SIGNAL ANALYSIS USING FOURIER

SERIES AND FOURIER ANALYSIS

Project Report
submitted for the partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Master of Science
in
Physics
by

• Yasir-Bin-Shakeel Lone(20069120047)
• Syed azhar zahoor (20069120053)
• Mohammad ashraf najar (20069120022)

Under the supervision of

Dr.Ghulam Nabi Dar

(Assistant Professor)

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
UNIVERSITY OF KASHMIR, SRINAGAR - 190006

Copyright ©UOK, Srinagar

All Rights Reserved
 Department of Physcis
University of Kashmir, Srinagar,
India - 190006

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project report entitled “signal analysis using fourier
series and fourier transform” sub-mitted by Yasir Bin Shakeel, Syed
azhar zahoor and Mohmmad ashraf najar the M.Sc students of
Department of Physics, is the bonafide project-work carried out by the said
students in partial fulfillment for the award of degree of Masters in Physics.
We hereby accord our approval of it as a study carried out and presented in
a manner required for its ac-ceptance in partial fulfillment for the M.Sc degree
for which it has been submitted. The report has fulfilled all the requirements as
per the regulations of the institute and has reached the standard needed for
submission.
..................... .....................
Head of Department Supervisor
Prof. Basharat Ahmad Want, Dr. Ghulam Nabi Dar
Dept. of Physcis., Dept. of Physics,
UoK, Srinagar. UoK, Srinagar.

Examiners:
1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Place: Srinagar
3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Date:. . . . . . . . .

ii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

An aim can be achieved only when Almighty is kind enough to bless with a perfect
guide.
First of all, we would like to express our sincere and deep gratitude to our super-
visor, Dr.Ghulam Nabi Dar Department of Physics, for his kind and support during
our post-graduation study. It has been an absolute privilege to work with
Dr.Ghulam Nabi Dar Lone for our project work. His valuable advice, critical
criticism and active supervision encouraged us to sharpen our research methodology
and was instrumental in shaping our professional outlook.
Sincere thanks to Prof. Basharat Ahmad Want, professor and Head, Dept.
of Physics, and entire faculty for their contribution in our understanding of physics
and providing us a wonderful work environment filled with continuous encouragement
and support.
The present work would not have been possible without the affection, encourage-
ment and best wishes of our parents, who have helped us during the entire period.

.............................................
Yasir bin shakeel lone
Syed azhar zahoor
Mohmmad ashraf najar
University of Kashmir, Srinagar
23-nov-2022

iii
Contents

1 Fourier Series 3
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.1 Dirichlet conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.2 complex form of fourier series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1.3 Essence of Fourier series representation of a signal/function 4
1.2 Aplications of Fourier series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

2 Fourier transform 9
2.1 Definition of Fourier Transforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2 Dirichlet conditions for Fourier transform. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.3 Some examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

3 BREIF INTRODUCTION TO SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS 13

3.1 DEFINITION OF A SIGNAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.2 Classification of signals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.3 BASIC CONTINUOUS-TIME SIGNALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.3.1 The unit step fuction: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.3.2 The Unit Impulse Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.3.3 Sinusoidal signals: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.4 BASIC DISCRETE-TIME SIGNALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.4.1 The unit step sequence: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.4.2 The Unit Impulse Sequence: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

4 Applications of Fourier Transform in Signal Processing 21

4.1 Filtering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.1.1 The concept of filtering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.1.2 The ideal high-pass filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.1.3 The ideal band-pass filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.1.4 The ideal band-stop filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.2 Application of Fourier Transform in Modulation and Demodula-
tion Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.2.1 Modulation and demodulation principle . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.3 Application of Fourier Transform in Sampling Technique . . . . . 23

1
2 CONTENTS

4.3.1 Ideal sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

Chapter 1

Fourier Series

1.1 Introduction
A Fourier series is defined as an expansion of a periodic function or representa-
tion of a function in a series of sines and cosines, such as
∞ ∞
a0 X X
f (x) = + an cos nx + bn sin nx (1.1)
2 n=1 n=1

the coefficients an ,bn and a0 are related to f(x) by definite integrals:

ˆ 2π
1
an = f (x) cos ns ds, n = 0, 1, 2, . . . (1.2)
π 0
ˆ 2π
1
bn = f (x) sin ns ds, n = 1, 2, 3, . . . (1.3)
π 0
subject to condition that these integrals exist.

1.1.1 Dirichlet conditions

These are the conditions imposed on the f(x) to make (1.1) valid.

The function f(x) 1 for given interval :

1. is single-valued and bounded in the interval [0, 2π].
2. has finite number of discontinuities.
3. has finite number of extreme values.

1 These functions are called piecewise regular

3
4 CHAPTER 1. FOURIER SERIES

1.1.2 complex form of fourier series

Let the function f(x) be defined on the interval [−π, π] Using the well-known
Euler’s formulas
einx + e−inx einx − e−inx
cos x = , sin x = (1.4)
2 2

we can write (1.1) as

∞
X
f (x) = cn einx , (1.5)
n=−∞
where
1 1
cn = (an + ibn ), c−n = (an + ibn ) n > 0
2 2 (1.6)
1
c0 = a0
2
The cofficients are called complex fourier coefficients. they are defined by the
forulla
ˆ π
1
cn = f (x)e−inx dx, n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . (1.7)
2 −π

1.1.3 Essence of Fourier series representation of a sig-

nal/function
Consider a periodic signal x(t), with fundamental frequency 2π that is expressed
as
X+3
x(t) = ak eik2πt
k=−3
where
a0 = 1
1
a1 = a−1 =
4
1
a2 = a−2 =
2
1
a3 = a−3 =
3
Using Euler’s relation,we can write this as
1 2
x(t) = 1 +cos 2πt + cos 4πt + cos 6πt
2 3
Now here is a graphical illustration representation which shows how
x() is built up from its harmonic components.
1.1. INTRODUCTION 5

Figure 1.1: Construction of the signal x(t) in above Example as a linear combi-
nation of harmonically related sinusoidal signals.
6 CHAPTER 1. FOURIER SERIES

1.2 Aplications of Fourier series

Square Wave

Figure 1.2: square wave.

One application of Fourier series, the analysis of a “square” wave 1.2 in terms of
its Fourier components, occurs in electronic circuits designed to handle sharply
rising pulses.
Suppose that our wave is defined by

f (x) = 0, −π, x, 0
(1.8)
f (x) = h, 0, x, π
the resulting series is

 
h 2h sin x sin 3x sin 5x
f (x) = + + + + ... (1.9)
2 π 1 3 5
1.2. APLICATIONS OF FOURIER SERIES 7

Although only the odd terms in the sine series occur, they fall only as n−1 .Physically
this means that our square wave contains a lot of high-frequency compo-
nents.
8 CHAPTER 1. FOURIER SERIES
Chapter 2

Fourier transform

The main drawback of Fourier series is, it is only applicable to periodic signals.
There are some naturally produced signals such as non-periodic or aperiodic,
which we cannot represent using Fourier series. To overcome this shortcoming,
Fourier developed a mathematical model to transform signals between time
(or spatial) domain to frequency domain & vice versa, which is called ’Fourier
transform’.
Fourier transform has many applications in physics and engineering such as
analysis of LTI systems, RADAR, astronomy, signal processing etc.

Inspiration behind Fourier transform of aperiodic

functions.
The basic approach is to construct a periodic signal from the aperiodic one by
periodically replicating it, that is, by adding it to itself shifted by integer mul-
tiples of an assumed period To. As is increased indefinitely, the periodic signal
then approaches or represents in some sense the The basic approach is to con-
struct a periodic signal from the aperiodic one by periodically replicating it, that
is, by adding it to itself shifted by integer multiples of an assumed period To . As
To is increased indefinitely, the periodic signal then approaches or represents in
some sense the aperiodic one. Correspondingly, since the periodic signal can be
represented through a Fourier series, this Fourier series representation as goes
To infinity can be considered to be a representation as a linear combination of
complex exponentials of the aperiodic signal. The resulting synthesis equation
and the corresponding analysis equation are referred to as the inverse Fourier
transform and the Fourier transform respectively..

9
10 CHAPTER 2. FOURIER TRANSFORM

Figure 2.1: Aperiodic signal/fuction x(t)

In order to have fourier decomposition of this non periodic function,we have to

repeat this signal over intervals of period T

Figure 2.2: Periodic signal x̃(t), constructed to be equal to x(t) over one period.

Now we can get the fourier representation of this new periodic fuction x̃(t).after
that as we choose period T be larger, x̃(t) is identical to x(t) over a longer
interval, and as T → ∞, x̃(t) is now equal to x(t) for any finite value of t.

2.1 Definition of Fourier Transforms

ˆ ∞
1
f (t) = g(ω)eiωt dω (2.1)
2π −∞
ˆ ∞
g(ω) = f (t)e−iωt dt (2.2)
−∞

The equation(2.1) is known as synthesis equation and equation(2.2) is called its

analysis equation. The two functions f(t) and g(ω) are called a pair of Fourier
transforms. Usually, g(ω) is called the Fourier transform of f(t), and f(t) is
called the inverse Fourier transform of g(ω), but since the two integrals differ
in form only in the sign in the exponent, it is rather common simply to call
either a Fourier transform of the other.
2.2. DIRICHLET CONDITIONS FOR FOURIER TRANSFORM. 11

2.2 Dirichlet conditions for Fourier transform.

1. x(t) be absolutely integrable ; that is,
ˆ ∞
|x(t)| dt < ∞
−∞

2. x(t) have a finite number of maxima and minimas within any finite inter-
val.
3. x(t) have a finite number of discontinuities within any finite interval. Fur-
thermore, each of these discontinuities must be finite.
Therefore, absolutely integrable signals that are continuous or that have a finite
number of discontinuities have Fourier transforms.

2.3 Some examples

Example 1
consider the signal
f (t) = e−at u(t), if a > 0
where, u(t) is a step fuction. From eq.(2.2),
∞

ˆ

∞ −(a+iω)t
1
e−at e−iωt dt = −

g(ω) = e 0

0 a + iω

That is,
q ′
g(ω) = a>0
a = iω

Since the Fourier transform is a complex valued, to plot it as a fuction of ω, we

express g(ω) in terma of its magnitude and phase:
1 ω
|g(ω)| = √ , Θ(g(ω)) = − tan−1 .
a + ω2
2 a

Each of these components is sketched in figure below: [h]

12 CHAPTER 2. FOURIER TRANSFORM

Figure 2.3: —g(ω)—

Figure 2.4: Θ(g(ω)

Chapter 3

BREIF INTRODUCTION TO
SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS

3.1 DEFINITION OF A SIGNAL

A signal is a function representing a physical quantity or variable, and typically it contains information
about the behavior or nature of the phenomenon. For instance, in a RC circuit the signal may represent
the voltage across the capac-itor or the current flowing in the resistor.
Mathematically, a signal is represented as a function of an independent vari-able t. Usually t
represents time. Thus, a signal is denoted by x(t).

Example: voice signal, video signal, signals on telephone wires etc.

Figure 3.1: A Signal

13
14 CHAPTER 3. BREIF INTRODUCTION TO SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS

3.2 Classification of signals.

• Continuous-time and Discrete-time Signals: A signal x(t) is a continuous-
time signal if t is a continuous variable. If t is a discrete variable, that is,
x(t) is defined at discrete times, then x(t) is a discrete-time signal. Since
a discrete-time signal is defined at discrete times, a discrete-time signal
is often identified as a sequence of numbers, denoted by {xn } or x[n],
where n = integer. Illustrations of a continuous-time signal x(t) and of a
discrete-time signal x[n] are shown in Fig.3.2

Figure 3.2: Graphical representation of (a) continuous-time and (b) discrete-

time signals.

• Analog and Digital signals: If a continuous-time signal x(t) can take

on any value in the continuous interval (a, b), where a may be −∞ and
b may be +∞, then the continuous-time signal x(t) is called an analog
signal. If a discrete-time signal x[n] can take on only a finite number of
distinct values, then we call this signal a digital signal.

• Even and odd Signals: A signal x() or x[] is reffered as an odd signal if

x(−t) = x(t)
x[−n] = x[n]

A singnal x() or x[] is reffered as an odd sognal if

x(−t) = −x(t)
x[−n] = −x[n]

• Periodic and Non-periodic Signals: A continuous-time signal x() is

said to be periodic with period T if there is a positive nonzero value of T
3.2. CLASSIFICATION OF SIGNALS. 15

Figure 3.3: Examples of even signals (a and b) and odd signals (c and d).

for which

x(t + T ) = x(t) all t (3.1)

An example of such a signal is given in Fig.From equation (3.1) it follows
that

x(t + T ) = x(t) (3.2)

for all t and any integer m.The fundamental period T0 of x(t) is the smallest
positive value of T for which Eq.(3.1) holds.
16 CHAPTER 3. BREIF INTRODUCTION TO SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS

Figure 3.4: Examples of periodic signals.

3.3 BASIC CONTINUOUS-TIME SIGNALS

3.3.1 The unit step fuction:
The unit step fuction u(t), also known as th Heaciside unit fuction, is defined
as (
1 t > to
u(t) = (3.3)
0 t < to

Figure 3.5: Unit step fuction

3.3. BASIC CONTINUOUS-TIME SIGNALS 17

3.3.2 The Unit Impulse Function

The unit impulse function δ(t), also known as Dirac delta fuction,plays a central
role in signal analysis.It is define as:
(
1 t = to
δ(t) = (3.4)
0 t ̸= to

Figure 3.6: The unit impulse function

3.3.3 Sinusoidal signals:

x(t) = A cos(ω0 t + θ) (3.5)
where A is amplitude, ω0 is radian frequency in radians per second, and θ is the
phase angle in radians.

It is periodic with fundamental period

2π
T0 = (3.6)
ω0
18 CHAPTER 3. BREIF INTRODUCTION TO SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS

The reciprocal of the fundamental frequency f0 :

1
f0 = hertz(Hz) (3.7)
T0
and
ω0 = 2πf0 (3.8)
which is called fundamental angular frequency.

Figure 3.7: sinusoidal signal

3.4. BASIC DISCRETE-TIME SIGNALS 19

3.4 BASIC DISCRETE-TIME SIGNALS

3.4.1 The unit step sequence:
the unit step sequnce u[n] is define as
(
1 n≥0
u[n] = (3.9)
0 n<0

which is shown here:

Figure 3.8: Unit step sequence

3.4.2 The Unit Impulse Sequence:

(
1 n=0
δ[n] = (3.10)
0 n ̸= 0
20 CHAPTER 3. BREIF INTRODUCTION TO SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS

Figure 3.9: Unit Impulse sequence

Chapter 4

Applications of Fourier
Transform in Signal Processing

4.1 Filtering

4.1.1 The concept of filtering

The use of circuit capacities reactance or resistance with the frequency of the
characteristics of the different frequency of the input signal to produce a different
response to the need for a certain frequency of the signal through the smooth,
and inhibit the unwanted other frequency signals, this process is Filtering, the
system that implements this process is called a filter.

4.1.2 The ideal high-pass filter

The ideal high-pass filter corresponds to the ideal low-pass filter, which means
that the signal above a certain frequency is passed without distortion and the
signal below this frequency is completely suppressed.

4.1.3 The ideal band-pass filter

The ideal bandpass filter is a filter that allows a particular band of signal waves
to be shielded by other bands at the same time.

21
22CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS OF FOURIER TRANSFORM IN SIGNAL PROCESSING

4.1.4 The ideal band-stop filter

The ideal band-stop filter corresponds to the ideal band-pass filter, which refers
to a filter that attenuates or suppresses a signal within a certain frequency range
and allows a signal outside the frquency range to pass.

4.2 Application of Fourier Transform in Modu-

lation and Demodulation Technology
In many engineering problems, the concept of modulation and demodulation
plays a very important role, and has a wide range of applications. The so-called
modulation is to use a signal to control a signal of another parameter, resulting
in modulated signal, its essence is to move the spectrum of various signals, so
that they do not overlap each other to occupy a different frequency range. In
almost all real communication systems, the signal from the transmitter to the
receiver, in order to achieve effective, reliable and long-distance signal transmis-
sion, need to be modulated and demodulated. Such as wireless communication.
The modulation process moves the spectrum of the signal to any desired higher
frequency range, which is easily radiated in the form of electromagnetic waves.

The purpose of modulation is to convert the analog or digital signal to be

transmitted into a signal suitable for channel transmission, which means that
the baseband signal (source) is converted into a very high frequency signal with
respect to the baseband frequency. This signal is called a modulated signal, and
the baseband signal is called a modulated signal. Modulation can be achieved by
changing the amplitude, phase, or frequency of the carrier by changing the high
frequency carrier as the signal amplitude changes. The modulation process is
used for the originating of the communication system. At the receiving end, the
modulated signal is reduced to the original signal to be transmitted, that is, the
process of extracting and understanding the baseband signal from the carrier
for the intended recipient (sink) processing and understanding. The process is
called demodulation.

On the other hand, if the transmitted signal is not radiated directly without
modulation, the frequency of the signals sent by the stations will be the same,
and they will be mixed together and the recipient will not be able to select
the signal to be accepted. Demodulation is the opposite process, that is, from
the modulated signal to restore the original signal, the essence is to move the
spectrum of various signals, so that they do not overlap each other to occupy a
different frequency range, that is, the signal is attached to different frequencies
Carrier, the receiver can be separated from the required frequency of the signal,
do not interfere with each other.
4.3. APPLICATION OF FOURIER TRANSFORM IN SAMPLING TECHNIQUE23

4.2.1 Modulation and demodulation principle

In the radio technology, a parameter (amplitude, frequency, phase) of a high
frequency electrical oscillation (current, voltage) called a carrier is changed in
accordance with the characteristic change of the signal to be transmitted. Low-
frequency signal (that is, the signal to be transmitted) is low in radiation effi-
ciency and can not be used directly for transmission. The purpose of modulation
is to transmit low-frequency signals by means of high-frequency electrical oscilla-
tion. Different low-frequency signals can be simultaneously carried on different
frequencies of high-frequency electrical oscillations at the same time, so that
you can make full use of the radio spectrum while transmitting many broadcast
signals, and they will not interfere with each other. According to the charac-
teristics of the amplitude, frequency or phase of the high frequency carrier with
the low frequency signal, the modulation is divided into amplitude modulation,
FM or phase modulation. In addition, if the signal is used to modulate the
parameters of the pulse train (pulse amplitude, pulse width or pulse position,
etc.), then this set of modulated pulse sequence to modulate a high-frequency
sine wave carrier, this modulation is called pulse modulation.

The Demodulation is the reverse of modulation, which refers to the process of

restoring a modulated signal to an original signal. The demodulation methods
currently used are coherently demodulated and non-coherently demodulated.
These methods can effectively demodulate all the characteristics (amplitude,
frequency, initial phase) of the modulated signal.

4.3 Application of Fourier Transform in Sam-

pling Technique
The rapid development of digital electronic technology, especially the computer
in automatic control, automatic detection and many other areas of the extensive
application, making the use of digital technology to deal with analog signals is
also more common. In the communication system, the use of existing digital
technology to deal with analog signals, not only can make analog signal trans-
mission more simplified, but also to ensure the accuracy of transmission. The
use of digital technology to deal with analog signals, the first digital signal will
be digital. The analog signal can be digitized using sampling.
By Fourier transform, it can be seen that under certain conditions a continu-
24CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS OF FOURIER TRANSFORM IN SIGNAL PROCESSING

ous time signal or discrete sequence can be uniquely represented by its equally
spaced sample values, which are complete and sufficient. In other words, this
set of equally spaced sample values contains all the information of the original
signal or sequence, and the original signal can be fully recovered from this set
of sample values.

4.3.1 Ideal sampling

In general, without any additional conditions, it can not be expected that a
continuous function can uniquely characterize its set of equally spaced sample
values because there are infinite number of signals at a given interval Produce
a set of identical samples. However, if it is a finite continuous time signal and
the sample is sufficiently dense, then the signal can uniquely be characterized
by its sample value, and the original signal can be completely recovered from
these sample values.
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26