figure 1.7 Internal structure of the mammalian heart

The valves in the heart ensure that blood always flows through it in the
right direction. The bicuspid and tricuspid valves prevent back-flow from the
ventricles into the atria, and the semilunar valves stop blood flowing back into
the heart from the aorta and pulmonary artery. Some diseases of the heart
are caused by faults in these valves, and artificial valves sometimes need to
be fitted.

Control of the heart rate is essential

In an adult the average resting heart rate is about 70 beats per minute. This
regular rhythm is controlled entirely from within the heart, but sometimes
the rate needs to be adjusted. For example, during exercise the muscles have
a high demand for oxygen carried in the blood so the heart rate is increased to Exam tip
supply this. This adjustment is carried out using external stimulation by the Always use the term
nervous system. (electrical) impulse when
describing how the heart
The cardiac muscle of the heart is unusual in that it can carry out myogenic
contracts. Vague terms like
contraction. This is muscle contraction without any external nervous
‘message’ or ‘signal’ are
stimulation. The contraction is initiated by the sinoatrial node (SAN), a patch of
unlikely to be acceptable.
specialised muscle tissue in the upper right atrium (see Figure 1.8).

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 Sinoatrial node Bundle of His
Initiates heartbeat Takes impulse
from AV node to
the bottom of
the ventricles
Unit 1 Key concepts in the application of science

Purkinje fibres
Conduct impulse
up the ventricle walls,
causing contraction

Atrioventricular
node
On receipt of
impulse from atria,
sends signal to
ventricles after Direction of signal
a short delay

Figure 1.8 Co-ordination of the heartbeat

The sinoatrial node (SAN) generates electrical impulses (myogenic stimulation)

which spread through the atria, causing them to contract. Between the atria
and the ventricles there is non-conductive tissue. This stops the spread of the
impulse to the ventricles, except at the atrioventricular node. After a short delay
to allow the atria to complete their contraction, the atrioventricular node
sends an impulse to the ventricles. This impulse travels down specialised
muscle fibres known as the bundle of His to the bottom of the ventricles and
then back up through another set of muscle fibres known as the Purkinje fibres.
As the impulse travels up, it causes the ventricles to contract, forcing blood up
into the aorta and pulmonary artery.1

Now test yourself

12 What is the function of valves in the heart?

13 What is the difference between normal muscle contraction and myogenic contraction?
14 Arrange the following structures in the sequence that electrical impulses are
generated/transmitted in the heart.
A Bundle of His C Atrioventricular node
B Sinoatrial node D Purkinje fibres

The SAN acts as the heart’s pacemaker and keeps a steady rhythm. It is not
capable, however, of adjusting that rhythm. If the heart rate needs to change
(e.g. during exercise) the heart requires external stimulation by the autonomic
nervous system; for this to happen, specialised sense organs in the body must
detect that the rate needs to change.
Chemoreceptors in the heart and in nearby large arteries can detect the levels
Chemoreceptor Sense
of carbon dioxide in the blood. A high level of carbon dioxide results from
organ which detects a
increased respiration and is therefore linked with a low level of oxygen. The
chemical.
heart rate needs to increase to supply the active tissues with enough oxygen.
High carbon dioxide levels are detected by the chemoreceptors which send Baroreceptor Sense organ
nerve impulses to the cardiac area of the brain. This results in stimulation by which detects pressure.
the sympathetic nervous system which increases the heart rate. The sympathetic
nervous system is part of the autonomic nervous system, which controls
involuntary functions. The other part, the parasympathetic system, causes
opposite effects to the sympathetic system.
Blood pressure is sensed by baroreceptors in the aorta and the carotid arteries
which detect how much the artery wall is being stretched (higher blood
pressure results in more stretch). Impulses are sent to the brain, which will
increase the rate and strength of the heart beat if the blood pressure is too
18 low (using the sympathetic nervous system) or reduce the rate and strength if
it is too high (using the parasympathetic nervous system).

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 Artificial pacemakers can correct irregular heartbeats
Sometimes a fault in the sinoatrial node or associated structures leads to
an irregular heartbeat, a condition known as arrhythmia. The patient must
be fitted with an electronic artificial pacemaker to correct the condition.

Unit 1 Key concepts in the application of science

Pacemakers are made up of a long-lasting battery and a tiny computer (a pulse
generator) in a metal case that is fitted underneath the skin. The pacemaker is
connected to the heart muscle by leads which can detect heart contractions
and send electrical impulses to the muscle. If the heart rate drops below the
desired rate, the pacemaker generates an electrical impulse that causes the
heart muscle to contract in the correct rhythm.
There are three types of pacemaker:
1 Single chamber pacemakers have one lead going to either the right atrium or
the right ventricle.
2 Dual chamber pacemakers have two leads, one each going to the right
atrium and the right ventricle.
3 Biventricular pacemakers have three leads, one each going to the right
atrium, the right ventricle, and the left ventricle.
The type of pacemaker fitted depends on the specific heart problem the
patient has. As a rule, the more serious the condition, the more leads are
used. More leads allow for greater control and synchronisation of the
heartbeat, but the operation to fit them becomes more complicated. Making links
Leadless micropacemakers are now being developed. These are small devices You can learn more about
fixed to the heart which can be fitted by a much simpler (and therefore safer) the role of science in
surgical procedure. However, there is some risk of damaging the wall of the medicine in Unit 3 The role
heart and complications can occur if the pacemaker becomes dislodged, of biomedical scientists.
which is more likely than with the older types. The first micropacemaker was
developed as recently as 2014 and research and development are ongoing.

Now test yourself

15 Which part of the autonomic nervous system causes an increase in the heart rate?
16 Which structure in the heart is likely to be faulty if a single chamber pacemaker is
fitted?

Homeostasis
Homeostatic control mechanisms control such Homeostasis The
maintenance of a constant
things as body temperature and blood pH
internal state within the body.
The body has physiological control systems that maintain the internal
environment within restricted limits. Examples of this include: Hypothalamus An area in
✚ body temperature range (35.8–37.5 °C) the floor of the brain that
✚ blood glucose range (82–110 mg/dL) maintains the body’s internal
balance, often by stimulating
✚ blood pH range (7.35–7.45).
the release of hormones
To achieve homeostasis, the body has means to detect the current values, from the pituitary gland.
and mechanisms to adjust them if they go outside the safe range. These
Negative feedback A
mechanisms often involve hormones (see below).
process where a change
Many homeostatic control systems are carried out by a mechanism causes a series of events
known as negative feedback. An example is the control of water retention which reverse that change.
(osmoregulation) in the body involving anti-diuretic hormone (ADH), the kidney, Pituitary gland A gland
and the hypothalamus and pituitary gland in the brain. The kidney controls hanging from the floor of
the water content of the blood by reabsorbing more or less water from the the brain which produces
urine. The water is reabsorbed as the urine passes through a structure called hormones which control
the collecting duct, and the permeability of the collecting duct wall can be the activity of endocrine
altered by ADH. The mechanism is shown in Figure 1.9. (hormone-producing) glands
around the body. 19

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 Exam tip Exam tip
It is safer to use the term anti-diuretic hormone in exam answers rather than the Learn the normal ranges
abbreviation ADH (at least the first time you use it). This hormone is also known as given here. Questions in
Unit 1 Key concepts in the application of science

vasopressin, which is acceptable in answers. past exams have tested

them.
Detected
by osmoreceptors
in the hypothalamus

Increase in Increased secretion

blood concentration Collecting duct of ADH by pituitary
walls become less gland
permeable (less water is
absorbed)

Collecting duct walls

become more permeable
(more water is absorbed)
Decreased secretion Decrease
of ADH by in blood
pituitary gland concentration

Detected
by osmoreceptors
in the hypothalamus

Figure 1.9 Negative feedback for release of ADH

Hormones control many body functions

Hormones are chemicals produced by specialised glands (endocrine glands)
which have an effect elsewhere in the body. They travel around the body
in the blood. Hormones are important in homeostasis, and also in other
aspects of body function. We have already seen how ADH controls water
retention in the body. Some other examples of hormones and their functions
are given below.
Insulin is produced in the pancreas and lowers blood sugar levels if they get
too high. Excess glucose is stored as glycogen in the liver and, when needed,
the glycogen is broken down to glucose once again. Insulin lowers blood sugar
by activating the enzymes which convert glucose into glycogen.
Glucagon is also produced in the pancreas and has the opposite effect to
insulin, raising blood sugar levels if they fall too low. It activates the enzymes
which convert glycogen to glucose in the liver.
Adrenaline also affects blood sugar levels. It activates enzymes in the same
way as glucagon to boost blood glucose levels in stressful situations and
during exercise. It is not involved in the routine maintenance of blood
glucose levels. Adrenaline is produced in the inner region of the adrenal
glands – the medulla.
Aldosterone is a hormone produced in the cortex (the outer region) of the
adrenal glands. (These are paired endocrine glands located on top of the
kidneys. Each consists of two regions, an inner cortex and an outer medulla.)
Aldosterone helps to regulate blood pressure mainly by increasing the
amount of sodium reabsorbed into the bloodstream by the kidney and
the colon and boosting the amount of potassium in the urine. As water is
reabsorbed along with the sodium, this increases blood volume and causes
an increase in blood pressure.

20

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 Now test yourself

17 How do hormones travel from place to place in the body?

18 How does ADH determine the concentration of the urine?

Unit 1 Key concepts in the application of science

19 Name the hormone that will be produced if blood glucose levels fall too low.

The treatment of diabetes differs for type 1 and

type 2 diabetes
There are two types of diabetes, known as type 1 and type 2. Both result
in an inability of the body to control blood sugar levels, but the causes and
treatments of the two types are different.
Type 1 diabetes:
✚ Causes are uncertain. Type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune disease, which
means that the body’s immune system attacks its own cells, in this
case specialised cells called beta cells in the Islets of Langerhans in the
pancreas, which produce insulin.
✚ Patients with type 1 diabetes produce little or no insulin.
✚ Onset of type 1 diabetes is usually in childhood or young adulthood.
✚ Type 1 diabetes is treated by regular insulin injections and control of
carbohydrate intake.
Type 2 diabetes:
✚ Causes are uncertain but are known to be linked with obesity and lack of
physical activity.
✚ Some patients with type 2 diabetes may have reduced levels of insulin, but
the main problem is that the body has become insensitive to insulin, so it
does not work effectively.
✚ Onset of type 2 diabetes is usually in middle age, although recently there
has been a rise in younger people with the condition.
✚ Type 2 diabetes is usually treated by a strict diet to restrict carbohydrate
intake and by tablets, although insulin injections may also be used in some
cases.
The key clinical symptom of diabetes is sugar in the urine. This can quickly
be detected by the use of urine dipsticks, which change colour according to
the level of sugar in the urine and are then compared with a standard colour
chart. The diagnosis can be confirmed and refined by use of blood glucose
‘pinprick’ tests, which provide a digital reading of blood glucose levels. In
diagnosis, fasting glucose levels are used, where the patient eats nothing for
8–12 hours before the test. Eating carbohydrate influences blood glucose levels
and a fasting glucose test eliminates that variable.
Urine dip sticks used to be used by patients to monitor their glucose levels but
these have largely been replaced by blood pinprick tests which give a direct
reading of blood glucose.

Now test yourself

20 Which type of diabetes is most likely to develop in middle age?

21 Suggest a reason why people with diabetes control their intake of carbohydrates in
general, rather than sugar specifically.

21

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 The kidney filters the blood to excrete waste and
control salt levels
The kidney has two functions, excretion of wastes and osmoregulation.
Unit 1 Key concepts in the application of science

Osmoregulation involves both the control of water content of the blood and
the salt concentration.
The kidney consists of millions of microscopic tubules called nephrons.

Renal corpuscle
Glomerulus Distal convoluted
Renal
artery tubule

Bowman's
Renal
capsule
pelvis
Renal
Renal vein
artery
Renal Proximal
Renal medulla
vein convoluted
tubule
Renal
cortex Loop of Collecting
Ureter
Henle duct

To ureter

Figure 1.10 Nephron structure and location in the kidney

The kidney functions by filtering the blood (a process known as ultrafiltration)

Ultrafiltration Filtration of
and then reabsorbing useful small molecules that pass through the filter.
small molecules.
Essential molecules like glucose are all reabsorbed in the proximal convoluted
tubule, but salts such as sodium are only partly reabsorbed, just enough to
maintain a suitable level in the blood.

Ultrafiltration
High blood pressure
in the glomerulus forces
fluid into Bowman's In the distal convoluted tubule and
capsule through a collecting duct, water is reabsorbed.
basement membrane The amount is controlled by the
which acts as a filter hormone ADH, according to
the body's needs
Small molecules entering
Bowman's capsule include
glucose, amino acids and
salts (e.g. sodium)

In the proximal convoluted tubule,

there is selective reabsorption.
Glucose, amino acids, some water
and some of the sodium are reabsorbed by
facilitated diffusion and active transport

Figure 1.11 Processes occurring in the nephron

As outlined earlier in this chapter, the amount of sodium absorbed in the

kidneys is controlled by the hormone aldosterone, which is produced in the
adrenal cortex. Increased aldosterone secretion increases the amount of
sodium absorbed.

The control of salt is important to health

If the concentration of salt in the blood falls below or rises above the normal
range, health problems result.

22

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 Sodium chloride (salt) deficiency can result from drinking too much water,
chronic and severe vomiting or diarrhoea, problems with the heart, liver
or kidneys, a deficiency of aldosterone and as a side-effect of certain
medications. It is referred to as hyponatremia and can result in the following:

Unit 1 Key concepts in the application of science

✚ nausea and vomiting
✚ headache
✚ confusion
✚ loss of energy, drowsiness and fatigue
✚ spasms or cramps.
In severe cases, if there is a continuous period of salt deficiency, rapid brain
swelling can cause coma and death.
Excess salt in the blood is most likely to result from taking in too much salt in
the diet. The main effect is an increase in blood pressure, which increases the
risk of cardiovascular disease. The increased concentration of salt in the blood
causes water to enter by osmosis, increasing the blood pressure.

Now test yourself

22 State the two functions of the kidney.

23 Explain why glucose passes from the blood into the nephron, but proteins do not.
24 State the part of the body that produces the hormone which controls sodium
levels in the blood.

Breathing and cellular respiration

Breathing and respiration are not the same
In everyday language, breathing and respiration are sometimes used
interchangeably, but to a biologist they are distinctly different processes.
Breathing is a physical, external process which draws air containing oxygen
into the body where it is exchanged for carbon dioxide, whereas respiration
is a chemical, internal process which extracts energy from food in a usable Exam tip
form.
In answers, make sure you
A number of methods are used by scientists to monitor the respiratory do not confuse breathing
system. Breathing rate can be easily counted. An instrument known as a with respiration. Note,
spirometer can measure tidal volume (the volume of air breathed in and out however, that the system
during normal breathing) and vital capacity (the maximum amount of air involved with breathing
that can be breathed in and out during deep breathing). A peak flow meter is called the respiratory
measures how fast a person can breathe out after taking a full breath in. system, not the breathing
system!
These tests are used to diagnose and/or monitor respiratory conditions and
diseases, including asthma.

Cellular respiration breaks down food

In the process of cellular respiration, food materials (mainly glucose) are Making links
gradually broken down in multiple steps, and the energy within them is used
to form adenosine triphosphate (ATP) from adenosine diphosphate (ADP). You learned about
mitochondria earlier in this
This addition of phosphate is called a phosphorylation reaction. Every cellular
unit. See pages 11 and 12.
process which requires energy uses ATP as its source.
Cellular respiration can be broken down into three stages: glycolysis, which
occurs in the cytoplasm; the Krebs cycle, which occurs in the mitochondria;
and the electron transfer chain, which also occurs in the mitochondria.

23

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 The whole process of cellular respiration is shown in Figure 1.12.
Hexose bisphosphate (6C)

Triose phosphate (3C) Triose phosphate (3C)

Unit 1 Key concepts in the application of science

2ADP + 2Pi NAD

2ATP Reduced
Glucose pyruvate = glycolysis NAD
Pyruvate
NAD
Reduced
NAD
Pyruvate acetyl coA = link reaction
Coenzyme A
CO2

Acetyl coenzyme A
Coenzyme A

Reduced Oxaloacetate (4C) Citrate (6C)

NAD NAD
NAD
Reduced
Krebs cycle NAD
CO2
Reduced
FAD
FAD NAD

Reduced
NAD
ATP ADP + Pi CO2

Exam tip
Use the full term adenosine
Reduced hydrogen carriers
(reduced NAD and FAD are oxidised) triphosphate when
Oxygen mentioning it for the first
Electron transport chain time, not the abbreviation
Water
ATP.
ATP ADP + Pi

Figure 1.12 An overview of all stages of respiration

Now test yourself

25 Explain the difference between vital capacity and tidal volume.

26 Which stage of cellular respiration does NOT take place in the mitochondria?
27 What type of chemical reaction is involved in the conversion of ADP to ATP?

Substrate-linked
Key facts about glycolysis phosphorylation The
✚ Glycolysis takes place in the cytoplasm. formation of ATP which
✚ The purpose of glycolysis is to convert glucose into pyruvate, which can occurs when a reaction
enter the Krebs cycle. in the cell produces
✚ Each of the first two steps (the conversion of glucose to glucose phosphate enough energy to convert
and then to hexose biphosphate) uses a molecule of ATP. ADP to ATP, without the
✚ In glycolysis four molecules of ATP are produced, a net gain of two. involvement of the electron
✚ The production of ATP in this stage is by substrate-linked phosphorylation. transfer chain.
✚ Two molecules of NAD are converted into reduced NAD during glycolysis. Oxidation A reaction
✚ If oxygen is present, the reduced NAD is fed into the electron transfer involving the addition
chain. of oxygen, the removal
✚ The conversion of triose phosphate into pyruvate is an oxidation reaction. of hydrogen or the loss of
electrons. The opposite of
NAD is an abbreviation of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide. Reduced NAD
oxidation is reduction.
is sometimes abbreviated to NADH.
24

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 Exam tip
Hexose bisphosphate is converted into TWO molecules of triose phosphate, so when
calculating ATP and reduced NAD production from one glucose molecule in the Krebs

Unit 1 Key concepts in the application of science

cycle and electron transfer chain, the number needs to be doubled.

Key facts about the Krebs cycle

✚ The pyruvate formed in glycolysis is converted to acetyl coenzyme a,
which enters the Krebs cycle. This reaction is known as the link reaction.
✚ Acetyl CoA reacts with a 4-carbon molecule to form a 6-carbon molecule.
✚ A series of oxidation–reduction reactions release hydrogen, which will
provide electrons for the electron transfer chain. Exam tip
✚ The hydrogen attaches to NAD (see above) or flavine adenine dinucleotide
You are not expected to
(FAD). NAD and FAD belong to a group of chemicals called coenzymes.
name the 4-carbon and
✚ For each turn of the Krebs cycle, one molecule of ATP is formed by
6-carbon molecules in the
substrate-linked phosphorylation (so two in total for every glucose
Krebs cycle.
molecule).
✚ Carbon dioxide is released during the Krebs cycle.

Key facts about the electron transfer chain

✚ Electrons are passed along a series of electron carriers in the inner
membrane of the mitochondrion.
✚ The electrons enter the chain when hydrogen, bought to the membrane
by NAD or FAD, is released and broken down into electrons and hydrogen
ions (H+).
✚ As the electrons pass from carrier to carrier, energy is released and used to
phosphorylate ADP to ATP. This is oxidative phosphorylation.
✚ The final electron acceptor which takes the electrons out of the chain is
oxygen, which combines with the electrons and hydrogen ions to form
water.
✚ For each reduced NAD molecule brought to the electron transfer chain,
three ATP molecules are formed, and two for each reduced FAD.

Now test yourself

28 Name the end product of glycolysis.

29 How is the hydrogen generated in the Krebs cycle used in the electron transfer
chain?
30 What is the precise location of the electron transfer chain in the mitochondrion?

Anaerobic respiration is used when oxygen is

unavailable
If oxygen is unavailable or in short supply, certain cells (e.g. muscle cells)
can switch to anaerobic respiration. In the anaerobic pathway, the Krebs cycle
and electron transfer chain do not function, but glycolysis continues. The
pyruvate formed is converted into lactic acid in animals and into ethanol and
carbon dioxide in plant cells. No ATP is formed in this stage, and so the total
net production from a molecule of glucose is two ATP molecules. In aerobic
respiration, approximately 30 molecules of ATP are produced per glucose
molecule. If anaerobic respiration continues for some time, lactic acid build-
up can result in muscle pain, cramps and muscular fatigue.

Basal metabolic rate is the rate at which the body

Exam tip
uses energy
Do not use the abbreviation
Basal metabolic rate (BMR) is the rate at which the body uses energy at rest
BMR in answers unless
to maintain basic life functions. It can be measured in kcal/day or kJ/day
you (or the question) have
and varies among individuals. Its measurement is useful in weight control already defined its meaning. 25
programmes, to help determine a suitable daily calorie intake for the patient.

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 BMR can be determined by direct or indirect methods. BMR may be measured
Exam tip
by gas analysis through direct calorimetry. This is the measurement of the
heat production of an individual, when placed in an insulated chamber where You may need to analyse
the heat is transferred to surrounding water. This is the most accurate secondary data in relation
Unit 1 Key concepts in the application of science

method of measuring BMR. Indirect calorimetry can also be used. This to BMR. When comparing
calculates heat that living organisms produce by measuring either their BMR, it is necessary to
production of carbon dioxide and nitrogen waste or their consumption of control certain variables –
oxygen. Heart rate at rest can be used to estimate energy expenditure because gender, age, level of activity,
there is a correlation between heart rate and oxygen consumption. level of obesity (whichever
of these is not being
BMR measurements vary among individuals but BMR is generally higher in investigated).
males than in females, and tends to decrease with age. It is possible that
obesity might increase BMR.

Now test yourself

31 Suggest a reason why the electron transfer chain cannot function without oxygen.
32 Suggest why the measurement of carbon dioxide production to establish BMR is
referred to as indirect calorimetry.

Photosynthesis and food chain productivity

The process of photosynthesis uses carbon dioxide
and water to make glucose and oxygen
Photosynthesis involves a complex series of chemical reactions (see below),
but can be summarised by the following equation:
carbon dioxide + water → glucose + oxygen
Carbon dioxide and water are the essential raw materials need for
photosynthesis, along with light as an energy source. Carbon dioxide is
obtained from the air (although the carbon dioxide produced by the plant in Making links
respiration can also be used) and water comes from the soil. Photosynthesis
You can learn more about
takes place in the chloroplasts in leaves. Carbon dioxide can enter the leaves
respiration in the previous
directly through pores called stomata, and water enters the plant via the roots
section, page 23.
and is carried up the stem to the leaves.

The biochemistry of photosynthesis has

a light-dependent stage and a light-independent
stage
The biochemistry of photosynthesis can be broken down into two stages:
1 The light-dependent stage, in which light energy is used to hydrolyse water
into hydrogen and oxygen. The hydrogen provides electrons which
are essential for the manufacture of ATP, and eventually joins with
nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP) to form reduced
NADP. The oxygen is released as a waste product.
In the light-dependent stage, ATP is formed in an electron transfer chain
similar to that in respiration.
2 The light-independent stage, in which the ATP and reduced NADP formed
in the light-dependent stage are used to produce carbohydrate (mainly
glucose). This process also requires carbon dioxide.
The glucose formed in the light-independent stage can be processed in the
plant to produce the other essential foodstuffs, proteins (with the addition
of nitrogen) and lipids.

26

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