DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF A HOUSEHOLD RAIN

WATER ENERGY HARVESTING SYSTEM

KORONDO HANSEL
Matriculation Number: FE18A141
Academic Year: 2021/2022

Dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the Requirements for the award of Bachelor of
Engineering (B.Eng.) Degree in Electrical and Electronic Engineering.

Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering Faculty of Engineering and

Technology University of Buea.

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 Certificate of Originality
We the undersigned, hereby certify that this dissertation entitled DESIGN AND
IMPLEMENTATION OF A HOUSEHOLD RAIN WATER ENERGY HARVESTING
SYSTEM presented by KORONDO HANSEL ABA, Matriculation number FE18A141 has
been carried out by him in the Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Faculty of
Engineering and Technology, the University of Buea under the supervision of Prof.Tsafack
Pierre. This dissertation is authentic and represents the fruits of his research and efforts.

KORONDO HANSEL ABA ……………… …………………..

SIGNATURE DATE

PROJECT SUPERVISOR ……………… …………………..

SIGNATURE DATE

HEAD OF DEPARTMENT ……………… …………………..

SIGNATURE DATE

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 Dedication

This piece of work is dedicated to my mother KORONDO MONICA ESA and my late dad
KORONDO JOHN ABA, my Heavenly Father (God) who gave me the inspiration and ideas to
write this report, all tech enthusiasts, innovators, and Roboticists around the world.

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 Acknowledgment

For the success of this work, I will like to express my profound gratitude towards all those who
contributed to the realization of this project report.
• To God almighty who guided and gave me all the ideas and inspiration to work and come
up with this project report.
• To my Academic supervisor Prof.Tsafack Pierre for reviewing and accepting my
proposal to work on this project. His time, ideas, and constant follow up to see that the
project was completed successfully.
• A big thank you goes to the Faculty of Engineering and Technology for allowing me to
study in the faculty, all my lecturers who have taught and impacted me positively
throughout my years in the faculty.
• My mother for her constant support, love, and prayers to see me succeed in my
academics.
• To my elder brothers and sisters for their financial support, resources, and encouragement
throughout this project.
• My sincere thanks go to all my classmates and peers for the encouragement they showed
during the implementation of this project report.
• A special thank you goes to Mr. Nzometiah Nervis Tetsop for his support and guidance
through this project implimentation and throughout my stay in the University of Buea.
• I want to equally thank Nervtek for the opportunity they gave me to enrol in to the Tech
world and to study leadership and personal development during the implementation of
this project report.

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 Abstract
Now our days energy is the basis of every operation, from our phones to laptops, television, cars,
homes, industries, schools, churches, organizations they all depend on electrical energy. The
purpose of this project is to provide electricity that is sufficient for powering lights and charging
cell phones in rainy locations with limited electricity access. The system prototyped consisted of
a gutter assembly that collected and funneled water from the roof to a downspout. The
downspout shielded the stream of water from wind and directed it to a turbine at the ground
level. The turbine was connected through a gear train to a DC motor serving as the generator.
The device is optimal during high rainfall intensities that produce larger flow rates. These flows
were based on Buea rainfall intensities scaled to a representative house that was 5 by 3 meters in
roof area. The most suitable turbine was a 10-centimeter diameter Pelton wheel with 21 equally
spaced blades. The system produced a power of 0.612w

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Table of Contents
Certificate of Originality..................................................................................................................2
Dedication........................................................................................................................................3
Acknowledgment.............................................................................................................................4
Abstract............................................................................................................................................5
List of Tables...................................................................................................................................8
List of Figures..................................................................................................................................9
CHAPTER 1..................................................................................................................................10
GENERAL INTRODUCTION.....................................................................................................10
1.1 Background and Context of the Study............................................................................10
1.2 Problem Statement..........................................................................................................11
1.3 Objectives of the Study...................................................................................................11
1.3.1 General Objectives...................................................................................................11
1.3.2 Specific Objectives..................................................................................................11
1.4 Proposed Methodology...................................................................................................12
1.5 Significance of study.......................................................................................................12
1.6 Scope of Study................................................................................................................12
1.7 Organization of the Dissertation.....................................................................................13
CHAPTER 2..................................................................................................................................14
LITERATURE REVIEW..............................................................................................................14
2.1 Introduction.....................................................................................................................14
2.1.1 Hydropower.............................................................................................................14
2.1.1 Types of Hydropower..............................................................................................15
2.1.2 Types of Turbine......................................................................................................18
2.1.3 Advantages of Hydropower.....................................................................................23
2.1.4 Disadvantages of Hydropower................................................................................23
2.2 General concepts.............................................................................................................24
2.3 Related Works.................................................................................................................24
2.4 Partial Conclusion...........................................................................................................25
CHAPTER 3..................................................................................................................................26
ANALYSIS AND DESIGN..........................................................................................................26
3.1 Introduction.....................................................................................................................26
3.2 Project Planning..............................................................................................................26
3.2.1 Cost Analysis...........................................................................................................27

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 3.3 Design.............................................................................................................................28
3.3.1 Block Diagram.........................................................................................................28
3.3.2 Block Diagram explanation.....................................................................................29
3.3.3 3D Modell of Hard ware Structure..........................................................................29
3.4 Methodology...................................................................................................................29
3.4.1 Energy Harvesting from Rainwater for Household Systems...................................29
3.4.2 Power Calculation....................................................................................................30
3.5 Partial Conclusion...........................................................................................................34
CHAPTER 4..................................................................................................................................35
IMPLEMENTATION / REALIZATION AND PRESENTATION OF RESULTS.....................35
4.1 Introduction.....................................................................................................................35
4.2 Tools and Materials used................................................................................................35
4.2.1 Hardware Components............................................................................................35
4.2.2 Software...................................................................................................................41
4.3 Description of the Implementation Process....................................................................44
4.3.1Hardware Circuit design................................................................................................44
4.3.2 Hardware Implementation.......................................................................................45
4.4 Evaluation of the Solution...............................................................................................48
4.5 Partial Conclusion...........................................................................................................49
CHAPTER 5..................................................................................................................................50
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORKS....................................................................................50
5.1 Summary of findings.......................................................................................................50
5.2 Contribution to engineering and Technology.................................................................50
5.3 Difficulties Encountered.................................................................................................50
5.4 Further Works.................................................................................................................50
Reference.......................................................................................................................................52
Appendix........................................................................................................................................54

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 List of Tables

Table 1: Cost analysis of project implementation.........................................................................25

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 List of Figures
Figure 1: The five main blocks of a typical energy-scavenging system........................................14
Figure 2: Pumped-Storage Hydropower........................................................................................15
Figure 3: Offshore Hydropower....................................................................................................16
Figure 4: Run-of River Hydropower.............................................................................................17
Figure 5: Example Pelton Wheel...................................................................................................18
Figure 6: Example Turgo Turbine................................................................................................19
Figure 7: Example Crossflow Turbine..........................................................................................19
Figure 8: Example Propeller Turbine............................................................................................20
Figure 9: Example Archimedes Screw..........................................................................................20
Figure 10: Example Overshot Water Wheel..................................................................................21
Figure 11: Example Backshot Water Wheel.................................................................................21
Figure 12: Overview of a hydropower system..............................................................................23
Figure 13: Project Planning methodology used in designing the Household Rain water Energy
harvesting System..........................................................................................................................26
Figure 14 Block diagram of working process................................................................................27
Figure 15: 3D design.....................................................................................................................28
Figure 16 : DC Generators Classification......................................................................................35
Figure 17: Permanent Magnet DC Generator (RS-775VF)...........................................................36
Figure 18: Diode 1N4007..............................................................................................................37
Figure 19: Lithium battery.............................................................................................................38
Figure 20: Bearing........................................................................................................................38
Figure 21; 3D printer Filaments (PLA).........................................................................................39
Figure 22: Connecting Wires.........................................................................................................40
Figure 23: Screws..........................................................................................................................40
Figure 24: Easy EDA interface......................................................................................................41
Figure 25: Autodesk Fusion 360 work interface...........................................................................42
Figure 26: Ultimaker Cura work interface.....................................................................................43
Figure 27: General circuit setup of the Household Rain water energy Harvesting System..........44
Figure 28: Sketch of the Design of the Household rain water energy harvesting system.............45
Figure 29 Assembled Chassis........................................................................................................45
Figure 30: Circuit connection, setup, and Testing of the Household rain water energy harvesting
system............................................................................................................................................46

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 CHAPTER 1
GENERAL INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background and Context of the Study

Hydropower has been used since ancient times to grind flour and perform other tasks. In the late
18th century hydraulic power provided the energy source needed for the start of the Industrial
Revolution. In the mid-1770s, French engineer Bernard Forest de Bélidor published Architecture
Hydraulique, which described vertical- and horizontal-axis hydraulic machines, and in 1771
Richard Arkwright’s combination of water power, the water frame, and continuous production
played a significant part in the development of the factory system, with modern employment
practices.[1] In the 1840s the hydraulic power network was developed to generate and transmit
hydro power to end users. By the late 19th century, the electrical generator was developed and
could now be coupled with hydraulics.[2] The growing demand arising from the Industrial
Revolution would drive development as well.[3] In 1878, the world's first hydroelectric power
scheme was developed at Cragside in Northumberland, England by William Armstrong. It was
used to power a single arc lamp in his art gallery.[4] The old Schoelkopf Power Station No. 1,
US, near Niagara Falls, began to produce electricity in 1881. The first Edison hydroelectric
power station, the Vulcan Street Plant, began operating September 30, 1882, in Appleton,
Wisconsin, with an output of about 12.5 kilowatts.[5] By 1886 there were 45 hydroelectric
power stations in the United States and Canada; and by 1889 there were 200 in the United States
alone.[2]

At the beginning of the 20th century, many small hydroelectric power stations were being
constructed by commercial companies in mountains near metropolitan areas. Grenoble, France
held the International Exhibition of Hydropower and Tourism, with over one million visitors. By
1920, when 40% of the power produced in the United States was hydroelectric, the Federal
Power Act was enacted into law. The Act created the Federal Power Commission to regulate
hydroelectric power stations on federal land and water. As the power stations became larger,
their associated dams developed additional purposes, including flood control, irrigation and
navigation. Federal funding became necessary for large-scale development, and federally owned

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corporations, such as the Tennessee Valley Authority (1933) and the Bonneville Power
Administration (1937) were created.[3] Additionally, the Bureau of Reclamation which had
begun a series of western US irrigation projects in the early 20th century, was now constructing
large hydroelectric projects such as the 1928 Hoover Dam.[5]

Hydroelectric power stations continued to become larger throughout the 20th century.
Hydropower was referred to as WHITE COAL.[6] Hoover Dam's initial 1,345 MW power
station was the world's largest hydroelectric power station in 1936; it was eclipsed by the 6,809
MW Grand Coulee Dam in 1942.[7] The Itaipu Dam opened in 1984 in South America as the
largest, producing 14 GW, but was surpassed in 2008 by the Three Gorges Dam in China at 22.5
GW. Hydroelectricity would eventually supply some countries, including Norway, Democratic
Republic of the Congo, Paraguay and Brazil, with over 85% of their electricity.

1.2 Problem Statement

Hydro-Power systems are system which have been existing for the past decades but still yet
Energy is a huge challenge in most African countries, but here is the solution. We have realized
and characterize a Pico-hydro system that will be able to power small home equipment’s like
phone, bulb etc. in any house hold around the word while rain falls.

1.3 Objectives of the Study

1.3.1 General Objectives

 This project is belt to optimize the use of renewable energy resources.

 Rainfall is a clean energy source which is a huge benefit to the environment. It is
a great alternative to fossil fuel as it reduces the carbon footprint on the planet as
well as green hose gasses.
 Most of the electricity generated comes from fossil fuels such as coal and natural
gas, the extraction of which is expensive and highly polluting. Instead, energy
from rain is abundantly large, free and infinite resource
 This will greatly improve the development of the country as rural areas will also
benefit from this to power their house hold equipment’s.

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1.3.2 Specific Objectives
The main objective of this study is to design a Pico hydro system which;

 Can be able to run house hold equipment and charge phone in the absence of
electricity.
 Equipping everyone with their own source of energy to power their gadgets.
 Well characterize and every and anyone can be able to use it and knowing the
desire output power.

1.4 Proposed Methodology

Our methodology for this project consisted of setting the minimal viable objectives to be attained
with the available components and electronic materials, developing a workflow, and designing a
block diagram to get an overview of the household rain water energy system. The next step was
to design a rough sketch of the Pico-Hydro system, develop the operational algorithm process.
After all, this was done, Next, I proceeded by designing the structure of the machine using CAD
software, Fusion360 followed by testing the different components and compartments of the
system. After a successful test of the whole system, we sent the design STL file of the system for
printing. As soon as printing was done, we began assembling the various parts.
1.5 Significance of study

The significance of the study in this project is building a low-cost Household Rain water Energy
generating system that can be used to power household low energy devices.

1.6 Scope of Study

As years pass by the demand a for Electrical Energy multiplies. Energy has become one of the
most important research studies in this new era. It’s production in this era is concentrated and are
uncountable because it helps the industry, organizations, schools, enterprises, homes and almost
everyone in running their day today activities. Our research has been scaled down to the
applications and as well as the importance and benefits of hydro-power energy.

At the beginning of the design, we had to research on the different types of Hydro power systems
turbines from which we will choose a model for my prototype. They are Impulse turbine,
Reaction turbine and water. After an analysis of available parts, materials, and the difficulty of

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technique, we finally choose the Impulse turbine for our prototype, which makes the design and
troubleshooting easy.

1.7 Organization of the Dissertation

The project workflow is organized as follows: Background research, literature review, analysis,
design, implementation, presentation of results, conclusion, and future scope.

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 CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
2.1.1 Hydropower
Energy harvesting is by no means a new idea Hydroelectricity, or hydroelectric power, is
electricity produced from hydropower. Renewable energy is becoming the fastest growing
energy type as countries switch from fossils fuels to various renewable sources. The benefits of
obtaining energy from sources such as the sun, wind, and water are trifold. Renewable energy is
helping tackle climate change, energy security, and energy access. A global transition to
renewable energy not only would combat climate change, but also has the potential to close the
gap between those with and without electricity.

Hydro power offered a relatively “green” and sustainable source of electric power on a
very large scale. However, as this type of power source is greatly dependent on the natural
terrain, large and expensive transmission networks are required. Since transmission losses rise
with distance, this dramatically reduces the amount of available power. A much more cost-
effective and electrically efficient solution is to keep the power source very close to the load
creating a point-of-load design that eliminates transmission losses. However, in order to create
these designs, there needs to be a readily available power source that can operate in remote areas,
is cost effective and is self-sustaining, thereby requiring no servicing over many years.

In Cameroon the year 2015 the total energy consumption was estimated to be 526ktoe with 75%
of it from hydroelectricity while the global energy consumption for that same year was 575
quads, and is expected to increase by 28% by the year 2040 [8]

In 2020 hydropower generated one sixth of the world's electricity, almost 4500 TWh, which was
more than all other renewables combined and also more than nuclear power.[9] Hydropower can
supply large amounts of low-carbon electricity on demand, making it key to many secure and
clean electricity grids.[9] With a dam and reservoir it is also a flexible source of electricity, since

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the amount produced by the station can be varied up or down in seconds or minutes to adapt to
changing energy demands.

There is a connection between access to electricity and the ability for economic and human
development to occur, termed energy poverty [10]. In today's world, over 1.4 billion people face
energy poverty. The challenge of energy poverty is concentrated in rural areas, where 85% of the
population lacks electricity access (Stram, 2016). Rural renewable electrification programs are
an opportunity to help combat energy poverty. Our Major Qualifying Project will work to target
rural electrification and clean water access in areas with high levels of rainfall through a
rainwater collection and pico-hydropower harvesting device [11].

The solution for these applications has re-introduced the concept of energy harvesting from a
very different perspective, creating an emerging market for compact, predominantly wireless
applications at the very low end of the power spectrum [12].

Figure 1: The five main blocks of a typical energy-scavenging system

2.1.1 Types of Hydropower

Historically, hydropower systems converted the energy in water to produce mechanical work.
Such systems performed a variety of industrial activities, such as milling grains. Present day
hydropower systems convert stored energy in water into electricity, instead of mechanical work.
The power output for hydropower installations ranges from a few kilowatts to gigawatts. At
1,064 gigawatts of installed capacity, hydropower is the leading source of renewable energy and

15
accounts for 71% of all renewable electricity [4]. Overall, 16.4% of the world’s total electricity is
generated from hydropower systems [13]. There are four main types of hydropower: storage
hydropower, pumped-storage hydropower, offshore hydropower, and run-of-river
hydropower [13].

2.1.1.1 Storage Hydropower

Storage hydropower systems capitalize on the potential energy of water contained by a dam
structure. To produce electricity, water is released from the dam and flows through a turbine. The
rotating turbine activates a generator to produce electricity. Storage hydropower provides base
load, a continuous supply of electricity, and peak load, the ability to be turned off and restarted
based on demand [13]

2.1.1.2 Pumped-Storage Hydropower

Pumped-storage hydropower is similar to storage hydropower, except that these systems
cycle the water between upper and lower reservoirs to provide peak-load supply. When
electricity is needed, water from an upper reservoir is released and spins a turbine. The potential
energy of the elevated water produces the electricity. When electricity demand is low, pumps use
extra energy in the system to drive the water back to the top reservoir to prepare for the next
cycle [13].

Figure 2: Pumped-Storage Hydropower

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2.1.1.3 Offshore Hydropower
Offshore hydropower systems use waves and tidal currents in the ocean to produce
electricity. Among the different types of hydropower, offshore is the least established, but still
growing. This category includes technology such as underwater turbines (tidal), buoys (wave),
and oscillating water columns (wave) [14].

Figure 3: Offshore Hydropower

2.1.1.4 Run-of River Hydropower

Run-of-river hydropower produces electricity as the flowing water, typically from a river
or channel, spinning a turbine. The kinetic energy of the flowing water is used to produce
electricity, unlike in storage hydropower systems where the potential energy is the driving factor
[13]. Run-of-river systems produce a continuous supply of electricity. However, there are other
much smaller forms of run-of river hydropower such as Ultra Low Head Hydroelectric
technology for heads less than 3m and flows greater than 0.5 meter per second with no head that
are currently being explored [15]. This indicates that although hydropower technology has been
around for a long period of time, new and exciting innovations are still being explored.

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 Figure 4: Run-of River Hydropower

2.1.2 Types of Turbine

In hydropower systems, two main types of turbines exist: reaction and impulse. Impulse
turbines use the velocity of the water to rotate the shaft, and are typically suitable for high heads
and low flow applications [16]. Impulse turbines that are typically considered for small
hydropower systems are the Pelton wheel, Turgo, and Crossflow turbines. Reaction turbines
generate power from the combined pressure and moving water. They are typically submerged so
that water flows over the blades, rather than striking them. This type of turbine is typically
suitable for low head and high flow applications. A major difference between the two types of
turbines is that reaction turbines must be enclosed in a watertight casing, while impulse turbines
do not [16]. The types of reaction turbines that are typically used for small hydropower systems
are propellers, such as: Kaplan turbines, and Archimedes screws. In addition, we are

18
considering water wheels as an alternative to a traditional turbine. Water wheels differentiate
from turbines because they generate energy from the weight of the water rather than from the
water’s velocity or impulse [17]. The type of water wheels that are the most applicable are the
Overshot and the Backshot water wheels, because the source of water comes from above, as
opposed to below.

2.1.2.1 Impulse Turbine

 Pelton wheel: Pelton wheels consist of multiple bucket-shaped blades, known as impulse
blades, and often have jets directed tangential to the turbine, Figure 2. Each individual blade
has two “buckets” that are connected in the middle. This type of turbine is most applicable
with high heads (greater than 25 meters) and low flows (0.01-0.5 cubic meters per second),
but has been modified for application in micro-hydro systems [18].

Figure 5: Example Pelton Wheel

(Picture Credit: Jahobr Water Wheel, 2018)

 Turgo turbine: The Turgo turbine is a modification of the Pelton wheel, except it uses
only half of the blade, or just one “bucket.” Similar to the Pelton, the jets are aimed
tangential to the turbine. This turbine functions in similar heads and flows to the Pelton
wheel, but can have more efficient operations in lower head ranges [18].

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 Figure 6: Example Turgo Turbine

(Picture Credit: Jahobr Water Wheel, 2018

 Crossflow: The Crossflow turbine is designed with tangential rectangular-shaped blades

that allow the water to flow through the turbine twice, flowing through the inside of the
runner, Figure 4. This turbine is applicable in low to medium heads (2- 40 meters) and low
to medium flows (0.1- 5 cubic meters per second) [18]. The Crossflow turbine maintains
efficiency under varying load and flow.

Figure 7: Example Crossflow Turbine

(Picture Credit: Jahobr Water Wheel, 2018)

2.1.2.2 Reaction Turbines

 Propeller: The propeller turbine typically has three to six blades that water comes into
contact with simultaneously, Figure 5. In this type of turbine, the pressure must be constant

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 to keep the runner in balance. The typical head for this system is low to medium (1.5 - 20
meters) and functions in medium to high flows (3- 30 cubic meters per second) [9].

Figure 8: Example Propeller Turbine

(Picture Credit: Jahobr Water Wheel, 2018)

 Kaplan: This turbine is a variation of the propeller, with adjustable blades and guide
vanes. It can achieve high efficiency under varying input conditions [18].

 Turgo turbine This turbine is best suited for low head (2-10 meters) and higher flow
sites. It is closest in relation to reaction turbines, but is not actually considered a “turbine”
[18]. This structure is typically used to raise water from a lower elevation to a higher
elevation, but can be turned in reverse to generate power, Figure 9.

Figure 9: Example Archimedes Screw

(Picture Credit: Jahobr Water Wheel, 2018

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2.1.2.3 Waterwheels
 Overshot Water Wheel: The Overshot water wheel is rotated by water entering at the top
of the wheel and filling up the buckets formed by adjacent tangential blades, Figure 10. The
weight of the water turns the wheel to generate power. This type of water wheel typically
applicable for a low head (1- 5 meters) and medium flow (0.3-1.5 cubic meters per second).
The efficiency of this turbine is typically in the 80-90% range [19].

Figure 10: Example Overshot Water Wheel

(Photo Credit: Wiki Water Wheel, 2018)

Backshot Water Wheel: The Backshot water wheel is similar to the Overshot, except for that
the blades are in the opposite direction, Figure 11. The efficiency of this turbine is typically in
the 80-90% range [19].

Figure 11: Example Backshot Water Wheel

(Photo Credit: Wiki Water Wheel, 2018)

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2.1.3 Advantages of Hydropower
• Food Security. As a reliable source of water for irrigation, hydropower facilities support
food production activities. According to the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers’ National
Database of Dams, at least 276 dams in the U.S. provide both hydropower and irrigation
services [20].
• High Paying Jobs: The hydropower workforce is expected to grow and evolve toward a
more digitalized future. And based on retirements alone, the industry is projected to need
thousands of new workers over the next decade—offering many high-wage jobs across
the country [20].
• Savings for Consumers: Did you know that globally, hydropower remains the cheapest
form of electricity? That’s why some U.S. states with a high percentage of hydropower
generation, such as Washington, Oregon, and Idaho can boast about having some of the
lowest electricity rates in the country on an annual basis [20].
• Recreation and Tourism: Most hydropower installations offer access to the reservoir,
allowing the public to take full advantage of opportunities for recreational activities such
as—fishing, swimming, and boating. River releases provide opportunities for kayaking
and white-water rafting. And, many of our nation’s largest hydropower facilities are a
draw for tourists [20].
• Low emission: The action of generating electricity with hydropower energy does not
emit carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas that drives global climate change [21].
• Reliable: Hydroelectricity is a very reliable renewable energy source. Water flow is
usually very predictable and is taken into consideration when determining where a
hydropower plant is built, either on an actively flowing river or built with a dam to
manage water flow [21].

2.1.4 Disadvantages of Hydropower

• Expensive to Build: Building any type of power plant is expensive - hydroelectric power
plants can cost as much as $580 per kilowatt to be built, and they usually range from
10MW to 30MWs (where one MW is equal to 1,000 kilowatts).
• Drought Potential: The ability to create electricity can be severely reduced if there is a
drought and not enough water is flowing into the plant.

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 • Limited Reservoirs: It is challenging to find a suitable spot that has a large year-round
water supply, with the right amount of water and is close enough to existing power lines.
It is also a delicate balancing act to keeping enough river water wild (meaning without
dams), versus damming up many rivers for power [21].

2.2 General concepts

The figure below represents the general concept, block diagram, and process of how
Hydropower syetem works, from kinetic energy of water to energy to move turbine to generator
to electricity [22].

Figure 12: Overview of a hydropower system

2.3 Related Works

Hydro power has permeated almost every single sector and has offered some innovative
solutions challenges all over the world. Here are a few cool examples of how Hydropower is
changing the future:

• Hydropower is by far the largest renewable energy source and is projected to become
more dominant in the coming years. The innovations and government initiatives have
helped hydropower generation to become prominent. Last year, China unveiled its
smartest and the world's seventh-biggest mega hydropower station [23].
• Currently, hydroelectric power is the largest source of renewable energy in the U.S.
Moreover, it is responsible for around 7% of the total energy production in the country.
Apart from the U.S., China is the world's largest producer of hydroelectric energy, which

24
 includes the world's largest power station that produces more than 15% of the country's
total energy [23]
• Hydropower is regarded as a big battery of the nation where you can store power in the
form of water. Today, energy from the river is responsible for one-fifth of the world's
electricity generation, and in the future, it is projected to increase. While wind and solar
power are gaining importance, the cost of hydropower generation is still lower [23].

2.4 Partial Conclusion

Hydroelectricity eliminates the flue gas emissions from fossil fuel combustion, including
pollutants such as sulfur dioxide, nitric oxide, carbon monoxide, dust, and mercury in the coal.
Hydroelectricity also avoids the hazards of coal mining and the indirect health effects of coal
emissions. In 2021 the IEA said that government energy policy should "price in the value of the
multiple public benefits provided by hydropower plants".[24]

For this reason, we chose to make a hydropower system which is affordable to almost everyone.
Therefore, making a Household Hydro Power system will be a suitable solution for hobbyists or
students interested in learning how to innovate what they already possess. This will also be a
solution to saving money instead of wasting hundreds of dollars on electric bills. The Household
rain water electrical energy generator will not only be a learning experience for the ideal person
and cheaper, but it will also be an answer to energy dilemma that we face in today’s world [25].

25
 CHAPTER 3
ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
3.1 Introduction
It is very tempting to start a project by jumping right in to building it without a proper planning.
Doing so is fun and grants an immediate sense of progress. However, this approach often has
significant drawbacks. Beginning a project without proper planning may tie the project to
unspoken assumptions, cause you to overlook critical information, or introduce design flaws that
manifest as the project progresses. Generally, it is best to start by confirming requirements,
designing data flow, and sketching a prototype of the graphical user interface (GUI) layout. After
this step comes to the design.

3.2 Project Planning

Project planning here is the process of bringing the financial resources, human, and materials
resources towards the achievement or completion of the project. It is the most vital part of the
project. The project is broken down into smaller sections, where combining them results in the
implementation of the project.

The project-planning tool chosen here is the CPM (Critical path method). The Critical Path
Method is the sequence of scheduled activities that determines the duration of the project. These
scheduled activities must be performed if the project is to be considered a success. Moreover,
they must be completed in a specific order. If someone is building a house, he/she can’t construct
the walls and then dig the foundation; you have to do it in a sequence.
 A study of existing Hydropower systems
 Find and purchase components with the optimal utility to the system.
 Test individually the working operation of the components.
 Implementing the circuit into the device.
 Optimal laying out of the circuit in the hardware structure to
minimize surface area coverage.
 Test the functioning of the whole system.
 Document the project.

26
 Buils nad
Designing of
Research and prototype System test
phase – Final
Analysis Hardware execution.
implementation
and testing.

Definition phase – Project

Defining the Design phase –
problem Circuit documentation
statement. -Project report.

Figure 13: Project Planning methodology used in designing the Household Rain water Energy harvesting System

The total time taken to complete the sequence along this critical path would give an idea of the
project’s minimum duration. It took a total of 10 weeks to successfully complete this project.
3.2.1 Cost Analysis
Table 1: Cost analysis of project implementation

Components Cost (XAF)

DC Generator 10000
Diode 1N4007 200
Lithium Battery 5000
3D modelling 85000
3D printing 60000
Pipes 1000
Bearing 1000
Screws 500
Total 162700

27
This analysis helped in budgeting money to buy the necessary materials and components for the
implementation of this project. During the purchase, some components were slightly higher than
what was expected, so I finally budgeted a total of 200000XAF.
3.3 Design

The system design consists of a block diagram, the algorithm flow chart on which the household
rain water energy harvesting system operates the Easy EDA circuit design, and the 3D model
design of the rain water energy harvesting system using Autodesk Fusion360.
3.3.1 Block Diagram

Kinetic Energy
of water from Turbine Gears
roof

Battery

DC Electric
Motor RS-
775VF

Household
Use

Figure 14 Block diagram of working process

28
3.3.2 Block Diagram explanation
Firstly, the system is mounted on the rain-gutter outlet at home. When it starts raining the kinetic
energy from the rain collected through the gutter and is used to turn the turbine of the system, A
gear turn ration of 1:3 is used to amplify the speed before connecting the motor. The from there
the motor generates electrical energy which is store in a battery and supplied in the house for
home use

3.3.3 3D Modell of Hard ware Structure

Figure 15: 3D design

3.4 Methodology
3.4.1 Energy Harvesting from Rainwater for Household Systems
Household hydropower systems provide energy by extracting power from high head
water pipes. Kanth, Ashwani, Sharma (2012) explored a theoretical household system that would
combine energy harvesting with water catchment from rooftops for individual buildings located
in regions where typhoons or heavy rains are common [26]. The gravitational potential energy of

29
the rainwater would be converted to kinetic energy. The stream of water would strike a turbine to
cause the turbine to rotate. The turbine would be connected to a generator to produce electrical
power. I would use the gutters on the roof to funnel the rainwater from the rooftop to a storage
tank located at ground level. The turbine would be placed in the downspout and above the
storage tank, locations can vary depending on the type of the turbine used.

3.4.2 Power Calculation

3.4.2.1 Initial Power Calculation
Prior to making any design decisions, we calculated the maximum potential power harvestable
from the system using theoretical values. We considered the system under the scenarios: water
flowing through a filled downspout. In this scenario, the downspout would have a nozzle at the
very end immediately before the turbine to direct the stream of water on the turbine blades. The
small nozzle area would cause the downspout to backfill and provide a pressure head.

The calculations outlined below estimate the power production from a 10-centimeter diameter
Pelton wheel during the heaviest rain. The Pelton wheel was chosen for the calculations because
this turbine is highly efficient at high head and low flow applications.

The first step was to calculate the flow rate of the water off the roof based on the roof area and
rainfall intensity. The roof area used for the project was 5 meters in length by 3 meters in depth.
Thus, the roof area is 15 meters squared.

The southern and northern regions of Cameroon are two distinct climatic areas. On the coast, the
average annual rainfall ranges between 2500 and 4000 mm, the inland south, between 1500 and
2500 mm. The western slopes of Mt. Cameroon receive 6000 to 9000 mm a year [27].

In Buea, Cameroon, in May, during 23.9 rainfall days, 167mm of precipitation is typically
accumulated [28].

The volumetric flow rate of the water entering the pipe is determined by Equation 1:

𝑄=𝐴 ∗𝐼 ……………………….. eqn 1

Where

m3
𝑄=𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 ( )
s

30
𝐴=𝐴𝑑𝑗𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 (m 2)

m
𝐼=𝑅𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 ( )
hr

1
Q=15∗0.167∗( )
3600

Q=0.0006958333(m 3 /s)

The estimated maximum Output Power at the nozzle is determined by Equation 2;

P = 𝜌 ∗ 𝑄 ∗ ℎ ∗ g ………………………..eqn 2

P = 1000 ∗ 0.0006958333 ∗ 3 ∗ 9.8

P=20.46W

To be conservative in our estimates, and because the open channel flow calculations proved the
velocity of the water the gutter to be small, we neglected this velocity and only considered the
potential energy of water at the top of the downspout. Assuming all of the potential energy from
the height of the water is converted into kinetic energy, the velocity of the water exiting the pipe
is found using Equation 3:

𝑉= √2𝑔ℎ………………………..eqn 3

Where:

m
v = Velocity Exiting the Pipe ( )
s

m2
g = Gravity ( )
s

h = Height of the Gutter (m)

The height of the roof is estimated to be 3 meters above the ground due to standard ceiling
heights. Thus, the velocity of water exiting the downspout is:

𝑉= √2∗9.8∗3

𝑉 =7.67m/s

31
The maximum power for a Pelton wheel is modeled by Equation 4: (Munson et al., 2013, pg.
700):

𝑃= 𝜌𝑄𝑈 * (𝑈−𝑉) * (1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽) ………………………..eqn 4

(Munson et al., 2013, pg. 700)

Where:

𝑃=𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 (𝑊)

kg
𝜌= Density of water ( )
m3

𝑈=𝐵𝑙𝑎𝑑𝑒 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑

m3
𝑄 = 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 ( )
s

𝑉=𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐸𝑥𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑃𝑖𝑝𝑒

𝛽=𝐸𝑥𝑖𝑡 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐵𝑙𝑎𝑑𝑒 (𝐷𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠)

Beta is the exit angle of the blade. Ideally, the water would exit at a 180-degree angle. However,
this is not physically possible as the exiting water would collide with the entering water. It has
been determined that an exit angle of 165 degrees is optimal (Munson et al., 2013, pg. 700).

U is the blade speed. At maximum power, the optimal blade speed is one half of the water
velocity (Munson et al., 2013, pg. 700). Replacing U with ½ V, the power produced by the
Pelton wheel can be calculated in Equation 5:

v
()
P= ρQ 2 ¿ – V ] (1−cosβ) ………………………..eqn 5

𝑃= 1000 ∗0.0006958333 ∗ (7.67 / 2) ∗ [ (7.67 / 2) −7.67) ] ∗ (1−cos(165)

𝑃 = 20.12 𝑊

The above calculations estimated the maximum potential power for a house with a roof area of 3
meters by 5 meters and a height of 3 meters at a rainfall intensity of 167 millimeters per hour.

32
A 167 millimeter per hour rainfall intensity would last six minutes, from this peak storm the
Energy harvested would be calculated in Equation 6: [29].

𝐸= 𝑃 ∗ 𝑡 ………………………..eqn 6

Where:

𝐸=𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 (𝐽)

𝑃=𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 (𝑊)

𝑡=𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐿𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑠 (𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠)

𝐸=20.12∗360

𝐸=7243.2 𝐽

Therefore,

The Power the turbine is calculated to be 20.12W and the energy at the turbine is
calculated to be 7243.2 𝐽

A cell phone battery charge requires about 20,000 Joules (assuming cell phone battery holds 5.45
watt hours) and lighting one LED for one hour requires 36,000 Joules (assuming 10 W light
bulb), the energy can be put into perspective by Equation 7 and Equation 8:

Energy
Number of cell phones= ………………………..eqn 7
Energy per Charge

7243.2
Number of cell phones=
20000

𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑃ℎ𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑠=0.362

Energy
Number of Light Hours= ………………………..eqn 8
Energy per cell phone

7243.2
Number of Light Hours=
36000

𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝐿𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠=0.2012

33
Over the course of the day the rainfall intensity would vary, this is just the cell phone charges
and light-hours from a short 6 minute storm. Depending on the rainfall more power may be
generated over the course of an entire day.

Efficiency = Pout / Pin * 100

Pin = 20.46

Pout = 20.12

Efficiency = 20.12 / 20.Pout / Pin * 100 = 98.3%

3.5 Partial Conclusion

This chapter presents a detailed analysis that was carried out to develop a Household Rain Water
Energy Harvesting System and an appropriate mythology that was used for the resolution of the
problem. It also clearly defines each stage of the design that was used to implement the solution.
The next chapter will demonstrate the proper implementation of the project, followed by the
results with pictures and screenshots.

34
 CHAPTER 4
IMPLEMENTATION / REALIZATION AND PRESENTATION
OF RESULTS
4.1 Introduction

The purpose of this section is to highlight the implementation environment of the Household
Rain water Energy Harvesting System. This covers the hardware and software environments for
the implementation phase of the system design and development.

4.2 Tools and Materials used

For the development of this project, the materials used were categorized into two categories;
Hardware components and the Software.

4.2.1 Hardware Components

The key materials for this project were bought from an electronic store and there were others like
the filament which was used for printing. This combination worked well without complications.

All the hardware components used to realize this project are listed below;

 DC Generator
 Diode
 Battery
 Bearing
 3D printer Filament (PLA)
 Cables
 Screws

A detail description of the Hardware components

4.2.1.1 DC Generator
A dc electric generator is an electrical machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical
energy. Most electric generators operate through the interaction between the generator's magnetic

35
field and mechanical force of the turning shaft to generate electrical energy. These generators
produce a direct current (DC).

Figure 16 : DC Generators Classification

Types of DC generators

DC generators are categorized into three main types based on the methods of field excitation:
Permanent Magnet, Separately Excited, and Self-Excited DC generators. The first type excites
the field coils by using Permanent magnets, while the separately excited one includes an external
force for excitation. A self-excited DC generator includes another generator itself and field coils
excited by it [30]. 

 Permanent Magnet DC generators: This kind of generator utilizing permanent magnets

for creating the flux in the magnetic circuit is known as the Permanent magnet DC
generators and is the most basic type of generator.
 Separately Excited Dc Generator: External DC source (e.g., battery) is used in this system
for energizing field magnets. As the rotation speed increases, it can provide a higher EMF
and voltage in the output.
 Self-Excited DC Generators: Self-excited DC generators have field magnets that are
energized by their own supplied current, and the field coils are connected to the armature
internally. There is always some flux in the poles because of the residual magnetism. As the
armature rotates, some current is produced, and this small current flows through the field

36
 coils with the load and strengthening the pole flux. By increasing the pole flux, the EMF and
the current increase, and the accumulative process is continuing until the excitation is
necessary.

For our case we use a DC generator and below is a picture of it

Figure 17: Permanent Magnet DC Generator (RS-775VF)

Specifications of RS-775VF at different Speed

 5V voltage: current vacant 0.25A, speed 1600 rpm.

 12V voltage: current at no load 0.3A, speed is 4000 rpm.

 24V voltage: current no load 0.35A, speed 8100 rpm.

 36V voltage: current at no load 0.45A, speed 12500 rpm

37
4.2.1.2 Diode 1N4007
A diode is a dispositive made of a semiconductor material, which has two terminals or electrodes
(di-ode), that act like an on-off switch. When the diode is “on”, it acts as a short circuit and
passes all current. When it is “off”, it behaves like an open circuit and passes no current [31].

The 1N4007-T is a Rectifier Diode with molded plastic case. The rectifier diode has high current
capability and low forward voltage drop. Diffused Junction. High Current Capability and Low
Forward Voltage Drop. Low Reverse Leakage Current.

The diode is used to block current from the battery to power the Generator.

It has a maximum forward voltage of 1Vand an operating temperature of 150°C [32]

Figure 18: Diode 1N4007

4.2.1.3 Battery
Lithium batteries are primary batteries that have metallic lithium as an anode. These types of
batteries are also referred to as lithium-metal batteries.
They stand apart from other batteries in their high charge density and high cost per unit.
Depending on the design and chemical compounds used, lithium cells can produce voltages from
1.5 V (comparable to a zinc–carbon or alkaline battery) to about 3.7 V.
The lithium battery is used store electrical energy produce by the generator and to supply when
needed

38
 Figure 19: Lithium battery

4.2.1.4 Bearing
a component that separates moving parts and takes a load. It is used to;
 Reduce Friction
 Support the load
 Guide the moving part (turbine)

Figure 20: Bearing

39
4.2.2.5 3D printer filament (PLA)
3D printing filament is the thermoplastic feedstock for fused deposition
modeling 3D printers. There are many types of filaments available with different
properties, requiring different temperatures to print. The filament is commonly
available in the two standard diameters of 1.75 mm and 2.85 mm. 2.85 mm
filament is sometimes erroneously referred to as "3 mm", but should not be
confused with the less common filament size that measures 3 mm in diameter
(Wikipedia, 2020).
The process of transforming 3D printing filament into a 3D model

1. The filament is fed into the FDM 3D printer.

2. The thermoplastic is heated past their glass transition temperature inside the hot-end.
3. The filament is extruded and deposited by an extrusion head onto a build platform where
it cools.
4. The process is continuous, building up layers to create the model.

Figure 21; 3D printer Filaments (PLA)

40
4.2.1.6 Cables
The cables facilitate the connection of different sensors, switches, stepper motors, LCD, and
other devices from different sections of the printer together.

Figure 22: Connecting Wires

4.2.1.7 Screws
A screw and a bolt are similar types of fasteners typically made of metal and characterized by a
helical ridge, called a male thread (external thread).

Figure 23: Screws

4.2.2 Software

Software is a collection of programs or instructions written in any computer language, which

enables flexibility to the user’s ends. This project was developed using the following software
tools:
a) Windows 10.
b) Easy EDA

41
 c) Fritzing
d) Autodesk Fusion360.
e) Ultimaker CURA.
Description of the software used during the implementation of the project.

4.2.2.1 Easy EDA

EasyEDA is a web-based EDA tool suite that enables hardware engineers to design, simulate,
share - publicly and privately - and discuss schematics, simulations and printed circuit boards.
Other features include the creation of a bill of materials, Gerber files and pick and place files and
documentary outputs in PDF, PNG and SVG formats.

Figure 24: Easy EDA interface

4.2.2.2 Fritzing
Fritzing is an open-source initiative to develop amateur or hobby CAD software for the design of
electronics hardware, intended to allow designers and artists to build more permanent circuits
from prototypes. It was developed at the University of Applied Sciences Potsdam. Fritzing
is free software under the GPL 3.0 or later license, with the source code available on GitHub and
the binaries at a monetary cost, which is allowed by the GPL. This software was used to draw a
visual connection between the Arduino microcontroller and other components of the system.

42
4.2.2.3 Autodesk Fusion360
Fusion360 is a commercial computer-aided design (CAD) software used for 3D modeling of
objects, but it has another software integrated inside called Eagle used for circuit design. This
software was used to design and model the 3D structure of the e-waste 3D printer machine.
(Autodesk, Fusion 360, 2020)

Figure 25: Autodesk Fusion 360 work interface

4.2.2.4 Ultimaker Cura

This is an opensource software widely used in 3D printing, it helps to convert .stl files into
.gcode that is understood by the machine. It has an interface to visualize the model or object to
be printed. This software can also be used to control the machine (Ultimaker, 2020).

43
 Figure 26: Ultimaker Cura work interface

4.3 Description of the Implementation Process

4.3.1Hardware Circuit design
4.3.1.1 Electrical Components Selection
There are two common generator types that are ideal for ultra-low hydropower: squirrel cage
induction generators and direct current synchronous generators [33]. Overall, permanent
magnet synchronous generators are superior at handling a wider range of speeds because they
can still produce power through a range of speeds and squirrel cage induction generators are
superior in that they require little maintenance [33].

For small scale electricity generation, another option for electricity generation is to use a
permanent magnet DC motor as a generator. Permanent magnet DC motors operate at a range of
input powers to provide a range of output powers. When they are run in reverse by rotating the
shaft, they can convert the input mechanical power to electrical power. The ability to generate
power at a range of input conditions make permanent magnet DC motors a good option for a
generator.

The figures below represent the detailed circuit design of the Household Rain Water Energy
Harvesting System, showing connections of all the components.

44
 Figure 27: General circuit setup of the Household Rain water energy Harvesting System

4.3.2 Hardware Implementation

4.3.2.1 Turbine Selection
The turbine selection consisted of multiple criteria in which different turbines were evaluated.
During my initial background research, I considered four basic turbines: Crossflow, Pelton
wheel, Overshot water wheel, and Turgo.

Reaction turbines were eliminated based on background research because they require a fully
submerged pipe in order to operate at the highest efficiencies. In addition, the Turgo turbine was
eliminated early in the design process due to structural imbalance.

The Crossflow, Pelton wheel, and Overshot water wheel were evaluated based on Fussion 360
static simulations and RPM and stall torque readings at different flows. Fussion 360 CAD
models were downloaded from GrabCad and modified using basic geometry to fit within our
system.

I choose the Pelton wheel turbine due to my structure and its high efficiency in High Head Low
Flow applications

45
For the implementation process, I carefully followed the circuit diagram as shown in the figure
above, and connected all the components. After doing the circuit connections, I went and
mounted the printed design parts

Figure 28: Sketch of the Design of the Household rain water energy harvesting system

I continue mounting the chassis of the system following the sketch above.

46
 Figure 29 Assembled Chassis

Lastly, I connected all the components and began testing the functioning of the system

47
 Figure 30: Circuit connection, setup, and Testing of the Household rain water energy harvesting system

Below shows the complete mounted structure of the Household rain water energy harvesting
system

48
 Complete structure of the Household rain water energy harvesting system

4.4 Evaluation of the Solution

After designing and mounting the hardware interface of the Household rain water energy
harvesting system, the system worked as design meeting all its objectives and requirements set at
the beginning of the beginning of the project implementation. However, I faced some difficulties

49
Maximum Actual Voltage Output= 6.8V

Maximum Actual Current Output= 0.09A

Maximum Actual Power Output = V * I = 0.612W

Minimum Theoretical Power Output = 20.12W

The high difference between the calculated value and the actual value is due to;

 High resistance from the turbine to the generator

 The size of the motor greatly affects the power output, so a higher generator will produce
better results.
 The amount of rain fall greatly affects the output power, the higher the rainfall the higher
the output power.

4.5 Partial Conclusion

This chapter presented a theoretical and practical implementation of the project, ending with a
visual portrayal of the results. There is much room for improvement in the system design, rpm,
control mechanism and other limitations.

50
 CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORKS

5.1 Summary of findings

After researching, designing, and implementing this project (Household rain water energy
harvesting system), the goal and objectives were met. The system worked well as expected and it
will be a great idea to scale and market it as a product. The results from the power output so far
are encouraging and in summary, to build a good, reliable, and low-cost Household rain water
energy harvesting system, one has to be able to build a circuit, design a model, implement what
has been demonstrated above to be able to generate power from the Household rain water energy
harvesting system.

5.2 Contribution to engineering and Technology

The contribution of this project to engineering and technology is that it is now possible to build
Household rain water energy harvesting system at a very low cost compared to those available in
the marketplace and still produce the same results.

5.3 Difficulties Encountered

 Time and financial constraints to increase the scope of the project idea.
 The time it took to print the whole design was so long which delayed the testing process
 Due to the complex nature of the project, it took me a long time during the research to
understand how the mechanism works
 A major difficulty was modeling the 3D structure of the machine using Autodesk
Fusion360.

5.4 Further Works

Further works that can be done on this project for it to have more value are;

 Replacing the turbine with a much smoother turbine which helps reduce friction and
increase efficiency
 Using a much stronger motor to increase the power out put

51
 Replacing the gears with a smoother gear to reduce friction and equally increase
efficiency
 Adding pressure to control pressure the flow and produce require result of power needed

52
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[31] https://in.element14.com/diodes-inc/1n4007-t/diode-rectifier-1000v-1a-do-41/dp/
1843698#:~:text=The%201N4007-T%20is%20a,Low%20Reverse%20Leakage%20Current
[32] https://in.element14.com/diodes-inc/1n4007-t/diode-rectifier-1000v-1a-do-41/dp/
1843698#:~:text=The%201N4007-T%20is%20a,Low%20Reverse%20Leakage%20Current
[33]https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Zhou+%26+Deng,
+2017&hl=en&as_sdt=0&as_vis=1&oi=scholart

Appendix
https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/17aKeUjDkuQH3CF2779kzzzRvz-gYlrlR?usp=sharing

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