Learning Material

BCS1B01 – COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS AND HTML

Unit I [4 T]

Concepts of Hardware and Software:

A computer system consists of two major elements: hardware and software. Computer hardware
is the collection of all the parts you can physically touch. Computer software, on the other hand,
is not something you can touch. Software is a set of instructions for a computer to perform
specific operations.
Computer Languages:
A computer is a computational device which is used to process the data under the control of a
computer program. Program is a sequence of instruction along with data. While executing the
program, raw data is processed into a desired output format. These computer programs are
written in programming languages which are high level languages. High level languages are
nearly human languages which are more complex than the computer understandable language
which are called machine language, or low level language.

Figure - Computer languages and its types:

1. Low Level Languages:

A low-level language is a programming language that provides little or no abstraction of
programming concepts and is very close to writing actual machine instructions.
In Low level languages the instructions are given in machine language in the form of 0 and 1 to a
Computer system. It is mainly designed to operate and handle all the hardware and instructions
set architecture of a Computer. The main function of the Low level language is to operate,
manage and manipulate the hardware and system components.
There are various programs and applications written in low level languages that are
directly executable without any interpretation or translation. The most famous and the base of all
programming languages “C” and “C++” are mostly used Low level languages till today. Low
level language is also divided into two, Machine language and Assembly language.

a. Machine language:

It is one of the low-level programming languages which is the first generation language
developed for communicating with a Computer. It is written in machine code which represents 0
and 1 binary digits inside the Computer string which makes it easy to understand and perform the
operations. As we know a Computer system can recognize electric signals so here 0 stands for
turning off electric pulse and 1 stands for turning on electric pulse.

It is very easy to understand by the Computer and also increases the processing speed.
The main advantage of using Machine language is that there is no need of a translator or
interpreter to translate the code, as the Computer directly can understand. But there are some
disadvantages also like you have to remember the operation codes, memory address every time
when you write a program and also hard to find errors in a written program.

b. Assembly Language

Between high-level language and machine language there are assembly language also called
symbolic machine code. Assembly languages are particularly computer architecture specific.
Utility program (Assembler) is used to convert assembly code into executable machine code.
High Level Programming Languages are portable but require Interpretation or compiling to
convert it into a machine language which is computer understood.

It is the second generation programming language that has almost similar structure and
set of commands as Machine language. Instead of using numbers like in Machine languages here
we use words or names in English forms and also symbols. The programs that have been written
using words, names and symbols called mnemonics in assembly language are converted to
machine language using an Assembler. Mnemonics gave relief to the programmers from
remembering binary sequence for specific instructions, as English words like ADD, MOV, SUB
are easy to remember, than binary sequence 10001011.
Because a Computer only understands machine code languages that’s why we need an
Assembler that can convert the Assembly level language to Machine language so the Computer
gets the instruction and responds quickly. The main disadvantage of this language is that it is
written only for a single type of CPU and does not run on any other CPU. But its speed makes it
the most used low level language till today which is used by many programmers.

2. High Level Language

A high-level language (HLL) is a programming language such as C, FORTRAN, or Pascal that
enables a programmer to write programs that are more or less independent of a particular type of
computer, and also require a translator that can convert the high level language to machine
language. Such languages are considered high-level because they are closer to human languages
and further from machine languages.
There are several high level languages that were used earlier and also now like COBOL,
FORTRAN, BASIC, C, C++, PASCAL, LISP, Ada, Algol, Prolog and Java. It is user-friendly as
the programs are written in English using words, symbols, characters, numbers that needs to be
converted to machine code for processing.
Language Translators / Language Processors: Assembler, Compiler and Interpreter:
Assembly language is machine dependent yet mnemonics that are being used to represent
instructions in it are not directly understandable by machine and high Level language is machine
independent. A computer understands instructions in machine code, i.e. in the form of 0s and 1s.
It is a tedious task to write a computer program directly in machine code. The programs are
written mostly in high level languages like Java, C++, Python etc. and are called source code.
These source code cannot be executed directly by the computer and must be converted into
machine language to be executed. Hence, a special translator system software is used to translate
the program written in high-level language into machine code is called Language Processor and
the program after translated into machine code (object program / object code).
The language processors can be any of the following three types:
 1. Compiler :
The language processor that reads the complete source program written in high level language as
a whole in one go and translates it into an equivalent program in machine language is called as a
Compiler. Example: C, C++, C#, Java
In a compiler, the source code is translated to object code successfully if it is free of
errors. The compiler specifies the errors at the end of compilation with line numbers when there
are any errors in the source code. The errors must be removed before the compiler can
successfully recompile the source code again.

2. Assembler:

The Assembler is used to translate the program written in Assembly language into machine code.
The source program is a input of assembler that contains assembly language instructions. The
output generated by assembler is the object code or machine code understandable by the
computer.

3. Interpreter:
The translation of single statement of source program into machine code is done by language
processor and executes it immediately before moving on to the next line is called an interpreter.
If there is an error in the statement, the interpreter terminates its translating process at that
statement and displays an error message. The interpreter moves on to the next line for execution
only after removal of the error. An Interpreter directly executes instructions written in a
programming or scripting language without previously converting them to an object code or
machine code.
Example: Perl, Python and Matlab.
Difference between Compiler and Interpreter :
Compiler Interpreter
 A compiler is a program which coverts the
interpreter takes a source program and runs it
entire source code of a programming
line by line, translating each line as it comes
language into executable machine code for a
to it.
CPU.
Compiler takes large amount of time to
Interpreter takes less amount of time to
analyze the entire source code but the overall
analyze the source code but the overall
execution time of the program is
execution time of the program is slower.
comparatively faster.
Compiler generates the error message only
after scanning the whole program, so Its Debugging is easier as it continues
debugging is comparatively hard as the error translating the program until the error is met
can be present any where in the program.
Generates intermediate object code. No intermediate object code is generated.
Examples: C, C++, Java Examples: Python, Perl

Features of good language:

 A programming language must be simple, easy to learn and use, have good readability
and human recognizable.
 Abstraction is a must-have Characteristics for a programming language in which ability
to define the complex structure and then its degree of usability comes.
 A portable programming language is always preferred.
 Programming language’s efficiency must be high so that it can be easily converted into a
machine code and executed consumes little space in memory.
 A programming language should be well structured and documented so that it is suitable
for application development.
 Necessary tools for development, debugging, testing, and maintenance of a program must
be provided by a programming language.
 A programming language should provide single environment known as Integrated
Development Environment (IDE).
 A programming language must be consistent in terms of syntax and semantics.
Basics Computer Organization / Von Neumann Model:
Historically there have been 2 types of Computers:
1. Fixed Program Computers – Their function is very specific and they couldn’t be
programmed, e.g. Calculators.
2. Stored Program Computers – These can be programmed to carry out many different
tasks, applications are stored on them, hence the name.
The modern computers are based on a stored-program concept introduced by John Von
Neumann. In this stored-program concept, programs and data are stored in a separate storage unit
called memories and are treated the same. This novel idea meant that a computer built with this
architecture would be much easier to reprogram.
The basic structure is like,

It is also known as IAS machine, the first electronic computer to be built at the Institute for
Advanced Study (IAS) in Princeton, New Jersey. It is also called the von
Neumann machine, and is having three basic units:
1. The Central Processing Unit (CPU)
2. The Main Memory Unit
3. The Input/Output Device

Control Unit : A control unit (CU) handles all processor control signals. It directs all input and
output flow, fetches code for instructions and controlling how data moves around the system.
Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) : The arithmetic logic unit is that part of the CPU that
handles all the calculations the CPU may need, e.g. Addition, Subtraction, Comparisons. It
performs Logical Operations, Bit Shifting Operations, and Arithmetic Operation.

Figure – Basic CPU structure, illustrating ALU

Memory Unit (Registers): A processor register (CPU register) is one of a small set of data
holding places that are part of the computer processor. Registers are made up of flip-flops. A
register may hold an instruction, a storage address, or any kind of binary data. Mostly used
Registers are:

1. Accumulator: Stores the results of calculations made by ALU.

2. Program Counter (PC): Keeps track of the memory location of the next instructions
to be dealt with. The PC then passes this next address to Memory Address Register
(MAR).

3. Memory Address Register (MAR): It stores the memory locations of instructions

that need to be fetched from memory or stored into memory.

4. Memory Data Register (MDR): It stores instructions fetched from memory or any
data that is to be transferred to, and stored in, memory.
 5. Current Instruction Register (CIR): It stores the most recently fetched instructions
while it is waiting to be coded and executed.

6. Instruction Buffer Register (IBR): The instruction that is not to be executed

immediately is placed in the instruction buffer register IBR.

Input/Output Devices : Program or data is read into main memory from the input device or
secondary storage under the control of CPU input instruction. Output devices are used to
output the information from a computer. If some results are evaluated by computer and it is
stored in the computer, then with the help of output devices, we can present it to the user.

Buses – Data is transmitted from one part of a computer to another, connecting all major
internal components to the CPU and memory, by the means of Buses. Types:

Data Bus: It carries data among the memory unit, the I/O devices, and the processor.

Address Bus: It carries the address of data (not the actual data) between memory and
processor.

Control Bus: It carries control commands from the CPU (and status signals from other
devices) in order to control and coordinate all the activities within the computer.
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Functional Components of a Computer
Computer: A computer is a combination of hardware and software resources which integrate
together and provides various functionalities to the user. Hardware are the physical components
of a computer like the processor, memory devices, monitor, keyboard etc. while software is the
set of programs or instructions that are required by the hardware resources to function properly.
There are a few basic components that aids the working-cycle of a computer i.e. the Input-
Process- Output Cycle and these are called as the functional components of a computer. It needs
certain input, processes that input and produces the desired output. The input unit takes the input,
the central processing unit does the processing of data and the output unit produces the output.
The memory unit holds the data and instructions during the processing.
Digital Computer: A digital computer can be defined as a programmable machine which reads
the binary data passed as instructions, processes this binary data, and displays a calculated digital
output. Therefore, Digital computers are those that work on the digital data.
Details of Functional Components of a Digital Computer

 Input Unit :The input unit consists of input devices that are attached to the computer.
These devices take input and convert it into binary language that the computer understands.
Some of the common input devices are keyboard, mouse, joystick, scanner etc.
 Central Processing Unit (CPU): Once the information is entered into the computer by the
input device, the processor processes it. The CPU is called the brain of the computer
because it is the control center of the computer. It first fetches instructions from memory
and then interprets them so as to know what is to be done. If required, data is fetched from
memory or input device. Thereafter CPU executes or performs the required computation
and then either stores the output or displays on the output device. The CPU has three main
components which are responsible for different functions – Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU),
Control Unit (CU) and Memory registers
 Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) : The ALU, as its name suggests performs
mathematical calculations and takes logical decisions. Arithmetic calculations include
addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. Logical decisions involve comparison of
two data items to see which one is larger or smaller or equal.
 Control Unit : The Control unit coordinates and controls the data flow in and out of CPU
and also controls all the operations of ALU, memory registers and also input/output units.
It is also responsible for carrying out all the instructions stored in the program. It decodes
the fetched instruction, interprets it and sends control signals to input/output devices until
the required operation is done properly by ALU and memory.
  Memory Registers : A register is a temporary unit of memory in the CPU. These are used
to store the data which is directly used by the processor. Registers can be of different
sizes(16 bit, 32 bit, 64 bit and so on) and each register inside the CPU has a specific
function like storing data, storing an instruction, storing address of a location in memory
etc. The user registers can be used by an assembly language programmer for storing
operands, intermediate results etc. Accumulator (ACC) is the main register in the ALU and
contains one of the operands of an operation to be performed in the ALU.
 Memory : Memory attached to the CPU is used for storage of data and instructions and is
called internal memory The internal memory is divided into many storage locations, each
of which can store data or instructions. Each memory location is of the same size and has
an address. With the help of the address, the computer can read any memory location easily
without having to search the entire memory. when a program is executed, it’s data is copied
to the internal memory ans is stored in the memory till the end of the execution. The
internal memory is also called the Primary memory or Main memory. This memory is also
called as RAM, i.e. Random Access Memory. The time of access of data is independent of
its location in memory, therefore this memory is also called Random Access memory
(RAM). Read this for different types of RAMs
 Output Unit : The output unit consists of output devices that are attached with the
computer. It converts the binary data coming from CPU to human understandable form.
The common output devices are monitor, printer, plotter etc.
Interconnection between Functional Components
A computer consists of input unit that takes input, a CPU that processes the input and an output
unit that produces output. All these devices communicate with each other through a common
bus. A bus is a transmission path, made of a set of conducting wires over which data or
information in the form of electric signals, is passed from one component to another in a
computer. The bus can be of three types – Address bus, Data bus and Control Bus.
Following figure shows the connection of various functional components:
The address bus carries the address location of the data or instruction. The data bus carries data
from one component to another and the control bus carries the control signals. The system bus is
the common communication path that carries signals to/from CPU, main memory and
input/output devices. The input/output devices communicate with the system bus through the
controller circuit which helps in managing various input/output devices attached to the computer.

Memory Hierarchy

In the Computer System Design, Memory Hierarchy is an enhancement to organize the memory
such that it can minimize the access time. The Memory Hierarchy was developed based on a
program behavior known as locality of references. The figure below clearly demonstrates the
different levels of memory hierarchy:
This Memory Hierarchy Design is divided into 2 main types:

External Memory or Secondary Memory :

Comprising of Magnetic Disk, Optical Disk, and Magnetic Tape, i.e. peripheral storage devices
which are accessible by the processor via I/O devices.

Internal Memory or Primary Memory :

Comprising of Main Memory, Cache Memory & CPU registers. This is directly accessible by the
processor.

We can infer the following characteristics of Memory Hierarchy Design from above figure:

Capacity: It is the global volume of information the memory can store. As we move from top to
bottom in the Hierarchy, the capacity increases.

Access Time: It is the time interval between the read/write request and the availability of the
data. As we move from top to bottom in the Hierarchy, the access time increases.

Performance: Earlier when the computer system was designed without Memory Hierarchy
design, the speed gap increases between the CPU registers and Main Memory due to large
difference in access time. This results in lower performance of the system and thus, enhancement
was required. This enhancement was made in the form of Memory Hierarchy Design because of
which the performance of the system increases. One of the most significant ways to increase
system performance is minimizing how far down the memory hierarchy one has to go to
manipulate data.

Cost per bit: As we move from bottom to top in the Hierarchy, the cost per bit increases i.e.
Internal Memory is costlier than External Memory.
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Introduction to memory and memory unit:

Memories are made up of registers. Each register in the memory is one storage location. Storage
location is also called as memory location. Memory locations are identified using Address. The
total number of bit a memory can store is its capacity.
A storage element is called a Cell. Each register is made up of storage element in which one bit
of data is stored. The data in a memory are stored and retrieved by the process called writing and
reading respectively.

Understanding file sizes | Bytes, KB, MB, GB, TB, PB, EB, ZB, YB
Main memory ( RAM , ROM ):
Memory is the most essential element of a computing system because without it computer can’t
perform simple tasks. Computer memory is of two basic type – Primary memory / Volatile
memory and Secondary memory / non-volatile memory. Random Access Memory (RAM) is
volatile memory and Read Only Memory (ROM) is non-volatile memory.

1. Random Access Memory (RAM):

It is also called as read write memory or the main memory or the primary memory. The programs
and data that the CPU requires during execution of a program are stored in this memory.
It is a volatile memory as the data loses when the power is turned off. RAM is further classified
into two types, SRAM (Static Random Access Memory) and DRAM (Dynamic Random Access
Memory).

2. Read Only Memory (ROM):

ROM stores crucial information essential to operate the system, like the program essential to
boot the computer. It is not volatile. Always retains its data. Used in embedded systems or
where the programming needs no change. Used in calculators and peripheral devices.
ROM is further classified into 4 types- ROM, PROM, EPROM, and EEPROM.
Types of Read Only Memory (ROM) :
1. PROM (Programmable read-only memory) – It can be programmed by user. Once
programmed, the data and instructions in it cannot be changed.
2. EPROM (Erasable Programmable read only memory) – It can be reprogrammed. To
erase data from it, expose it to ultra violet light. To reprogram it, erase all the previous data.
 3. EEPROM (Electrically erasable programmable read only memory) – The data can be
erased by applying electric field, no need of ultra violet light. We can erase only portions of
the chip.

Cache Memory:
Cache Memory is a special very high-speed memory. It is used to speed up and synchronizing
with high-speed CPU. Cache memory is costlier than main memory or disk memory but
economical than CPU registers. Cache memory is an extremely fast memory type that acts as a
buffer between RAM and the CPU. It holds frequently requested data and instructions so that
they are immediately available to the CPU when needed.
Cache memory is used to reduce the average time to access data from the Main memory.
The cache is a smaller and faster memory which stores copies of the data from frequently used
main memory locations. There are various different independent caches in a CPU, which stores
instruction and data.
Cache Performance:
When the processor needs to read or write a location in main memory, it first checks for a
corresponding entry in the cache.
If the processor finds that the memory location is in the cache, a cache hit has occurred
and data is read from cache. If the processor does not find the memory location in the cache,
cache miss has occurred. For a cache miss, the cache allocates a new entry and copies in data
from main memory, and then the request is fulfilled from the contents of the cache.

The performance of cache memory is frequently measured in terms of a quantity called Hit

ratio.
Hit ratio = hit / (hit + miss) = no. of hits/total accesses
We can improve Cache performance using higher cache block size, higher associativity, reduce
miss rate, reduce miss penalty, and reduce the time to hit in the cache.
Cache is graded as Level 1 (L1), Level 2 (L2) and Level 3 (L3):
L1 is usually part of the CPU chip itself and is both the smallest and the fastest to access.
Its size is often restricted to between 8 KB and 64 KB.
L2 and L3 caches are bigger than L1. They are extra caches built between the CPU and
the RAM. Sometimes L2 is built into the CPU with L1. L2 and L3 caches take slightly longer to
access than L1. The more L2 and L3 memory available, the faster a computer can run.

Introduction of Secondary Memory:

Primary memory has limited storage capacity and is volatile. Secondary memory overcome this
limitation by providing permanent storage of data and in bulk quantity. Secondary memory is
also termed as external memory and refers to the various storage media on which a computer can
store data and programs. The Secondary storage media can be fixed or removable. Fixed Storage
media is an internal storage medium like hard disk that is fixed inside the computer. Storage
medium that are portable and can be taken outside the computer are termed as removable storage
media.
Difference between Primary Memory and Secondary Memory:
Primary Memory Secondary Memory
Primary memory is directly accessed by the Secondary memory is not accessed directly by
Central Processing Unit(CPU). the Central Processing Unit(CPU). Instead,
data accessed from a secondary memory is
first loaded into Random Access
Memory(RAM) and is then sent to the
 Processing Unit.
RAM provides much faster accessing speed to
data than secondary memory. By loading Secondary Memory is slower in data
software programs and required files into accessing. Typically primary memory is six
primary memory(RAM), computer can times faster than the secondary memory.
process data much more quickly.
Primary memory, i.e. Random Access Secondary memory provides a feature of
Memory(RAM) is volatile and gets being non-volatile, which means it can hold
completely erased when a computer is shut on to its data with or without electrical power
down. supply.

Secondary Storage Devices/media:

There are the following main types of storage media:

1. Magnetic storage media:

Magnetic media is coated with a magnetic layer which is magnetized in clockwise or
anticlockwise directions. When the disk moves, the head interprets the data stored at a specific
location in binary 1s and 0s at reading.
Examples: hard disks, floppy disks and magnetic tapes.
a. Floppy Disk: A floppy disk is a flexible disk with a magnetic coating on it. It is packaged
inside a protective plastic envelope. These are one of the oldest type of portable storage
devices that could store up to 1.44 MB of data but now they are not used due to very less
memory storage.
b. Hard disk: A hard disk consists of one or more circular disks called platters which are
mounted on a common spindle. Each surface of a platter is coated with a magnetic material.
Both surfaces of each disk are capable of storing data except the top and bottom disk where
only the inner surface is used. The information is recorded on the surface of the rotating disk
by magnetic read/write heads. These heads are joined to a common arm known as access
arm.

The disk is divided into tracks. Each track is further divided into sectors.
 Hard disk drive components:
Most of the basic types of hard drives contain a number of disk platters that are placed
around a spindle which is placed inside a sealed chamber. The chamber also includes
read/write head and motors. Data is stored on each of these disks in the arrangement of
concentric circles called tracks which are divided further into sectors. Though internal Hard
drives are not very portable and used internally in a computer system, external hard disks can
be used as a substitute for portable storage. Hard disks can store data up to several terabytes.

Read-Write(R-W) head moves over the rotating hard disk. It is this Read-Write head that
performs all the read and write operations on the disk and hence, position of the R-W head is a
major concern. To perform a read or write operation on a memory location, we need to place the
R-W head over that position. Some important terms must be noted here:
Seek time – The time taken by the R-W head to reach the desired track from its current position.
Rotational latency – Time taken by the sector to come under the R-W head.
Data transfer time – Time taken to transfer the required amount of data. It depends upon the
rotational speed.
Controller time – The processing time taken by the controller.
Average Access time = seek time + Average Rotational latency + data transfer time + controller
time.
2. Optical storage media
In optical storage media information is stored and read using a laser beam. The data is stored as a
spiral pattern of pits and ridges denoting binary 0 and binary 1.
Examples: CDs and DVDs
a. Compact Disk: A Compact Disc drive(CDD) is a device that a computer uses to read data
that is encoded digitally on a compact disc(CD). A CD drive can be installed inside a
computer’s compartment, provided with an opening for easier disc tray access or it can be
used by a peripheral device connected to one of the ports provided in the computer system. A
compact disk or CD can store approximately 650 to 700 megabytes of data. A computer
should possess a CD Drive to read the CDs. There are three types of CDs:

CD-ROM CD-R CD-RW

It stands for Compact Disk – It stands for Compact Disk- It stands for Compact Disk-
Read Only Memory Recordable. Rewritable.
Data is written on these disks
at the time of manufacture.
This data cannot be changed,
It can be read or written
once is it written by the Data can be recorded on these
multiple times but a CD-RW
manufacturer, but can only be disks but only once. Once the
drive needs to be installed on
read. CD- ROMs are used for data is written in a CD-R, it
your computer before editing
text, audio and video cannot be erased/modified.
a CD-RW.
distribution like games,
encyclopedias and application
software.

b. DVD
It stands for Digital Versatile Disk or Digital Video Disk. It looks just like a CD and use a
similar technology as that of the CDs but allows tracks to be spaced closely enough to store data
that is more than six times the CD’s capacity. It is a significant advancement in portable storage
technology. A DVD holds 4.7 GB to 17 GB of data.

c. Blue Ray Disk:

This is the latest optical storage media to store high definition audio and video. It is similar to a
CD or DVD but can store up to 27 GB of data on a single layer disk and up to 54 GB of data on a
dual layer disk. While CDs or DVDs use red laser beam, the blue ray disk uses a blue laser to
read/write data on a disk.

3. Solid State Memories

Solid-state storage devices are based on electronic circuits with no moving parts like the reels of
tape, spinning discs etc. Solid-state storage devices use special memories called flash memory to
store data. Solid state drive (or flash memory) is used mainly in digital cameras, pen drives or
USB flash drives.
Pen Drives:
Pen Drives or Thumb drives or Flash drives are the recently emerged portable storage media. It
is an EEPROM based flash memory which can be repeatedly erased and written using electric
signals. This memory is accompanied with a USB connector which enables the pendrive to
connect to the computer. They have a capacity smaller than a hard disk but greater than a CD.
Pendrive has following advantages:
a.Transfer Files:
A pen drive being plugged into a USB port of the system can be used as a device to transfer files,
documents and photos to a PC and also vice versa. Similarly, selected files can be transferred
between a pen drive and any type of workstation.
b. Portability:
The lightweight nature and smaller size of a pen drive make it possible to carry it from place to
place which makes data transportation an easier task.
c. Backup Storage:
Most of the pen drives now come with a feature of having password encryption, important
information related to family, medical records and photos can be stored on them as a backup.

d. Transport Data:
Professionals/Students can now easily transport large data files and video/audio lectures on a pen
drive and gain access to them from anywhere. Independent PC technicians can store work-related
utility tools, various programs and files on a high-speed 64 GB pen drive and move from one site
to another.
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Basics of Hardware Components:
This section aims to discuss a selection of hardware parts, outline common metrics and
specifications used to describe them, what they measure as well as their operation.
SMPS (Switched Mode Power Supply): The power supply converts the alternating current
(AC) from your mains (110V input or 220V input) to the direct current (DC) needed by the
computer 2 . In a PC, the power supply is the metal box usually found in a corner of the case.
The power supply is visible from the back of many systems because it contains the power-cord
receptacle and the cooling fan. Power supplies - often referred to as switching power supplies,
use switcher technology to convert the AC input to lower DC voltages. The typical voltages
produced are: 3.3 volts, 5 volts, 12 volts.
The 3.3-volts and 5-volts are typically used by digital circuits, while the 12-volt is used to power
fans and motors in disk drives. The main specification of a power supply is in watts.

Power Supply Wattage: A 400-watt switching power supply will not necessarily use more
power than a 250- watt supply. A larger supply may be needed if you use every available slot on
the motherboard or every available drive bay in the personal computer case. It is not a good idea
to have a 250-watt supply if you have 250 watts total in devices, since the supply should not be
loaded to 100 percent of its capacity. According to PC Power & Cooling, Inc., some power
consumption values (in watts) for common items in a personal computer are:
Component Requirement
AGP Video Card 30W - 50W
PCI Express Video 100W-250W
Average PCI Card 5W - 10W
DVD/CD 20W-30W
Hard Drive 15W-30W
Case/CPU Fans 3W
Motherboard (w/o CPU or RAM) 50W - 150W
RAM 15W per 1GB
Processor 80W - 140W
If you use a PSU that does not supply enough power for the system, any of the following
symptoms might occur: (i) System does not boot, (ii) System randomly shuts down, (iii) Add-
in devices do not work properly. Intel (2014a)
For overall power supply wattage, add the requirement for each device in your system, then
multiply by 1.5. The multiplier takes into account that today’s systems draw disproportionally on
the +12V output. Furthermore, power supplies are more efficient and reliable when loaded to
30% - 70% of maximum capacity.
Motherboard:
The motherboard is the key circuit board holding the essential processing parts of a computer. It
allows all the parts of your computer to receive power and communicate with one another.
The components attached directly to the motherboard are the CPU, RAM, expansion cards,
Networking, video, and audio components.

ATX (Advanced Technology eXtended) is a motherboard developed by Intel in 1995.

ATX motherboard components are:

1. Processor socket
2. Chipset
3. RAM slots
4. AGP graphic card slot
5. PCI slots
6. CNR modem slot
7. Audio chip
8. I/O chip
9. BIOS
10. ATX power connector
11. Floppy drive connector
12. ATA connectors
13. Connectors for buttons, indicator lights etc.

Add-on Cards / Expansion Cards:

Special expansion cards are one way to add new types of ports to an older computer
or to expand the number of ports on your computer. Like other expansion cards, these
cards clip into an open expansion slot on the motherboard.
Video (Graphics) Card:
A dedicated video card (or video adapter) is an expansion card installed inside your system unit
to translate binary data received from the CPU or GPU into the images you view on your
monitor. It is an alternative to the integrated graphics chip.
Modern video cards include ports allowing you to connect to different video equipment; also
they contain their own RAM, called video memory. Video cards also come with their own
processors or GPUs. Calls to the CPU for graphics processing are redirected to the processor on
the video card, significantly speeding up graphics processing. Updating to a dedicated graphics
card offloads work from the CPU and system RAM, so not only will graphics processing be
faster, but the system’s overall performance will improve.
The video card also controls the number of colors your monitor can display. The number of bits
the video card uses to represent each pixel on the monitor (referred to as the bit depth)
determines the color quality of the image displayed. The more bits available, the better the color
detail of the image.
Sound cards :
Sound cards attached to the motherboard and enabled your computer to record and reproduce
sounds.
 Most computers ship with a basic sound card, most often a 3D sound card. 3D sound is
better than stereo sound at convincing the human ear that sound is omnidirectional,
meaning that you can’t tell what direction the sound is coming from. This tends to
produce a fuller, richer sound than stereo sound.
 To set up surround sound on your computer, you need two things: a set of surround-
sound speakers and a sound card that is Dolby Digital compatible.
There are many formats to choose from such as Dolby Digital EX, Dolby Digital Plus, and dolby
TrueHD.
The ports on the sound card allow you to connect additional audio devices such as amplified
speakers, headphones, microphones etc.
Network Card:
An Ethernet network requires that you install or attach network adapters to each computer or
peripheral you want to connect to the network. Most computers come with Ethernet adapters
preinstalled as network interface cards (NICs). If your computer doesn’t have a NIC, your
options are: (i) buy one and install it, or (ii) use a USB adapter, which you plug into any open
USB port on the system unit.
RAM Memory:

Random access memory (RAM) is a series of small cards or modules plugged into slots on the
motherboard. The CPU can request any data in RAM. It is then located, opened, and delivered to
the CPU for processing in a few billionths of a second. Since all the contents of RAM are erased
when you turn off the computer, RAM is the temporary or volatile storage location for the
computer.
How Much RAM do you need? :
The amount of RAM actually sitting on memory modules in your computer is your computer’s
physical memory. The memory that your operating system uses is referred to as kernel memory.
To determine how much RAM your computer needs, look at the memory requirements for each
program and add them up. • You need RAM for the operating system, application software, and
data. If your system responds slowly or accesses the hard drive constantly, then you need to add
more RAM
Application Minimum RAM Required
Windows 7 1000 MB
Microsoft Office Professional 2007 256 MB
Internet Explorer 8 128 MB
iTunes 256 MB
Adobe Photoshop Elements 512 MB
Total RAM required to run all programs 2,152 MB or 2.15 GB
simultaneously
BIOS:
The basic input-output system (BIOS) is the first thing you see when you turn on your computer.
The BIOS is special software that interfaces the major hardware components of your computer
with the operating system. It is usually stored on a Flash memory chip on the motherboard
(which has its own battery), but sometimes the chip is another type of ROM
The BIOS software has a number of different roles, but its most important role is to load the
operating system. When you turn on your computer and the microprocessor tries to execute its
first instruction, it has to get that instruction from somewhere. It cannot get it from the operating
system because the operating system is located on a hard disk, and the microprocessor cannot get
to it without some instructions that tell it how. The BIOS provides those instructions.

Some of the other common tasks that the BIOS performs includes:
1. A power-on self-test (POST) for all of the different hardware components in the system to
make sure everything is working properly.
2. Activating other BIOS chips on different cards installed in the computer – e.g. SCSI and
graphics cards often have their own BIOS chips.
3. Providing a set of low-level routines that the operating system uses to interface to different
hardware devices - it is these routines that give the BIOS its name. They manage things like
the keyboard, the screen, and the serial and parallel ports, especially when the computer is
booting.
4. Managing a collection of settings for the hard disks, clock, etc.
Manufacturers: American MegaTrends Inc. (AMI), Phoenix Technologies, Ali, Winbond.
e.g.
When you insert more RAM memory - once the module is installed, close the case, plug the
computer back in and power it up. When the computer starts the POST, it should
automatically recognize the memory.
Ports:
A Computer Port is an interface or a point of connection between the computer and its peripheral
devices. Some of the common peripherals are mouse, keyboard, monitor or display unit, printer,
speaker, flash drive etc.

Serial Port:
 Used for external modems and older computer mouse
 Two versions: 9 pin, 25 pin model
 Data travels at 115 kilobits per second
Parallel Port:
 Used for scanners and printers
 Also called printer port
 25 pin model
 IEEE 1284-compliant Centronics port
PS/2 Port:
 Used for old computer keyboard and mouse
 Also called mouse port
 Most of the old computers provide two PS/2 port, each for the mouse and keyboard
 IEEE 1284-compliant Centronics port
Universal Serial Bus (or USB) Port:
 It can connect all kinds of external USB devices such as external hard disk, printer,
scanner, mouse, keyboard, etc.
 It was introduced in 1997.
  Most of the computers provide two USB ports as minimum.
 Data travels at 12 megabits per seconds.
 USB compliant devices can get power from a USB port.
VGA Port:
 Connects monitor to a computer's video card.
 It has 15 holes.
 Similar to the serial port connector. However, serial port connector has pins, VGA port
has holes.
Power Connector:
 Three-pronged plug.
 Connects to the computer's power cable that plugs into a power bar or wall socket.
Firewire Port:
 Transfers large amount of data at very fast speed.
 Connects camcorders and video equipment to the computer.
 Data travels at 400 to 800 megabits per seconds.
 Invented by Apple.
 It has three variants: 4-Pin FireWire 400 connector, 6-Pin FireWire 400 connector, and
9-Pin FireWire 800 connector.
Modem Port:
 Connects a PC's modem to the telephone network.
Ethernet Port:
 Connects to a network and high speed Internet.
 Connects the network cable to a computer.
 This port resides on an Ethernet Card.
 Data travels at 10 megabits to 1000 megabits per seconds depending upon the network
bandwidth.
Game Port:
 Connect a joystick to a PC
 Now replaced by USB
Digital Video Interface, DVI port:
 Connects Flat panel LCD monitor to the computer's high-end video graphic cards.
 Very popular among video card manufacturers.
Sockets:
 Sockets connect the microphone and speakers to the sound card of the computer.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Adapters:
An adapter is a physical device that allows one hardware or electronic interface to be adapted
(accommodated without loss of function) to another hardware or electronic interface. In
a computer, an adapter is often built into a card that can be inserted into a slot on
the computer's motherboard.

Network cables:
Four major types of communications media (cabling) are available for data networking today:
unshielded twisted pair (UTP), shielded or screened twisted pair (STP or ScTP), coaxial,
and fiber optic (FO). It is important to distinguish between backbone cables and horizontal
cables. Backbone cables connect network equipment such as servers, switches, and routers and
connect equipment rooms and communication closets. Horizontal cables run from the
communication closets to the wall outlets. For new installations, multistrand fiber-optic cable is
essentially universal as backbone cable. For the horizontal, UTP reigns supreme
Twisted-Pair Cable :
By far the most economical and widely installed cabling today is twisted-pair wiring. Not only is
twisted-pair wiring less expensive than other media, installation is also simpler, and the tools
required to install it are not as costly. Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) and shielded twisted
pair (STP) are the two primary varieties of twisted pair on the market today. Screened twisted
pair (ScTP) is a variant of STP.

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):

Though it has been used for many years for telephone systems, unshielded twisted pair (UTP) for
LANs first became common in the late 1980s with the advent of Ethernet over twisted-pair
wiring and the 10Base-T standard. UTP is cost effective and simple to install, and its bandwidth
capabilities are continually being improved.
Shielded Twisted Pair (STP):
Shielded twisted-pair (STP) cabling was first made popular by IBM when it introduced Type
classification for data cabling. Though more expensive to purchase and install than UTP, STP
offers some distinct advantages. The current ANSI/TIA/EIA-568-B Cabling Standard recognizes
IBM Type 1A horizontal cable, which supports frequency rates of up to 300MHz, but does not
recommend it for new installations.

Screened Twisted Pair (ScTP):

Optical-Fiber Cable:

A fiber-optic cable, also known as an optical-fiber cable, is an assembly similar to an electrical

cable, but containing one or more optical fibers that are used to carry light. The optical fiber
elements are typically individually coated with plastic layers and contained in a protective tube
suitable for the environment where the cable will be deployed.

Two varieties of fiber-optic cable are commonly used in LANs and WANs today: single mode
and multimode. The mode can be thought of as bundles of light rays entering the fiber; these
light rays enter at certain angles.

Coaxial Cable:
At one time, coaxial cable was the most widely used cable type in the networking business. It is
still widely used for closed-circuit TV and other video distribution. However, it is falling by the
wayside in the data-networking arena. Coaxial (or just coax) cable is difficult to run and is
generally more expensive than twisted-pair cable. In defense of coaxial cable, however, it
provides a tremendous amount of bandwidth and is not as susceptible to outside interference as is
UTP. Overall installation costs might also be lower than for other cable types because the
connectors take less time to apply.

Basic Computer Configuration:

In communications or computer systems, a configuration of a system refers to the arrangement
of each of its functional units, according to their nature, number and chief characteristics.
Often, configuration pertains to the choice of hardware, software, firmware, and documentation.

Example: Following are the suggestions for assembling a desktop. There are three types of
configurations depending on your budget: low, mid and high. (Prices of the components may
vary slightly.)
i3 3240 Processor (Rs. 6,720)
ASRock H81 Pro (Rs. 4,000)
Kingston 4GB DDR3 Ram (Rs. 2,220) 
Zotac Nvidia 610 2GB (Rs. 3,155) 
Low Seagate Pipeline Hard Disk 320GB (Rs. 2,225)  Total Cost Rs. 31000
Dell TFT 18.5 Inch (Rs. 5,660)
Corsair VS450 PSU (Rs. 2,525) 
Cooler Master Elite 344 Cabinet (Rs. 3,200)
Microsoft Desktop 200 Keyboard Mouse Combo (Rs. 900)

i5 4590 Processor (Rs. 13,000) ASRock Z87M Pro4 (Rs.

8,715) 8GB Corsair Vengeance RAM (Rs.
5,260) Sapphire ATI R7 260X 2GB DDR5 (Rs.
Mid 9,850) Western Digital Blue 1TB (Rs. 4,290) Dell ST 2240 Total Cost Rs. 65000
L Monitor (Rs. 9,255) Corsair CX600W PSU (Rs.
5,350) Cooler Master K380 Cabinet (Rs. 4,650) Cooler
Master Devastator Keyboard Mouse Combo (Rs. 2,945)
 i7 4790 Processor (Rs. 21,900) ASRock Z97
Sabertooth (Rs. 15,340) 16GB Corsair Vengeance
RAM (Rs. 12,250) Asus Nvidia GeForce GTX 970
4GB (Rs. 31,000) Western Digital Blue 1TB (Rs.
High Total Cost Rs. 120,000
4290) Dell ST 2440 L Monitor (Rs. 13,000) Cooler Master
Thunder 700 PSU (Rs. 7,000) Cooler Master HAF 912
Cabinet (Rs. 6,750) Razer DeathAdder Chroma Mouse (Rs.
4400) Logitech G105 Keyboard (Rs. 4,295)