Chapter 8: Relations

8.1 Relations and Their Properties

1. How many binary relations from A to B can be constructed?
The number of binary relations from set A to set B is 2^(|A|*|B|), where |
A| and |B| are the cardinalities of sets A and B respectively.
2. How many relations are there on the set A?
The number of relations on set A is 2^(|A|*|A|), where |A| is the
cardinality of set A.
3. How many relations are there on the set {1,2,3,4} that contain the pair
(1,2) and (1,3)?
The set {1,2,3,4} has 4 elements, so there are 2^(4*4) = 65536 relations
on this set. Since the relations must contain the pairs (1,2) and (1,3), we
only need to consider the remaining 14 pairs. For each of these pairs, we
can either include it in the relation or not. So there are 2^14 = 16384
relations on the set {1,2,3,4} that contain the pairs (1,2) and (1,3).
4. List the ordered pairs in the relation R from A = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4} to B =
{0, 1, 2, 3}, where (a, b) ∈ R if and only if
a) a = b
 If a = b, then the ordered pairs in the relation R are: (0,0), (1,1), (2,2),
(3,3).
b) a + b = 4
If a + b = 4, then the ordered pairs in the relation R are: (0,4), (1,3),
(2,2), (3,1), (4,0).
c) a > b d) a | b
If a > b, then the ordered pairs in the relation R are: (1,0), (2,0), (2,1),
(3,0), (3,1), (3,2), (4,0), (4,1), (4,2), (4,3).
e) gcd(a, b) = 1
If gcd(a,b) = 1, then the ordered pairs in the relation R are: (0,1), (1,0),
(1,2), (1,3), (2,1), (2,3), (3,1), (3,2), (3,4), (4,1), (4,3).
f ) lcm(a, b) = 2
If lcm(a,b) = 2, then the ordered pairs in the relation R are: (1,2), (2,1)

5. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
a) List all the ordered pairs in the relation R = {(a, b) | a divides b} on A.
If R = {(a, b) | a divides b} on set A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, then the ordered
pairs in the relation R are: (1,1), (1,2), (1,3), (1,4), (1,5), (1,6), (2,2),
(2,4), (2,6), (3,3), (3,6), (4,4), (5,5), (6,6).
b) Display this relation graphically .
c) Display this relation in tabular form.
6. For each of these relations on the set {1, 2, 3, 4}, decide whether it is
reflexive, whether it is symmetric, whether it is antisymmetric, and
whether it is transitive.
a) {(2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4), (3, 2), (3, 3), (3, 4)}
The relation is is not reflexive because there is no pair (1,1) or (4,4) in
the relation
The relation is symmetric because for every pair (a,b) in the relation
there exists a corresponding pair (b,a) in the relation.
The relation is antisymmetric because there exists a pair (a,b) and a
pair (b,a) in the relation where a ≠ b ( (2,3) and (3,2) ).
The relation is not transitive because there exists a pair (a,b) and a
pair (b,c) in the relation but there does not exist a corresponding
pair (a,c) in the relation ( (2,3) and (3,4) are in the relation but (2,4) is
not).
b) {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4)}
The relation is reflexive because all elements in the set have a
corresponding pair in the relation where the first and second elements
are equal.
The relation is symmetric because for every pair (a,b) in the relation
there exists a corresponding pair (b,a) in the relation.
The relation is not antisymmetric because there exists a pair (a,b) and a
pair (b,a) in the relation where a ≠ b ( (1,2) and (2,1)). 
The relation is transitive because for every pair (a,b) and every
pair (b,c) in the relation there exists a corresponding pair (a,c) in the
relation.
c) {(2, 4), (4, 2)}
The relation R = {(2, 4), (4, 2)} on the set {1, 2, 3, 4} is not
reflexive because not all elements in the set have a corresponding pair in
the relation where the first and second elements are equal (there is no
pair (1,1), (3,3), or (4,4) in the relation). 
The relation is symmetric because for every pair (a,b) in the relation
there exists a corresponding pair (b,a) in the relation.
The relation is not antisymmetric because there exists a pair (a,b) and a
pair (b,a) in the relation where a ≠ b ( (2,4) and (4,2)). 
The relation is transitive because for every pair (a,b) and every
pair (b,c) in the relation there exists a corresponding pair (a,c) in the
relation.
d) {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 4)}
The relation is not reflexive because not all elements in the set have a
corresponding pair in the relation where the first and second elements
are equal (there is no pair (1,1), (2,2), (3,3), or (4,4) in the relation).
The relation is not symmetric because there exists a pair (a,b) in the
relation but there does not exist a corresponding pair (b,a) in the relation
( (1,2) is in the relation but (2,1) is not).
The relation is antisymmetric because there does not exist a
pair (a,b) and a pair (b,a) in the relation where a ≠ b.
The relation is transitive because for every pair (a,b) and every pair (b,c) in the relation there
exists a corresponding pair (a,c) in the relation.
e) {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4)}
The relation is reflexive because all elements in the set have a
corresponding pair in the relation where the first and second elements
are equal.
The relation is symmetric because for every pair (a,b) in the relation
there exists a corresponding pair (b,a) in the relation.
The relation is antisymmetric because there does not exist a
pair (a,b) and a pair (b,a) in the relation where a ≠ b.
The relation is transitive because for every pair (a,b) and every
pair (b,c) in the relation there exists a corresponding pair (a,c) in the
relation.
f ) {(1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 3), (2, 4), (3, 1), (3, 4)}
The relation is not reflexive because not all elements in the set have a
corresponding pair in the relation where the first and second elements
are equal (there is no pair (1,1), (2,2), or (4,4) in the relation).
The relation is not symmetric because there exists a pair (a,b) in the
relation but there does not exist a corresponding pair (b,a) in the relation
( (1,3) is in the relation but (3,1) is not). 
The relation is not antisymmetric because there exists a pair (a,b) and a
pair (b,a) in the relation where a ≠ b (= (1,3) and (3,1)). 
The relation is not transitive because there exists a pair (a,b) and a
pair (b,c) in the relation but there does not exist a corresponding
pair (a,c) in the relation ( (1,3) and (3,4) are in the relation but (1,4) is
not).
7. Determine whether the relation R on the set of all people is reflexive,
symmetric, antisymmetric, and/or transitive, where (a, b) ∈ R if and only
if
a) a is taller than b.
The relation R on the set of all people where (a,b) is in R if and only
if a is taller than b is not reflexive because a person cannot be taller than
themselves.
The relation is not symmetric because if a is taller than b, then b cannot
be taller than a.
The relation is antisymmetric because if a is taller than b, then b cannot
be taller than a.
The relation is transitive because if a is taller than b and b is taller
than c, it does not necessarily mean that a is taller than c.
b) a and b were born on the same day.
The relation R on the set of all people where (a,b) is in R if and only
if a and b were born on the same day is not reflexive because a person
cannot be born on the same day as themselves. 
The relation is symmetric because if a and b were born on the same day,
then b and a were also born on the same day.
The relation is  antisymmetric because if a and b were born on the same
day, then it means that a = b.
The relation is transitive because if a and b were born on the same day
and b and c were born on the same day, then it means that a and c were
also born on the same day.
c) a has the same first name as b.
The relation R on the set of all people where (a,b) is in R if and only
if a has the same first name as b is reflexive because a person has the
same first name as themselves.
The relation is symmetric because if a has the same first name as b, then
it means that b has the same first name as a.
The relation is not antisymmetric because if a has the same first name
as b, then it does not mean that a = b. 
The relation is transitive because if a has the same first name as b, and
if b has the same first name as c, then it means that a has the same first
name as c.
d) a and b have a common grandparent
The relation is reflexive because every person has a common
grandparent with themselves.
The relation is symmetric because if person A has a common
grandparent with person B, it implies that person B also has a common
grandparent with person A.
The relation is symmetric because if person A has a common
grandparent with person B, it implies that person B also has a common
grandparent with person A.
The relation is transitive because if a and b have a common grandparent,
and b and c have a common grandparent, then it means that a and c also
have a common grandparent.
8. Determine whether the relation R on the set of all real numbers is
reflexive, symmetric,antisymmetric, and/or transitive, where (x, y) ∈ R
if and only if
a) x + y = 0
The relation R on the set of all real numbers where (x,y) is in R if and
only if x + y = 0 is not reflexive because for any real number x, x + x ≠
0.
The relation is symmetric because if x + y = 0, then y + x = 0.
The relation is antisymmetric because if x + y = 0 and y + x = 0, then x
= y. 
The relation is transitive because if x + y = 0 and y + z = 0, then x + z =
0.
b) x = ±y
The relation R on the set of all real numbers where (x,y) is in R if and
only if x = ±y is reflexive because for any real number x, x = x. 
The relation is symmetric because if x = ±y, then y = ±x. 
The relation is not antisymmetric because if x = ±y and y = ±x, it does
not necessarily mean that x = y.
The relation is not transitive because if x = ±y and y = ±z, it does not
necessarily mean that x = ±z.
c) x - y is a rational number
The relation R on the set of all real numbers where (x,y) ∈ R if and only
if x - y is a rational number is reflexive because for any real number x, x
- x = 0 which is a rational number. 
The relation is symmetric because if x - y is a rational number, then y - x
is also a rational number.
The relation is not antisymmetric because if x - y and y - x are both
rational numbers, it does not necessarily mean that x = y.
The relation is transitive because if x - y and y - z are both rational
numbers, then x - z is also a rational number.
d) xy ≥ 0
The relation R on the set of all real numbers where (x,y) is in R if and
only if xy ≥ 0 is not reflexive because for the real number 0, 0 * 0 =
0 which is not greater than 0.
The relation is symmetric because if xy ≥ 0, then yx ≥ 0.
The relation is not antisymmetric because if xy ≥ 0 and yx ≥ 0, it does
not necessarily mean that x = y.
The relation is transitive because if xy ≥ 0 and yz ≥ 0, then xz ≥ 0.
e ) xy = 0
The relation R on the set of all real numbers where (x,y) is in R if and
only if xy = 0 is not reflexive because for any non-zero real number x, x
* x ≠ 0.
The relation is symmetric because if xy = 0, then yx = 0. 
The relation is not antisymmetric because if xy = 0 and yx = 0, it does
not necessarily mean that x = y.
The relation is not transitive because if xy = 0 and yz = 0, it does not
necessarily mean that xz = 0.
g) xy > 1.
The relation R on the set of all real numbers where (x,y) ∈ R if and only
if xy > 1 is not reflexive because for any real number x, x * x > 1 is not
always true. 
The relation is symmetric because if xy > 1, then yx > 1.
The relation is not antisymmetric because if xy > 1 and yx > 1, it does
not necessarily mean that x = y.
The relation is not transitive because if xy > 1 and yz > 1, it does not
necessarily mean that xz > 1.
9. Determine whether the relation R on the set of all integers is reflexive,
symmetric, antisymmetric, and/or transitive, where (x, y) ∈ R if and only
if
a) x ≠ y
The relation R on the set of all integers where (x,y) is in R if and only
if x ≠ y is not reflexive because for any integer x, x = x. 
The relation is symmetric because if x ≠ y, then y ≠ x.
The relation is not antisymmetric because if x ≠ y and y ≠ x, it does not
necessarily mean that x = y.
The relation is not transitive because if x ≠ y and y ≠ z, it does not
necessarily mean that x ≠ z.
b) xy ≥ 1
The relation R on the set of all integers where (x,y) is in R if and only
if xy ≥ 1 is not reflexive because for the integer 0, 0 * 0 = 0 which is not
greater than or equal to 1. 
The relation is symmetric because if xy ≥ 1, then yx ≥ 1. 
The relation is not antisymmetric because if xy ≥ 1 and yx ≥ 1, it does
not necessarily mean that x = y.
The relation is not transitive because if xy ≥ 1 and yz ≥ 1, it does not
necessarily mean that xz ≥ 1.
c) x = y + 1 or x = y – 1
The relation R on the set of all integers where (x,y) ∈ R if and only if x
= y + 1 or x = y - 1 is not reflexive because for any integer x, x = x + 1
or x = x - 1 is not true. 
The relation is symmetric because if x = y + 1 or x = y - 1, then y = x + 1
or y = x - 1. 
The relation is not antisymmetric because if x = y + 1 or x = y - 1 and y
= x + 1 or y = x - 1, it does not necessarily mean that x = y.
The relation is not transitive because if x = y + 1 or x = y - 1 and y = z +
1 or y = z - 1, it does not necessarily mean that x = z + 1 or x = z - 1.
d) x ≡ y (mod 7)
The relation R on the set of all integers where (x,y) is in R if and only
if x ≡ y (mod 7) is reflexive because for any integer x, x ≡ x (mod 7).
The relation is symmetric because if x ≡ y (mod 7), then y ≡ x (mod 7).
The relation is not antisymmetric because if x ≡ y (mod 7) and y ≡ x
(mod 7), it does not necessarily mean that x = y.
The relation is transitive because if x ≡ y (mod 7) and y ≡ z (mod 7),
then x ≡ z (mod 7).
e) x is a multiple of y
The relation R on the set of all integers where (x,y) ∈ R if and only if x
is a multiple of y is not reflexive because for any non-zero integer x, x is
not a multiple of itself.
The relation is not symmetric because if x is a multiple of y, it does not
necessarily mean that y is a multiple of x. 
The relation is antisymmetric because if x is a multiple of y and y is a
multiple of x, it means that x = y.
The relation is transitive because if x is a multiple of y and y is a
multiple of z, it means that x is a multiple of z.
10. Let R1 = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 4)} and R2 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2),
(2, 3), (3, 1), (3, 2),(3, 3), (3, 4)} be relations from {1, 2, 3} to {1, 2, 3,
4}. Find
a) R1 ∪ R2
The union of two relations R1 and R2, denoted R1 ∪ R2, is the relation
that contains all the ordered pairs that are in either R1 or R2 or both.
So, R1 ∪ R2 = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 4)} ∪ {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2,
3), (3, 1), (3, 2),(3, 3), (3, 4)} = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 1),
(3, 2),(3, 3), (3, 4)}
b) R1 ∩ R2
The intersection of two relations R1 and R2, denoted R1 ∩ R2, is the
relation that contains all the ordered pairs that are in both R1 and R2.
So, R1 ∩ R2 = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 4)} ∩ {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2,
3), (3, 1), (3, 2),(3, 3), (3, 4)} = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3,4)}.
c) R1 - R2
The difference of two relations R1 and R2, denoted R1 - R2, is the
relation that contains all the ordered pairs that are in R1 but not in R2.
So, R1 - R2 = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3,4)} - {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3),
(3, 1),(3 ,2),(3 ,3),(3 ,4)} = {}.
d) R-1 and R
e) R1  R 2
The symmetric difference of two relations R1 and R2, denoted R1 xor
R2, is the relation that contains all the ordered pairs that are in
either R1 or R2 but not both. So, for example, if R1 = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3,
4)} and R2 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 1), (3, 2),(3, 3), (3,
4)}, then R1 xor R2 = {(1, 1), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 1), (3, 2),(3 ,3)}.
11. Let R be the relation {(1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 3), (2, 4), (3, 1)}, and let S be
the relation {(2, 1), (3, 1), (3, 2), (4, 2)}. Find S ◦ R

 For (1,2) in R, there exists (2,1) in S, so (1,1) is in S ◦ R.

 For (1,3) in R, there exist (3,1) and (3,2) in S, so (1,1) and (1,2) are
in S ◦ R.
 For (2,3) in R, there exist (3,1) and (3,2) in S, so (2,1) and (2,2) are
in S ◦ R.
 For (2,4) in R, there exists (4,2) in S, so (2,2) is in S ◦ R.
 For (3,1) in R, there are no pairs in S with first element equal to 1.

So the composition of the two relations is S ◦ R = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1),
(2, 2)}.

12. a) List the 16 different relations on the set {0, 1}

1. {}
2. {(0, 0)}
 3. {(0, 1)}
4. {(1, 0)}
5. {(1, 1)}
6. {(0, 0), (0, 1)}
7. {(0, 0), (1, 0)}
8. {(0, 0), (1, 1)}
9. {(0, 1), (1, 0)}
10. {(0, 1), (1, 1)}
11. {(1, 0), (1, 1)}
12. {(0, 0), (0, 1), (1, 0)}
13. {(0, 0), (0, 1), (1, 1)}
14. {(0, 0), (1, 0), (1, 1)}
15. {(0, 1), (1, 0), (1, 1)}
16. {(0, 0), (0, 1), (1, 0), (1, 1)}

b) Which of the the relations are

a) reflexive?
{(0, 0), (1, 1)}
b) irreflexive?
{}
{(0, 1)}
{(1, 0)}
{(0, 1),(1, 0)}
c) symmetric?
{}
{(0, 0)}
{(1, 1)}
{(0, 0), (1, 1)}
d) antisymmetric?
{}
{(0, 0)},
{(0, 1)}
{(1, 0)}
{(1, 1)}
{(0, 0), (1, 1)}
e) asymmetric?
{}
{(0, 1)}
{(1, 0)}
f ) transitive?
{}
{(0, 0)}
{(0, 1)}
{(1, 0)}
{(1, 1)}
{(0, 0), (1, 1)}
{(0, 1), (1, 0)}
13. Let R be the relation on the set {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} containing the ordered
pairs (1, 1), (1, 2),(1, 3), (2, 3), (2, 4), (3, 1), (3, 4), (3, 5), (4, 2), (4, 5),
(5, 1), (5, 2), and (5, 4). Find
a) R^2
{(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 4), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 5), (3, 2), (3, 3), (3, 4), (3,
5), (4, 1), (4, 3), (4, 4), (5, 1), (5, 3), (5, 4)}
b) R^3
{(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 5), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5), (3, 1), (3,
2), (3, 3), (3, 4), (3, 5), (4, 1), (4, 2), (4, 4), (5, 1), (5, 2), (5, 3)}
c) R^4
{(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5), (3,
1), (3, 2), (3, 3), (3, 4), (3, 5), (4, 1), (4, 2), (4, 3), (4, 4), (4, 5), (5, 1), (5,
2), (5, 3), (5, 4), (5, 5)}
d) R^5
{(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 5), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5), (3, 1), (3,
2), (3, 3), (3, 4), (3, 5), (4, 1), (4, 2), (4, 4), (5, 1), (5, 2), (5, 3)}
8.3 Representing Relations
1. Suppose that A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {1, 2}. Let R be the relation from
A to B containing (a,b) if a ∈ A, b ∈ B, and a > b. What is the matrix
representing R?
The matrix representing R is:
0 1
1 0
1 1

The first row represents the element 1 in set A, and since there are no
elements in set B that are less than 1, both entries are 0. The second row
represents the element 2 in set A, and since there is one element in set B
(1) that is less than 2, the first entry is 1 and the second entry is 0. The
third row represents the element 3 in set A, and since both elements in
set B are less than 3, both entries are 1.

2. Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}. Which ordered pairs are in

the relation R represented by the matrix
 01000
MR = 10110
10111
R= {(1,2), (2,1), (2,3), (2,4), (3,1), (3,3), (3,4), (3,5)}.
3. Suppose that the relation R on a set is represented by the matrix
110
111
0 1 1.
Is R reflexive, symmetric, and/or antisymmetric?
The matrix representing the relation R from set A to set B is a matrix
with rows indexed by the elements of A and columns indexed by the
elements of B. The entry in row a and column b is 1 if (a,b) is in R and 0
otherwise.
The relation R contains the ordered pairs: {(1,2), (2,1), (2,3), (2,4), (3,1),
(3,3), (3,4), (3,5)}.
4. Suppose that the relations R1 and R2 on a set A are represented by the
matrices

101 101
MR1 = 100 and MR2 = 011
010 110
What are the matrices representing R1 ∪ R2 ,
R1 ∩ R2 and S ◦R ?

The matrix representing R1 ∪ R2 is:

111
011
110

The matrix representing R1 ∩ R2 is:

100
001
100

5.
a) What are the ordered pairs in the relation R represented by the
directed graph shown in the Figure?
R = {(1,3), (1,4), (2,1), (2,2), (2,3), (3,1), (3,3), (4,1), (4,3)}
b) Determine whether the relations for the directed graphs shown in the
Figure are reflexive, symmetric, antisymmetric, and/or transitive.

 Reflexive: The relation is not reflexive because not all elements

have a self-loop. For example, the ordered pair (1,1) is not in the
relation.
 Symmetric: The relation is not symmetric because there are some
pairs of elements where one is related to the other but not vice
versa. For example, the ordered pair (1,3) is in the relation but the
ordered pair (3,1) is not.
 Antisymmetric: The relation is not antisymmetric because there are
some pairs of elements where both are related to each other. For
example, both the ordered pairs (2,1) and (1,2) are in the relation.
 Transitive: The relation is transitive because for every pair of
ordered pairs (a,b) and (b,c) in the relation, the ordered pair (a,c) is
also in the relation.

6.
a) What are the ordered pairs in the relation R represented by the
directed graph shown in the Figure?
R = {(a,a), (a,b), (b,b), (b,c), (c,b), (c,c), (c,a)}
b) Determine whether the relations for the directed graphs shown in the
Figure are reflexive,symmetric, antisymmetric, and/or transitive.
Because loops are not present at all the vertices of the directed graph of
S, thisrelation is not reflexive.
It is symmetric and not antisymmetric, because every edge between
distinct vertices is accompanied by an edge in the opposite direction. It
is also not hard to see from the directed graph that S is not transitive,
because (c, a) and (a, b) belong to S, but (c, b) does not belong to S.
8. Represent each of these relations on{1, 2, 3}with a matrix and a
directed graphs
a) {(1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 3), (2, 4), (3, 4)}
0 1 1 1
0 0 1 1
0 0 0 1
b) {(1, 1), (1, 4), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 1)}
0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
c) {(1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 1), (2, 3), (2, 4), (3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 4),
1 0 0 0
(4, 1), (4, 2), (4, 3)}
0 1 1 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
d) {(2, 4), (3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 4)}
1 1 1 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1
1 1 0 1
9. List the ordered pairs in the relations on {1, 2, 3}
0 0 0 0
corresponding to these matrices (where the rows and columns
correspond to the integers listed in increasing order).
a)
101
010
101
{(1,1), (1,3), (2,2), (3,1), (3,3)}.
b)
111
101
111
{(1,1), (1,2), (1,3), (2,1), (2,3), (3,1), (3,2), (3,3)}.
c)
1101
1010
0111
1011

{(1,1), (1,2), (2,1), (2,3), (3,2), (3,3)}.

d)
0101
1010
0101
1010

{(1,2), (2,1), (2,3), (3,2)}.

10. Let R1 and R2 be relations on a set A represented by the matrices
010 010
MR1= 1 1 1 and MR2= 0 1 1
111 100

Find the matrices that represent

a) R1  R2
0 ∨0 1 ∨1 0 ∨0 0 1 0
M R 1 ∪ R 2=1 ∨0 1 ∨1 1 ∨1 =1 1 1
1 ∨1 1 ∨0 1∨ 0 1 1 1

b) R1 R2
 0 ∧0 1 ∧1 0∧ 0
M R 1 ∩ R 2=1 ∧0 1 ∧1 1∧ 1=¿
1 ∧1 1∧ 0 1∧ 0

c) R1 ◦ R2
0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1
M R 1 ∩ R 2=1 1 1 × 0 1 1 = 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1

d) R2  R1
0 ⊕ 0 1⊕ 1 0 ⊕ 0 0 0 0
M R 2⊕ R 1=0 ⊕ 1 1⊕ 1 1 ⊕ 1= 1 0 0
1⊕1 0⊕1 0⊕1 0 1 1

11. Draw the directed graph that represents the relation {(a, a), (a, b), (b,
c), (c, b), (c, d), (d,a), (d, b)}

a b

c d

12. List the ordered pairs in the relations represented by the directed
graphs
a)

{(a, b),(a, c), (b,c)(c, b)}

b)

{(a,c),(b, a), (c, d)(d, b)}

c)
{(a,a), (a,b), (b,b), (b,c), (c,b), (c,c), (c,a)}

d)
{(a,a), (a,b), (b,a), (b,b), (c,c), (c,a), (c,d), (d,d)}

8.5 Equivalence Relations

1. Let R be the relation on the set of real numbers such that aRb if and
only if a - b is an integer. Is R an equivalence relation?
R is an equivalence relation. For a relation to be an equivalence relation,
it must satisfy three properties: reflexivity, symmetry, and transitivity.

1. Reflexivity: For any real number a, a - a = 0 which is an integer.

So, aRa for all real numbers a.
2. Symmetry: If aRb, then a - b is an integer. This means that b - a = -
(a - b) is also an integer. So, if aRb, then bRa.
3. Transitivity: If aRb and bRc, then a - b and b - c are both integers.
This means that (a - b) + (b - c) = a - c is also an integer. So,
if aRb and bRc, then aRc.

2. Let R be the relation on the set of integers such that aRb if and only if
a = b or a = -b. What is the equivalence class of an integer for the
equivalence relation R?
The equivalence class of an integer a for the equivalence relation R is
the set of all integers that are related to a by the relation R.
Since aRa and aR(-a) for any integer a, the equivalence class of a is the
set {a, -a}. 
3. What are the equivalence classes of 0 and 1 for congruence modulo 4?
[0] = {..., -12, -8, -4, 0, 4, 8, 12, ...}.
[1] = {..., -11, -7, -3, 1, 5, 9, 13, ...}.
4. List the ordered pairs in the equivalence relation R produced by the
partition A1 = {1, 2, 3}, A2 = {4, 5}, and A3 = {6} of S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
6}.

 All pairs (a, b) such that both a and b belong to the subset A1 = {1,

2, 3}: (1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 3).
 All pairs (a, b) such that both a and b belong to the subset A2 = {4,
5}: (4, 4), (4, 5), (5, 4),(5, 5).
 All pairs (a, b) such that both a and b belong to the subset A3 =
{6}: (6, 6).

the equivalence relation R is `{(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3),
(3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4), (4, 5), (5, 4),(5, 5), (6, 6)}
5. What are the sets in the partition of the integers arising from
congruence modulo 4?
There are four equivalence classes in this partition, corresponding to the
four possible remainders when an integer is divided by 4: 0, 1, 2, and 3.
The set of integers congruent to 0 modulo 4: {..., -12, -8, -4, 0, 4, 8,
12, ...}
The set of integers congruent to 1 modulo 4: {..., -11, -7, -3, 1, 5, 9,
13, ...}
The set of integers congruent to 2 modulo 4: {..., -10, -6, -2, 2, 6, 10, 14,
...}
The set of integers congruent to 3 modulo 4: {..., -9, -5, -1, 3, 7, 11,
15, ...}
6. Which of these relations on {0, 1, 2, 3} are equivalence relations?
Determine the properties of an equivalence relation that the others lack.
a) {(0, 0), (1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3)}
The relation  {(0, 0), (1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3)} is reflexive because it contains
all pairs of the form (x, x) for x in {0, 1, 2, 3}. It is also symmetric
because if (x, y) is in the relation, then (y, x) is also in the relation. Since
there are no pairs involving different elements, transitivity is also
trivially satisfied. Therefore, this relation is an equivalence relation.
b) {(0, 0), (0, 2), (2, 0), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 2), (3, 3)}
The relation  {(0, 0), (0, 2), (2, 0), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 2), (3, 3)} is reflexive
because it contains all pairs of the form (x, x) for x in {0, 1, 2, 3}. It is
also symmetric because if (x, y) is in the relation, then (y, x) is also in
the relation. However, it is not transitive because it does not contain the
pair (0, 3) even though it contains the pairs (0, 2) and (2, 3). Therefore,
this relation is not an equivalence relation.
c) {(0, 0), (1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3)}
The relation  {(0, 0), (1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3)} is reflexive
because it contains all pairs of the form (x, x) for x in {0, 1, 2, 3}. It is
also symmetric because if (x, y) is in the relation, then (y, x) is also in
the relation. It is not transitive because it contains the pairs (1, 2) and (2,
1). Therefore, this relation is an equivalence relation.
d) {(0, 0), (1, 1), (1, 3), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 3)}
The relation  {(0, 0), (1, 1), (1, 3), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 3)} is
reflexive because it contains all pairs of the form (x, x) for x in {0, 1, 2,
3}. It is also symmetric because if (x, y) is in the relation, then (y, x) is
also in the relation. The relation d is still not transitive because it
contains the pairs (1, 3) and (3, 2) but not the pair (1, 2). Therefore, this
relation is not an equivalence relation.

e) {(0, 0), (0, 1), (0, 2), (1, 0), (1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 0), (2, 2), (3, 3)}
The relation {(0, 0), (0, 1), (0, 2), (1, 0), (1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 0), (2, 2), (3,
3)} is reflexive because it contains all pairs of the form (x, x) for x in {0,
1, 2, 3}. It is also symmetric because if (x, y) is in the relation, then (y,
x) is also in the relation. It is transitive because it contains the pairs (0,
1) and (1, 2) and the pair (0, 2). Therefore, the relation is an equivalence
relation.
7. Which of these relations on the set of all people are equivalence
relations? Determine the properties of an equivalence relation that the
others lack.
a) {(a, b) | a and b are the same age}

1. Reflexivity: For any person a, a is the same age as themselves.

So, (a, a) is in the relation for all people a.
2. Symmetry: If (a, b) is in the relation, then a and b are the same age.
This means that b and a are also the same age. So, if (a, b) is in the
relation, then (b, a) is also in the relation.
3. Transitivity: If (a, b) and (b, c) are both in the relation,
then a and b are the same age and b and c are the same age. This
means that a and c are also the same age. So, if (a, b) and (b, c) are
both in the relation, then (a, c) is also in the relation.

 The relation is an equivalence relation.

b) {(a, b) | a and b have the same parents}

1. Reflexivity: For any person a, a has the same parents as

themselves. So, (a, a) is in the relation for all people a.
2. Symmetry: If (a, b) is in the relation, then a and b have the same
parents. This means that b and a also have the same parents. So,
if (a, b) is in the relation, then (b, a) is also in the relation.
3. Transitivity: If (a, b) and (b, c) are both in the relation,
then a and b have the same parents and b and c have the same
parents. This means that a and c also have the same parents. So,
if (a, b) and (b, c) are both in the relation, then (a, c) is also in the
relation.

 The relation is an equivalence relation.

c) {(a, b) | a and b share a common parent}

1. Reflexivity: For any person a, a shares a common parent with

themselves. So, (a, a) is in the relation for all people a.
 2. Symmetry: If (a, b) is in the relation, then a and b share a common
parent. This means that b and a also share a common parent. So,
if (a, b) is in the relation, then (b, a) is also in the relation.
3. Transitivity: If (a, b) and (b, c) are both in the relation,
then a and b share a common parent and b and c share a common
parent. However, this does not necessarily mean that a and c share
a common parent. For example, if a and b share a father but have
different mothers, and b and c share a mother but have different
fathers, then (a, b) and (b, c) are both in the relation but (a, c) is not
in the relation.

The relation is not an equivalence relation.

d) {(a, b) | a and b have met}

1. Reflexivity: For any person a, it is not necessarily true that a has

met themselves. So, (a, a) is not necessarily in the relation for all
people a.
2. Symmetry: If (a, b) is in the relation, then a and b have met. This
means that b and a have also met. So, if (a, b) is in the relation,
then (b, a) is also in the relation.
3. Transitivity: If (a, b) and (b, c) are both in the relation,
then a and b have met and b and c have met. However, this does
not necessarily mean that a and c have met. For example, if a has
met b but has never met c, and b has met both a and c, then (a,
b) and (b, c) are both in the relation but (a, c) is not in the relation.

The relation is not an equivalence relation.

8. Which of these relations on the set of all functions from Z to Z are
equivalence relations? Determine the properties of an equivalence
relation that the others lack.
a) {(f, g) | f (1) = g(1)}

1. Reflexivity: For any function f from Z to Z, f(1) = f(1). So, (f, f) is

in the relation for all functions f.
 2. Symmetry: If (f, g) is in the relation, then f(1) = g(1). This means
that g(1) = f(1). So, if (f, g) is in the relation, then (g, f) is also in
the relation.
3. Transitivity: If (f, g) and (g, h) are both in the relation, then f(1) =
g(1) and g(1) = h(1). This means that f(1) = h(1). So, if (f,
g) and (g, h) are both in the relation, then (f, h) is also in the
relation.

The relation is an equivalence relation.

b) {(f, g) | f (0) = g(0) or f (1) = g(1)}

1. Reflexivity: For any function f from Z to Z, either f(0) =

f(0) or f(1) = f(1). So, (f, f) is in the relation for all functions f.
2. Symmetry: If (f, g) is in the relation, then either f(0) = g(0) or f(1)
= g(1). This means that either g(0) = f(0) or g(1) = f(1). So, if (f,
g) is in the relation, then (g, f) is also in the relation.
3. Transitivity: If (f, g) and (g, h) are both in the relation, then
either f(0) = g(0) or f(1) = g(1), and either g(0) = h(0) or g(1) =
h(1). However, this does not necessarily mean that either f(0) =
h(0) or f(1) = h(1). 

The relation is not an equivalence relation.

c) {(f, g) | f (x) - g(x) = 1 for all x ∈ Z}

1. Reflexivity: For any function f from Z to Z, it is not necessarily

true that f(x) - f(x) = 1 for all x ∈ Z. In fact, for any function f, f(x)
- f(x) = 0 for all x ∈ Z. So, (f, f) is not in the relation for any
function f.
2. Symmetry: If (f, g) is in the relation, then f(x) - g(x) = 1 for all x ∈
Z. This means that g(x) - f(x) = -1 for all x ∈ Z. So, if (f, g) is in
the relation, then (g, f) is not in the relation.
3. Transitivity: If (f, g) and (g, h) are both in the relation, then f(x) -
g(x) = 1 and g(x) - h(x) = 1 for all x ∈ Z. This means that (f(x) -
 g(x)) + (g(x) - h(x)) = f(x) - h(x) = 2 for all x ∈ Z. So, if (f,
g) and (g, h) are both in the relation, then (f, h) is not in the
relation.

The relation is not an equivalence relation.

d) {(f, g) | for some C ∈ Z, for all x ∈ Z, f(x) - g(x) = C}

1. Reflexivity: For any function f from Z to Z, for all x ∈ Z, f(x) - f(x)

= 0. So, (f, f) is in the relation for all functions f.
2. Symmetry: If (f, g) is in the relation, then there exists a
constant C such that for all x ∈ Z, f(x) - g(x) = C. This means that
for all x ∈ Z, g(x) - f(x) = -C. So, if (f, g) is in the relation, then (g,
f) is also in the relation.
3. Transitivity: If (f, g) and (g, h) are both in the relation, then there
exist constants C1 and C2 such that for all x ∈ Z, f(x) - g(x) =
C1 and g(x) - h(x) = C2. This means that for all x ∈ Z, (f(x) - g(x))
+ (g(x) - h(x)) = f(x) - h(x) = C1 + C2. So, if (f, g) and (g, h) are
both in the relation, then (f, h) is also in the relation.

The relation is not an equivalence relation.

9. Determine whether the relation with the directed graph shown is an

equivalence relation

a)
{(a,a),(a,c),(a,d),(b,b),(c,c),(c,a),(d,d),(d,a)}

The relation  is reflexive because it contains all pairs of the form (x,

x) for x. It is also symmetric because if (x, y) is in the relation, then (y,
x) is also in the relation. It is transitive because it contains the
pairs (a,c) and (c,a) with (a,a). Therefore, this relation is an equivalence
relation.
b)
{(a,a),(a,d),(b,b),(b,c),(c,c),(c,b),(d,d),(d,a)}
The relation is reflexive if for all x in the set, (x,x) is in the relation. It is
symmetric if for all x and y in the set, if (x,y) is in the relation then (y,x)
must also be in the relation.It  is not transitive because if for all x, y, and
z in the set, if (x,y) and (y,z) are in the relation then (x,z) must also be in
the relation. Therefore, this relation is an equivalence relation.
c)

{(a,a),(a,c),(a,b),(b,b),(b,a),(b,c),(c,c),(c,b),(c.d),(d,d),(d,a),(d,c)}

The relation is reflexive if for all x in the set, (x,x) is in the relation. It is
symmetric if for all x and y in the set, if (x,y) is in the relation then (y,x)
must also be in the relation.It  is not transitive beacause (a,b) and (b,c)
are both in the relation, but (a,c) is not in the relation. Therefore, this
relation is not an equivalence relation.

10. Determine whether the relations represented by these zero–one

matrices are equivalence relations

111
a) 011
111
Reflexivity: The relation is reflexive if every element is related to itself.
In the matrix, all the diagonal elements are 1, indicating that every
element is related to itself.

Symmetry: The relation is symmetric if whenever the element at

position (i, j) is 1, the element at position (j, i) must also be 1.

Transitivity: The relation is transitive if whenever there are 1s at

positions (i, j) and (j, k), there must be a 1 at position (i, k).
The matrix is an equivalence relation.

1010
b) 0 1 0 1
1010
0101
Reflexivity: The relation is reflexive if every element is related to itself.
In the matrix, all the diagonal elements are 1, indicating that every
element is related to itself.

Symmetry: The relation is symmetric if whenever the element at

position (i, j) is 1, the element at position (j, i) must also be 1.

Transitivity: The relation is transitive if whenever there are 1s at

positions (i, j) and (j, k), there must be a 1 at position (i, k).

The matrix is an equivalence relation.

1110
c) 1 1 1 0
1110
0001
Reflexivity: The relation is reflexive if every element is related to itself.
In the matrix, all the diagonal elements are 1, indicating that every
element is related to itself.

Symmetry: The relation is symmetric if whenever the element at

position (i, j) is 1, the element at position (j, i) must also be 1.

Transitivity: The relation is transitive if whenever there are 1s at

positions (i, j) and (j, k), there must be a 1 at position (i, k).

The matrix is an equivalence relation.

11. Which of these collections of subsets are partitions of {1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
6}?
a) {1, 2},{2, 3, 4},{4, 5, 6}
The collection of subsets {1, 2},{2, 3, 4},{4, 5, 6} is not a partition of
the set {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. A partition of a set is a collection of non-empty
subsets such that every element in the set is in exactly one of the subsets.
In this case, the element 2 is in both {1, 2} and {2, 3, 4}, and the
element 4 is in both {2, 3, 4} and {4, 5, 6}, so this collection of subsets
does not satisfy the definition of a partition.

b) {1}, {2, 3, 6}, {4}, {5}

The collection of subsets {1}, {2, 3, 6}, {4}, {5} is a partition of the
set {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. Each element in the set {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} is in
exactly one of the subsets {1}, {2, 3, 6}, {4}, {5}.
c) {2, 4, 6}, {1, 3, 5}
The collection of subsets {2, 4, 6}, {1, 3, 5} is a partition of the set {1, 2,
3, 4, 5, 6}. Each element in the set {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} is in exactly one of
the subsets {2, 4, 6}, {1, 3, 5}.

d) {1, 4, 5}, {2, 6}

The collection of subsets {1, 4, 5}, {2, 6} is not a partition of the set {1,
2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. A partition of a set is a collection of non-empty subsets
such that every element in the set is in exactly one of the subsets. In this
case, the element 3 is not in any of the subsets {1, 4, 5}, {2, 6}, so this
collection of subsets does not satisfy the definition of a partition.
12. Let R={(1,1), (2,2), (3,3), (1,2), (2,1), (4,4), (4,5), (5,4), (5,5)} be a
equivalence relation on the set {1,2,3,4,5}. How many equivalence
classes with respect to R?
We can see that 1 is related to 2 and vice versa because (1, 2) and (2,
1) are both in R. Similarly, 4 is related to 5 and vice versa because (4,
5) and (5, 4) are both in R. All other elements are only related to
themselves.

The equivalence classes with respect to R are {1, 2}, {3}, and {4, 5}.

There are 3 equivalence classes.
13. List the ordered pairs in the equivalence relations produced by these
partitions of {a, b, c, d, e, f, g}.
a) {a, b}, {c, d}, {e, f, g}
All ordered pairs of elements from the subset {a, b}: (a, a), (a, b), (b, a),
(b, b)

All ordered pairs of elements from the subset {c, d}: (c, c), (c, d), (d, c),
(d, d)

All ordered pairs of elements from the subset {e, f, g}: (e, e), (e, f), (e,
g), (f, e), (f, f), (f, g), (g, e), (g, f), (g, g)

b) {a}, {b}, {c, d}, {e, f }, {g}

All ordered pairs of elements from the subset {a}: (a, a)

All ordered pairs of elements from the subset {b}: (b, b)

All ordered pairs of elements from the subset {c, d}: (c, c), (c, d), (d, c),
(d, d)

All ordered pairs of elements from the subset {e, f}: (e, e), (e, f), (f, e),
(f, f)

All ordered pairs of elements from the subset {g}: (g, g)

c) {a, b, c, d}, {e, f, g}

All ordered pairs of elements from the subset {a, b, c, d}: (a, a), (a, b),
(a, c), (a, d), (b, a), (b, b), (b, c), (b, d), (c, a), (c, b), (c,c ),(c,d ),(d,a ),
(d,b ),(d,c ),(d,d )

All ordered pairs of elements from the subset {e, f, g}: (e,e ),(e,f ),(e,g ),
(f,e ),(f,f ),(f,g ),(g,e ),(g,f ),(g,g )

d) {a, c, e, g}, {b, d}, {f }

All ordered pairs of elements from the subset {a, c, e, g}: (a,a ),(a,c ),(a,e
),(a,g ),(c,a ),(c,c ),(c,e ),(c,g ),(e,a ),(e,c ),(e,e ),(e,g ),(g,a ),(g,c ),(g,e ),
(g,g )

All ordered pairs of elements from the subset {b, d}: (b,b ),(b,d ),(d,b ),
(d,d )

All ordered pairs of elements from the subset {f}: (f,f )