Module 3

PSYCHOLOGICAL PROCESSES II
FRUSTRATION, CONFLICT AND STRESS

Frustration
Hall (1961) has described the use of the term frustration as involving a "process-product
confusion," and Britt and Janus (1940) earlier noted that the term is used in at least three main
ways, describing
(1) a frustrating situation or instigating condition,
(2) the effects of such instigation on the person (e.g., "change in tension, disturbance of
homeostasis, and maladaptation"), and
(3) The effects on the person's reaction system (e.g., anger, aggression, withdrawal,
regression).
Frustration implies that a course of action has not been carried through to its goal or
conclusion, or that an end state of some sort has not been reached, or that an expected
outcome or consequence has failed to materialize. This may describe a single set of events
on a particular occasion, or it may refer to repeated instances so as to become characteristic
of an individual's relationship to his environment (e.g., as in the descriptive phrases “low
frustration tolerance," "chronic frustration," "frustration prone," etc.).
Conditions Which Give Rise to Frustration
There are two necessary preconditions to frustration:
(1) the presence of a previously aroused and unrequited drive or motive, and
(2) some form of interference with or thwarting of its means of gratification.
1. Privation: Privation refers to the condition in which an existing need or tension increases in
intensity in the absence of means of its reduction.
2. Thwarting: Frustration arises, according to Dollard et al. (1939), "when a goal-response suffers
interference to its occurrence" or "if the organism could have been expected to perform
certain acts and if these acts have been prevented from occurring." Thwarting is another
name for response interference.
Both privation and thwarting are necessary preconditions to frustration
Brown (1961) describes three methods of producing thwarting:
(1) via physical barriers
(2) via removal of maintaining stimuli
(3) via elicitation of incompatible responses.
Physical barriers may vary from involving the total restraint of the organism involved to a
specific withholding of a reinforcement.

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 The second type of thwarting described by Brown involves the removal of some stimulus or
stimuli necessary to the goal-attaining behaviour, even though the individual may remain
unrestrained.
Sources of Frustration.
i. An Inner-Outer Distinction:
Inadequacy on the part of the individual to satisfy his needs in the face of ordinary
environmental requirements.
Result from an overwhelming environmental demand or requirement, or perhaps because of
an unusually impoverished environment.
ii. Developmental Crises and Frustration:
Symonds (1946) lists a series of events throughout the normal life cycle which almost of
necessity leads to frustration. These include
 The restriction of infant activity,
 Thwarting of autoerotic expression,
 Loss of attention and care,
 Unsatisfactory nursing experiences,
 Weaning,
 Toilet training
 , loss of love or security and support,
 Forced independence in adolescence,
 and adult economic hardships and other losses,
 including those due to death of loved ones or anticipation of one's own death.
Most, if not all, of these situations contain an assumed underlying prior need, and either
fancied or real loss (or threat of loss) of satisfaction.
Relation to Underlying Drive:
Most definitions suggest that frustration is a new process, tension, or need state, perhaps
related to the intensity of the underlying need, but unrelated to its nature.
Alternatively, it has been suggested that frustration arises as a negative function of the
anticipated likelihood of goal attainment or need satisfaction.
But frustration is not an automatic consequence of the interruption of any goal-
seeking behaviour.
Zander (1944) concluded that frustration will occur only when the goal in question is
“believed important and attainable.” The terms "ego-defensive," "ego-threatening," and "ego-
involving" have come into use to describe more intense motivational states, the interference
with which may lead to frustration.
Procedures intended to ego-involve a subject are those which pose a threat to his self-esteem
or his integrity as a person. Thus, for example, a group of college students can become
"involved” by instructing them that they are about to take an intelligence test, the results of
which would be made a part of their permanent records. Such instructions arouse an
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important motive, and information that they are failing or have failed constitutes a thwarting
of the aroused ego-protective behaviour.
In sum, then, frustration is a consequence of interruption of motivated behaviour only when
such behaviour is important. Importance, in turn, is determined by the centrality of the
privation (or contrived privation—that is deprivation operation) to the ego- or self-
maintenance of the individual involved.
The Nature of Frustration.
According to Britt and Janus (1940), the frustration concept has been applied to instigating
conditions, to a state of the organism, and to forms of reaction. Unfortunately, it is difficult to
define the borderlines among these three aspects of the concept.
Another consideration of the frustration state is that, it has been characterized as an
unpleasant emotional state (Sargent, 1948),
“Against which the affected individual’s energies are more or less strongly mobilized” (Mowrer,
1938).
However, except for the implication that the organism is aroused, there have been no reliable
correlations demonstrated between particular arousal conditions and state variables, or
between state variables and forms of reaction.
We are left, then, with only one alternative for the time being, namely, to consider frustration
as an intervening construct of a vaguely emotional or motivational character.
Frustration as a Drive.
i. The Brown-Farber Theory:
Brown and Farber (1951) have offered a two-factor explanation of how frustration arises and
of its effects, based on the principles of Hull's (1943) general behaviour theory. The two factors
they invoke are drive (D) and habit (H).
Frustration (F), which they treat as a hypothetical variable, results from the interference with
an ongoing motivated (excitatory) behaviour sequence (E.) by either an inhibitory tendency
(I) (produced by blocking, non-reinforcement [extinction], or a function of work) or a
competing excitatory tendency (E.) ².
Frustration, then, according to this formulation, is both energizing and directional.
It produces an increment to general drive (AD), which is a truly motivational effect. This drive
increase energizes both the ongoing and competing tendencies (indiscriminately).
The directional effect, on the other hand, is a result of frustration-specific stimuli (Sp).
Such stimuli elicit response tendencies, either unlearned (Ur) or previously learned (Hr) in
connection with frustrating states of affairs. Brown and Farber explain it in terms of the drive
and habit concepts of general behaviour theory.
ii. The Amsel Theory:
Amsel (1951, 1958, 1962) has concentrated on non-reward following the development of
reward expectation ("frustrative non-reward") as his model frustration inducing operation.
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Amsel agrees with Brown and Farber that frustration is "a motivational condition contributing
to D and providing directive cues (S)"
However, in addition, Amsel proposes a third factor namely, "a secondary (learned) form of
this primary aversive conditioned [frustration), termed fractional anticipatory frustration ,"
which, he claims, "develops through classical conditioning and is the inhibitory mechanism in
non-reward".

Reactions to Frustration
Four major hypotheses have been proposed with regard to frustration outcome:
i. Frustration-Aggression:
Dollard et al. (1939) defined frustration, in terms of "goal-response interference," a natural
consequence of which, they proposed, was anger and attacking behaviour. The intensity of
the aggression will be related to
(1) the strength of the instigation,
(2) the degree of interference with the frustrated response," and
(3) the frequency with which response sequences are interrupted.
Aggression may be directed toward the frustrating agent, turned against some other object
or person, including the self.
The nature of the aggressive response and of the choice of the object of aggression may both
be understood as resultants of
(a) instigating condition
(b) habitual modes of action
(c) anticipated outcome (e.g., amount of counter aggression)

ii. Frustration-Regression:
Both the life-history oriented psycho analysts and the ahistorical field theorists have proposed
that regression is a likely consequence of frustration.
Freud (1920) placed emphasis on the inevitability of frustrative events in the psychosexual
development of civilized humans, with the combined physical and social pressures to change
requiring the successive establishment and abandonment of levels of psychosexual
adjustment. Where limited development occurs there would be little distance along which to
regress.
But where the individual has moved progressively through the developmental stages to a
relatively mature psychosexual level, the occurrence of traumatic events (insurmountable
obstacles) results in a regression to earlier modes of coping where success was achieved.
Freud refers to these relatively successful earlier stages of development as fixated periods or,
as Mowrer (1940) has suggested, strongly reinforced habits.

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 iii. Frustration-Repression:
Events which are ego-involving or ego-threatening and which occur nevertheless can be
responded to retroactively only by "motivated forgetting" or repression.
Thus Rosenzweig (1943) had college students solve a series of jig-saw puzzles, only half of
which he permitted them to complete. He made half of his subjects "ego-defensive" by
informing them that they were being tested (for intelligence) while the other half ("need-
persistive" group) was told the tasks were being tested. Both groups were then asked to recall
the tasks. Significantly, more of the need-persistive or task-oriented group recalled the finished
tasks, whereas the relation was reversed for the involved group.
The failure of the latter group to recall unfinished tasks is interpreted in terms of protection of
self-integrity via repression of ego-threatening mate.
iv. Frustration-Fixation:
N. R. F. Maier (1949, 1956) has presented a frustration-response theory which claims,
that frustration-instigated behaviour is not motivational, not goal-oriented, and not adaptive.
He thus sets up a dichotomy between motivated (or
directed) behaviour and frustrated behaviour which is fixated or stereotyped, abnormally
resistant to modification, and without a goal.
Maier's basic position is that frustration-instigated behaviour is not more highly motivated, as
most others generally believe. It is, on the contrary, not motivated at all, but, as the subtitle of
Maier's book suggests, "behaviour without a goal." Needless to say, Maier's theory has been
challenged by a number of motivational and learning theorists who do not accept
his dichotomy.

CONFLICT
Conflict occurs between people in all kinds of human relationships and in all social settings.
Because of the wide range of potential differences among people, the absence of conflict
usually signals the absence of meaningful interaction.
Conflict by itself is neither good nor bad. However, the manner in which conflict is handled
determines whether it is constructive or destructive (Deutsch & Coleman, 2000).
It is defined as an incompatibility of goals or values between two or more parties in a
relationship, combined with attempts to control each other and antagonistic feelings toward
each other (Fisher, 1990).
Sources of Conflict
The incompatibility or difference may exist in reality or may only be perceived by the parties
involved. Nonetheless, the opposing actions and the hostile emotions are very real hallmarks
of human conflict. Daniel Katz (1965), distinguishes three main sources of conflict: economic,
value, and power.
 Economic conflict involves competing motives to attain scarce resources. Each party
wants to get the most that it can, and the behavior and emotions of each party are
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 directed toward maximizing its gain. Union and management conflict often has as one
of its sources the incompatible goals of how to slice up the “economic pie”.
 Value conflict involves incompatibility in ways of life, ideologies – the preferences,
principles and practices that people believe in. International conflict (e.g., the Cold
War) often has a strong value component, wherein each side asserts the rightness and
superiority of its way of life and its political-economic system.
 Power conflict occurs when each party wishes to maintain or maximize the amount of
influence that it exerts in the relationship and the social setting. It is impossible for one
party to be stronger without the other being weaker, at least in terms of direct influence
over each other. Thus, a power struggle ensues which usually ends in a victory and
defeat, or in a “stand-off” with a continuing state of tension.
 Another important source of conflict is ineffective communication. Miscommunication
and misunderstanding can create conflict even where there are no basic
incompatibilities.
Levels of Conflict
 Intrapersonal conflict. Intrapersonal conflict is conflict within one person. We often hear
about someone who has an approach-avoidance conflict; that is, she is both attracted
to and repelled by the same object. Similarly, a person can be attracted to two equally
appealing alternatives, such as two good job offers (approach-approach conflict) or
repelled by two equally unpleasant alternatives, such as the threat of being fired if one
fails to identify a co-worker guilty of breaking plant rules (avoidance-avoidance
conflict). In any case, the conflict is within the individual.
 Interpersonal conflict. Conflict can also take form in an interpersonal conflict, where two
individuals disagree on some matter. For example, you can have an argument with a
co-worker over an issue of mutual concern.
Such conflicts often tend to get highly personal because only two parties are involved
and each person embodies the opposing position in the conflict. Hence, it is sometimes
difficult to distinguish between the opponent’s position and her person.
 Role conflict. Involves very real differences in role definitions, expectations or
responsibilities between individuals who are interdependent in a social system.
 Intergroup conflict. Can be found between groups. Intergroup conflict usually involves
disagreements between two opposing forces over goals or the sharing of resources. For
example, we often see conflict between the marketing and production units within a
corporation as each vies for more resources to accomplish its sub goals.
Intergroup conflict is typically the most complicated form of conflict because of the
number of individuals involved. Coalitions form within and between groups, and an “us-
against-them” mentality develops. Here, too, is an opportunity for groupthink to develop
and thrive.
 Multi-party: Conflict occurs in societies when different interest groups and organizations
have varying priorities over resource management and policy development. These

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 complex conflicts typically involve a combination of economic, value and power
sources.
 Interorganizational conflict. Finally, we can see interorganizational conflict in disputes
between two companies in the same industry (for example, a disagreement between
computer manufactures over computer standards), between two companies in
different industries or economic sectors (for example, a conflict between real estate
interests and environmentalists over land use planning), and even between two or more
countries.
(for example, a trade dispute between the United States and Japan or France). In each
case, both parties inevitably feel the pursuit of their goals is being frustrated by the other
party.
 International: conflict occurs between states at the global level. Competition for
resources certainly plays a part, but value and power conflict are often intertwined and
sometimes predominate. The differences are articulated through the channels of
diplomacy in a constant game of give and take, or threat and counterthreat,
sometimes for the highest of stakes.
Types of Conflict
 Goal conflict. Goal conflict can occur when one person or group desires a different
outcome than others do. This is simply a clash over whose goals are going to be pursued.
 Cognitive conflict. Cognitive conflict can result when one person or group holds ideas
or opinions that are inconsistent with those of others. This type of conflict is evident in
political debates.
 Affective conflict. This type of conflict emerges when one person’s or group’s feelings
or emotions (attitudes) are incompatible with those of others. Affective conflict is seen
in situations where two individuals simply don’t get along with each other.
 Behavioural conflict. Behavioural conflict exists when one person or group does
something (i.e., behaves in a certain way) that is unacceptable to others. Dressing for
work in a way that “offends” others and using profane language are examples of
behavioural conflict.
Methods of Conflict Resolution
 The win-lose approach is all too common. People learn the behaviors of destructive
conflict early in life – competition, dominance, aggression and defense permeate many
of our social relationships from the family to the school playground. The “fixed pie”
assumption is made, often incorrectly, that what one party gains, the other loses.
 The lose-lose strategy is exemplified by smoothing over conflict or by reaching the
simplest of compromises. In neither case is the creative potential of productive conflict
resolution realized or explored.
 The win-win approach is a conscious and systematic attempt to maximize the goals of
both parties through collaborative problem solving. The conflict is seen as a problem to
be solved rather than a war to be won. The important distinction is we (both parties)
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 versus the problem, rather than we (one party) versus they (the other party). This method
focuses on the needs and constraints of both parties rather than emphasizing strategies
designed to conquer.

STRESS
According to Shalev (2009) When we experience or perceive challenges to our physical or
emotional well-being that exceed our coping resources and abilities, the psychological
condition that results is typically referred to as stress.
Stress is our response to events that disrupt, or threaten to disrupt, our physical or psychological
functioning (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984; Taylor, 1999). Unfortunately, stress is a common part of
life as we begin the new millennium-something few of us can avoid altogether. Partly for this
reason, and partly because it seems to exert negative effects on both physical health and
psychological well-being, stress has become an important topic in psychology. Stress can be
described as a circumstance that disturbs, or is likely to disturb, the normal physiological or
psychological functioning of a person.
Stressors: Events or situations in our environment that cause stress.
Systemic Stress
Walter Cannon (1871– 1945) conducted the first systematic study of the relation of stress to
disease.
He demonstrated that stimulation of the autonomic nervous system, particularly the
sympathetic system, readied the organism for the “fight-or-flight” response characterized by
hypertension, tachycardia, and increased cardiac output.
This was useful in the animal who could fight or flee; but in the person who could do neither by
virtue of being civilized, the ensuing stress resulted in disease (e.g., produced a cardiovascular
disorder).
General Adaptation Syndrome
When exposed to stressors, we generally experience many physiological reactions. Initially,
your blood pressure soars, your pulse races, and you may even begin to sweat. These are part
of a general of reactions referred to as the fight-or-flight syndrome, a process controlled
through the sympathetic nervous pattern system.
The sympathetic nervous system prepares our bodies for immediate action. Usually these
responses are brief, and we soon return to normal levels. When we are exposed to chronic
sources of stress, however, this reaction is only the first in a longer sequence of responses
activated by our efforts to adapt to a stressor.
This sequence, termed by Hans Selye (1976) the general adaptation syndrome (GAS), consists
of three stages. The first is the alarm stage, in which the body prepares itself for immediate
action; arousal of theHans Selye (1907–1982) developed a model of stress that he called the
general adaptation syndrome. It consisted of three phases:

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(1) Alarm: a nonspecific mobilization phase that promotes sympathetic nervous system activity
(2) Resistance: during which the organism makes efforts to cope
(3) Exhaustion: which and occurs if the organism fails to overcome the threat and depletes its
coping resources.
He considered stress a nonspecific bodily response to any demand caused by either pleasant
or unpleasant conditions. Selye believed that stress, by definition, need not always be
unpleasant. He called unpleasant stress distress. Accepting both types of stress require
adaptation.
Psychological stress
According to Lazarus and Folkman (1984) Psychological stress is defined as “a particular
relationship between the person and the environment that is appraised by the person as
taxing or exceeding his or her resources and endangering his or her well-being”.
Psychological stresses are caused by Chronic illness or injury, emotional problems (depression,
anxiety, anger, grief, guilt, low self-esteem) , traumatic event, such as a natural disaster, theft,
rape, or violence against you or a loved one.

Stress tolerance
Prior stressful experiences may sensitize us biologically, making us more reactive to later stressful
experiences. The term stress tolerance refers to a person’s ability to withstand stress without
becoming seriously impaired.
Resilience
After experiencing a potentially traumatic event, some people function well and experience
very few symptoms in the following weeks and months. This kind of healthy psychological and
physical functioning after a potentially traumatic event is called resilience
Conditions giving rise to Psychological Stress
(1) the severity of the stressor
(2) its chronicity (i.e., how long it lasts)

(3) its timing

(4) how closely it affects our own lives

(5) how expected it is, and

(6) how controllable it is.

Nature & psychological response

The sympathetic-adrenomedullary (SAM) system is designed to mobilize resources and
prepare for a fight-or-flight response.
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The stress response begins in the hypothalamus, which stimulates the sympathetic nervous
system (SNS). This, in turn, causes the inner portion of the adrenal glands (the adrenal medulla)
to secrete adrenaline (epinephrine) and noradrenaline (norepinephrine).
As these circulate through the blood, they cause an increase in heart rate (familiar to all of
us). They also get the body to metabolize glucose more rapidly. The second system involved
in the stress response is called the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) system
(In addition to stimulating the SNS, the hypothalamus releases a hormone called
“corticotrophin-releasing hormone” (or CRH). Traveling in the blood, this hormone stimulates
the pituitary gland. The pituitary then secretes adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH).
This induces the adrenal cortex (the outer portion of the adrenal gland) to produce the stress
hormones called glucocorticoids.
In humans, the stress glucocorticoid that is produced is called Cortisol.
Cortisol is a good hormone to have around in an emergency. It prepares the body for fight or
flight. It also inhibits the innate immune response. This means that if an injury does occur, the
body’s inflammatory response to it is delayed. In other words, escape has priority over healing,
and tissue repair is secondary to staying alive. This obviously has survival value if you need to
run away from a lion that has just mauled you.
It also explains why cortisone injections are sometimes used to reduce inflammation in
damaged joints.
But there is also a downside to cortisol. If the cortisol response is not shut off, cortisol can
damage brain cells, especially in the hippocampus
At a very fundamental level, stress is bad for your brain. It may even stunt growth (babies who
are stressed don’t gain weight in the normal way and “fail to thrive”).
Accordingly, the brain has receptors to detect cortisol. When these are activated, they send
a feedback message that is designed to dampen the activity of the glands involved in the
stress response.
But if the stressor remains, the HPA axis stays active and cortisol release continues. Although
short-term cortisol production is highly adaptive, a chronically overactive HPA axis, with high
levels of circulating cortisol, may be problematic.
Perception of stress on motivation.
While heightened stress can feel overwhelming and decrease motivation, a little bit can go a
long way when it comes to kickstarting your work. “Medium levels of stress can enhance our
motivation,” Gunthert says.
For example, the stress of a deadline can help people focus and pay more attention because
time is running out. “We have all had the experience saying, ‘oh I’ve got to get such and such
done’
But not being able to find the motivation to do it until we are stressed because it is due the
next day and all of a sudden, the motivation is there,” she says. “That fight or flight response
can kick us into gear sometimes.”
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Perception of boredom on motivation
Boredom can act as an emotion, a drive, state of mind and numerous other constructs which
may be both state (environmental) and trait (internal) based in nature. Everyone experiences
boredom differently.
Most of us know what being bored feels like, or experience stimuli that may be ‘boring’ us to
sleep and some people are more susceptible to becoming bored.
Boredom interferes with many of our behavioral, cognitive and physiological constructs, often
to the detriment of the individual.
In the context of motivation, boredom may have an even larger effect. Being motivated
requires a number of processes not limited to attention, well-being, satisfaction and reward.
Individuals who are more prone to boredom find it harder to focus and attend to stimuli in their
environments.
People who are prone to boredom are also more likely to gamble, form a drug addiction, find
their job dis-satisfactory and have poorer interpersonal relationships. In schools, students who
have little motivation and attention due to boredom are more likely to dropout of schooling.
Although boredom is mostly seen as negative, recent evidence supports its necessity in our
daily lives, particularly for goal setting.
Perception of well-being on motivation
The work of Ryan and Deci 2000 has shown that how we are motivated has significant
implications for our wellbeing and the outcome of our work.
According to Self-Determination Theory Ryan & Deci, (1985) the two main types of motivation
are extrinsic and intrinsic. While we all tend to use both types of motivation, the balance we
strike can be important for our success and health.
When an individual is extrinsically motivated their behavior is usually externally driven. These
external drivers may be money, grades, praise, titles or even fame.
This type of motivation can have a role to play in helping you to achieve goals. However,
extrinsic motivation has also been shown to be less effective in ensuring someone completes
a challenging task and may even actively undermine the likelihood of completing it.
In contrast, intrinsic motivation is internally driven by an individual interest, passion for or
enjoyment in doing something. An intrinsically driven individual will be working towards their
own personal goals and achievements and will gain internal meaning and purpose from the
task.

SELF-REGULATION
Self-regulation is the process by which we seek to control or alter our thoughts, feelings,
behaviors and urges in order to live an accepted social life.

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The capacity of self – regulation, being able to control our thoughts, feelings and actions to
our own benefit or to accord with existing social norms, is crucial to how we function in our
work, our leisure and our relationship.
From lifting ourselves out of bed in the early morning to dieting, running the extra mile, limiting
how much we drink at a party, practicing safe sex, smiling politely at people we really don’t
like and working when we have more fun things to do, the exercise of self-control is we do all
the time.
Carver & Scheier (1998,2011) argue that self – awareness is necessary for self-regulation: in
other words, we ask ourselves whether what we are doing or how we are reacting will serve
our own needs and desires.
They developed a feedback loop model known by the acronym TOTE: test, operate, test and
exist.
According to this model, we ask first whether our actions will meet the standards that exist or
that we set for ourselves, then we test again to see what the consequences of our actions
were, then we either use that feedback to change our reaction or we can exit, knowing that
our reactions were appropriate. For instances, imagine that you are driving on a free-way,
looking for your appropriate turn off, you can schematize the process in the following:
 Test - is this turnoff that you’re looking for? No
 Operate – Keep driving
 Test – is this correct turn off? No
 Operate – Keep driving
 Test – is this turn off? Yes
 Exist
In short, self-regulation involves monitoring our actions and reactions in terms of their
anticipated and actual consequences, and then changing in order to better achieve what
we want to achieve.
Given that the capacity for self-regulation has crucial implications for how well we function,
especially as social beings who must relate to others, it would likely follow that our brain have
evolved in a way to make this possible.
Heatherton (2011) identifies important psychological components that serve to enable us to
remain socially connected, and that are consistent with TOTE model. Firstly, we must have
some kind of awareness of what we are doing, at least to be able to evaluate it.
Second, we must also be able to understand that others are reacting or will react to our
actions and reactions so as to be able to form some kind of expectancies of other’s reaction.
Third, we must be able to detect any kind of threat to our well-being, such as people reacting
negatively to us and rejecting or ignoring us.
Finally, we must able to do something constructive to rectify the situation, such as establishing
or reestablishing good relations to other affected by our actions. This means being able to
control our impulses, restrain acting on how we may be feeling, and even avoid thinking nasty
thoughts.

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Aspects of Self-Regulation
 Behavioural Self-Regulation – ability to act in your long- term best Interest, consistent with
your deepest values. It is what allows us to Feel one way but act another.
 Emotional Self-Regulation – It is the influence or control over your Emotions.
Self-Regulation Theory
According to Roy Baumeister, there are four components involved
(1) Standards of desirable behavior
(2) Motivation to meet standards
(3) Monitoring of situations and thoughts that precede breaking standards
(4) Will power allowing one’s Internal strength to control urges
Psychology of Self-Regulation
 Monitor our own behaviour, the inferences on our behaviour, and the consequences of
our behaviour.
 Judge our behaviour in relation to our own personal standards and broader more
contextual standards.
 React to our own behaviour
Self-Regulation In Learning
It refers to the process a student engages and take responsibility for his or her own learning
applies to academic success
1. Planning – plan their task, set goals, outlines to tackle the task, create schedule for the
task
2. Monitoring – puts their plans into action, closely monitor their performance and their
experience with the method they chose.
3. Reflection - After the task is complete and the results are in, the students reflect on how
well they did and why they performed the way they did.
Self-Regulation in ADHD and Autism
 One of the hallmarks of ADHD and ASD is a limited ability to focus and regulate one’s
attention.
 Difficulty with emotional self-regulation
 Trouble for identify their emotions.
 Even if they are able to identify their emotions, they generally have trouble modulating
or regulating their emotions
 Effective methods for improving self-regulation in ADHD and ASD is unfortunately not as
well known
Self-Regulation and Stress
Three dimensions of subjective stress state
 Task disengagement(tiredness, boredom, loss of concentration)
 Distress (negative mood, lack of control)
 Worry(self-focus, loss of self –esteem, cognitive interference)
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Three stress state dimensions may represent different modes of self-regulation
 Task engagement indexes an orientation toward achieving personal goals through task
directed attention and effort.
 Distress represents attempts to minimize the damage caused by demands that a person
cannot meet successfully.
 Worry reflects states in which self – evaluation takes precedence over task demands
Self-Regulation versus Self Control
They are similar concepts and they deal with some of the same processes. However, they are
two distinct constructs.
 Self-regulation is about reducing the frequency and intensity of strong impulses by
managing stress-load and recovery. It is more automatic and subconscious
process(unless the individual determines to purposefully monitor or alter his or her self-
regulation
 Self-control is about inhibiting strong impulses. It is a set of active and purposeful
decisions and behaviours.
Self-Regulation Strategies
 Self-Monitoring – Keeping track of one’s progress and recording the results. Provides
more immediate feedback to students than is possible when teachers evaluate the
behavior. Clearly depicts improvement over time. Engage students. Increases students’
awareness of their own behavior.
 Self-Instruction –Talking one’s self through a task or activity (also known as self-
talk).Students can create encouraging or guiding statements for different types of
situations.

(a) Starting or working through a task or problem

(b) Coping with a difficult situation
(c) Self-evaluating
(d) Rewarding oneself

 Goal Setting – Establishing achievable objects for learning . It helps the students
understand what they are striving for.

(a) Identify appropriate goals

(b) Develop plans for meeting goals and monitoring progress
(c) Implement the plans
(d) Self-monitor progress toward meeting the goal
(e) Revise the goals when needed

 Self-Reinforcement – Rewarding one’s self after completing a task. After completing a

task or achieving a goal, students can reward themselves with reinforcers that are
(a) Tangible
(b) Social
(c) Activity-related

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 Intervention to improve Motivation
Self-regulation is entwined with motivation. It is one of core components of self-regulation that
one factor that determines how well we are able to regulate our emotions and behaviors.
An individual’s level of motivation to succeed in his endeavors is directly related to his
performance.
Even if he has the best of intentions, well-laid plans, and extraordinary willpower, he will likely
fail if he is not motivated to regulate his behavior and avoid the temptation to slack off.
The more motivated we are to achieve our goals, the more capable we are to strive toward
them. This impacts our well-being by filling us with a sense of purpose, competence, and self-
esteem, especially when we are able to meet our goals.
Concept of Flow
Flow, is also known as Zone, is the mental state of operation in which a person performing an
activity is fully immersed in a feeling of energized focus. Fully involvement and enjoyment in
the process of the activity.
In flow, the emotions are not just contained and channeled, but positive, energized, and
aligned with the task at hand. Flow can happen for any activity that you can practice at your
own cutting edge of mastery and challenge. It rarely happens when people are watching
television or just hanging out.
Csikszentmihalyi hypothesized that people with several very specific personality traits may be
better able to achieve flow more often than the average person. These personality traits
include curiosity, persistence, low – self-centeredness, and a high rate of performing activities
for intrinsic reasons only.
People with most of the personality traits are said to have an ‘‘autotelic personality”. Some
people are more prone to experience flow than others.
Factors Determining Flow
The challenge level matches the skill level.
A high challenge with low skill produces anxiety but with high skill might produce FLOW if other
conditions are optimal
Conditions for Flow
 Clear goals that, while challenging, are still attainable.
 Strong concentration and focused attention
 The activity is intrinsically regarding
 Feelings of serenity- a loss of feelings of self – consciousness
 Timelessness –a disorted sense of time, feeling so focused on the Present that you lose
track of time passing.
 Immediate feedback

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  Knowing that the task is doable, a balance between skill level and the Challenge
presented
 Feelings of personal control over the situation and the outcome.
 Lack of awareness of physical needs

Flow as a route to Well Being

 Exercising Control – one of the fundamental building blocks of well-being is autonomy,
being in control of your own life and make your own decisions and choices about what
to do or not to do.
 Freedom from negative thoughts – Flow seems more aligned with the concept of
mindfulness because it requires you to be able to direct your attention at will to the task
in hand.
 Developing Mastery – challenge of the task slightly outweighs the level of skill,
experiencing flow can lead to mastery.
 Building Confidence - confidence that naturally occurs as a result of becoming more
skilled and more competent at a task.
 Facilitating personal growth and connection with others - Facilitate two contrasting
psychological processes that enable the self to become more complex.

Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi’s studies

He divides the teenagers in to two categories. Low flow teens and high flow teens. Teenagers
who spent a lot of time watching television and hanging out at the mall – low flow teens. Teens
who spent most of their time on hobbies, sports and homework. The high flow teens did better
on every measure of well-being things like self – esteem and engagement except for one.
Application of Flow
 Flow in education – Csikszentmihalyi has suggested that over learning a skill or concept
can help people experience flow.
 Flow in sports – Engaging in a challenging athletic activity that is doable but present a
slight stretching of one’s abilities is a good way to achieve flow
 Flow in workplace – workers are engaged in tasks where they are able to focus entirely
on the project at hand.

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