11 Case Study

WHAT IS CASE STUDY?

Case study is an intensive study of a case which may be an individual,
an institution, a system, a community, an organisation, an event, or
even the entire culture. Yin (1991:23) has defined case study as "an em-
pirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary _ph~omenon with!~ _
its real-life context, when the boundaries between phenomenon and
context are not clearly evident, and in which multiple sources of evi-
dence are used". Kromrey (1986:320) holds that "case study involves
studying individual cases, often in their natural environment and for a
__ long period of time". It is, thus, a kind of research design which usu-
ally involves the qualitative method of selecting the source of data. It
presents the holistic account that offers insights into the case under
study. When attention is focused on the development of the case, it is
called ·'case history'. For example, how a particular boy became a juve-
nile delinquent because of lack of parental control, impact of peers,
lack of attention by teachers, and money earned through cheap
means, and then became an adolescent thief and a sex criminal and ul-
timately a professional pickpocket is tracing criminality through case
history method.
Case study is not a method of data collection; rather it is a re-
search strategy, or an empirical inquiry that investigates a
contemporary phenomenon by using multiple sources of evidence.
Yin (1989:24) and Hammersley (1992) both have supported this view,
as for the definition of case study is concerned. Mitchell (1983: 192) has
also maintained that a case study is not just a narrative account of an
event or a series of events but it involves analysis against an appropri-
ate theoretical framework or in support of theoretical conclusions.
Case study can be simple and specific, such as "Ram, the delinquent
boy", or complex and abstract, such as "decision-making in a univer-
sity". But whatever the subject, to qualify as a case study,·it must be a
bounded system/unit, an entity in itself. .
j
 262 Case Study

Some writers like Bell (1993) and Blaxter (1996) have suggested
that case studies are suitable for single person research on a limited
budget and that the study of one case provides a manageable opponu.
nity for the researcher to study one aspect of the problem in some
·· depth within a limited time. But thi~ is_ not true. Case studies have
been used for various purposes-desc riptive, exploratory and explana-
tory research-and also to generate theory (Yin, 1989; Gummesson
1991). Case studies are used not only in social sciences like sociolo~
(community studies), social anthropology (tribal culture), political sci-
ence (policy research), public administration · (management and
organisational studies) but also in medicine (clinical research) and so-
.cial work (helping profess~ons). While a case study can be either
quantitative or qualitative, or even a combinatic~_n of both, but most
case studies lie within the realm of qualitativ~ methodology. It is the
preferred strategy when "how, who, why and what" questions are be- -
ing asked or when the focus is on a contemporary phenomenon
within a real-life context.

CHARACTERISTICS AND PRINCIPLES OF CASE STUDY

Characteristics
Hartfield (1982) (also see, Sarantakos, 1998:192) has referred to the fol-
lowing distinguishing characteristics of case study:
• . It studies whole units in their totality and not some selected as-
pects or variables of these units.
• It employs several methods in data collection to prevent errors
and distortions.
• If often studies a single unit: one unit is one study.
• It perceives the respondent as a knowledgeable person, not just as
a source of data.
• It studies a typical case.

Principles
The principles of case study are:
1. Use multiple sources: Use of one source of data collection does not
give adequate evidence for generalisation. But getting information
from several sources Qike ipterviewing, observing, analysing
documents) is regarded as the major strength of the case study ap-
 ~ Stluly 263
I
~
I
oach because it also contributes to im .
prd validity of the findings. provmg the reliability '.
'
t ;aintAin a chain_ of evidence: The evidence fro
2. . ns are drawn in the case study has not I m w ich conclu-
h'
sroecific cases cit. ed l'k . . Iogical
i e crimmo invest·on y. to . be stated
. and
~ the court but it is also to be preserved for igatton .10 a crime case
10
aluators should be able to verify the sourcesomde tt~de so that the
ev an ev1 ence.
J. R
ecord data: The data may be recorded eith • h f
. .b . d. er m t e orm of
ketchy notes in o servatton an interviews or ·t b
s . . d ·1 If £ • may e tape-re-
corded in mbinute .etai fus.11 a ew notes are taken at the time of
·nterview / o servatton, notes may be written I t
1 . a er on as soon
as possible. .

PURPOSES OF CASE STUDY

Burns (2000:460-61) has pointed out the fol_lowing purposes of a case
snidy: ' ' '
1. To use it_ as a preliminary to major !nves~igation as it may bring to ·
light variables, processes and relationships that deserve more in-
tensive investigation. In this sense, it may even be a source of
hypotheses for future research.
2. To probe the phenomenon deeply and analyse it intensively with
a view to establishing generalisations about the wider population
to which the unit belongs.
3. To get anecdotal evidence that illustrates more general findings.
4. To refute a universal generalisation. A single case can represent a
significant contribution to theory building and assist in focusing
the direction of future investigations in the area.
5. To use it as a unique, typical and an interesting case in its own
right.
According to Berger et al {1989), reasons for employing case study
.method can be:
• to get intimate and detailed information about the structure, proc-
ess and complexity of the research object,
• to formulate hypotheses,
• to conceptualise,
• to operationalise variables ,
• to expand quantitative findings, and
• to test the feasibility of the quantitative study.
 264 Case Study

TYPES OF CASE STUDIES

2000) has stated six types of case studies:
Burns ( d.ies trace. th e deve1opment of ~ ..
u· • I stud;es.· These stu . d f d ~,
l n istonca case • a ult criminal
· • • I stem over time. The stu y o an
o_rghanfisauonh. sychildhood through adolescence and youth is an ex
rig t rom 1s h. d d ·
ample of this type of case study. T is type epen s more on
interviews, recording and documents. .
2. Observational case studies: These focus on o~s~rving a drunkard, a
udent , a union leader, some activhity, event , or a spe-
h
teac er, a St . h.
cific group of people. However, the researc ers in t is type of
study are rarely total participants or total ob~ervers.
3. Oral history case studies: These are usu~Uy_ first rer~on narr~tives
that the researcher collects ·using extensive 1nterv1ew1ng of a single
· ··1 -individual. For example, the case of a drug addict or an alcoholic,
or a prostitute or a retired person who fails to adjust himself in
son's family. The use of this approach depends more on the na-
ture and cooperation of the respondent. .
4. Situational case studies: This form studies particular events. The
views of all participants in the event are sought. -For example, a
communal riot: how it started with conflict between two persons
of two different religious groups, how each person sought support
of persons of his own religion present at the spot, how police was
informed, how police arrested persons of one particular religious
group, how power elite interfered and pressurised the police de-
partment, how did public and the media react, and so on. Pulling
all these views together, a depth is provided that contributes sig-
nificantly to the understanding of the event.
5. Clinical case studies: This approach aims-~t-understanding in depth
a particular individual such as a patient in the hospital, a prisoner
in the jail, a woman in a rescue home, a problem child in a school,
etc. These s_tudies involve detailed interviews, observation, going
through records and reports, and so on.
6. Multi-case studies: It is a collection of case studies or a form of repli-
cation, i.e., multiple experiments. For example, we can take three
case studies and analyse them on replication logic. This logic is
that each case will either produce contrary results or similar re-
sults. ~h_e outcome will demonstrate either support for the initial
propositions or a need to revise and retest with another set of
cases. The advantage of multi-case design is that the evidence can
 ~ Study 265

.
ff'lore com pelling. However, this approach requi·res more ttme
be ,,.
and effort. ..
groups on the
Eckstein (~ 975) has classified case studies into five
. of their different uses:
basis on'igurative . /·aeographic . e study: This case study uses d • _
cas
C
/ i
d d' . escnp
t. ':/", 'd urative element
tions to provt e un e~stan tng. The config
estigation. The
provides the overall o_uthne of the unit under inv
for themselves or
ideographic e!ement e1t~er allows facts to speak
h studies claims
for intuitive interpretation. The intensity of suc
e study is that the
validity. The major weakness of this type of cas
used to generate
understanding produced by sue~ study cannot be
pose.
theory. In fact, they are not designed for this pur
h case is viewed
Disciplined-comparative case study: In this type, eac
z. in the context of an established or a prosho visional theory. Ideally,
the findings of a particular case study uld be able to be de-
ted from suc h a the ory or could be used to challenge it. For
duc
e, on the basis of
example, the case study of a criminal to interpret
specific criminal
Sutherland's theory of causes of crime, that the
and learning from
became a criminal by associating with criminals
them the methods of committing crime.
stimulates theoretical
3. Heuristic case study: This type of case study
raphic case stud-
thinking. Such studies, unlike configurative-ideog
are less concerned
ies, are used for theory building and therefore
, etc. Rather these
with overall descriptions of individuals, events
t heuristic case
are concerned with generalisable relations. .Bu
study does not guarantee a theoretical outcome.
4. Plausibility probes case study: This type of
case study is used in the
a theory and the
intermediate stage between the development of
mpts to establish
testing of tha t theory. This case study atte
eril!g-at all.
whether a theoretical construct is worth consid
to challenge an exist-
5. Crucial case study: This case study is designed
ing theory .
 USES OR AD VAN TAG ES OF CA SE ST lJD y
So me advantages of case stu dy design are (Black and Ch
am .
10
P 11,
1976:91-92):
• It ma kes in-depth stu dy pos sib le.
• It is flexible wi th res pec t to usi ng me tho ds for collecting dat
a, e.g.,
que stio nna ire , int erv iew , ob ser vat ion , etc.
• It cou ld be used for stu dy ing an yd dim ens ion of the topic · .
. I
.£.1c aspect an ma y no t tnc , I.e., lt
co uld stud y on e spec1 ude oth er e
asp
. cts.
• It can be con du cte d in pra cti cal ly an y kin d of social setting
V Cut Sr,,Jy 269
.
. are inexpensive.
Ci¢ stt1°')eshas referred to following three uses of singl d
, . (t 989 . f h e case stu y:
ylfl 'd a critica l test o a t eory to corroborate cball
roYl es , enge or
Jt P d. t
' ~ll • .· tudving a uniqu · h' h ·
lps 111 s , - al . e case. wI 1c f1s useful not only in • . .
Jt be h logy but so m socio ogy or the study of d c1.1m-
.1 r11c o
~ P"' roblem ind'1v1'duals, an d so on.
,
eviant
groups, ~ stUdying the phenomenon that occurs in a s·t •
It belp~ '(the phenomenon} has not been studied befo~:ation
' «heff: it he problems and rehabilitation of the sufferers ' £e.g.,
d"'"ng . 1
ogy of d'1saster), managementcy-
0
stU ,- • tthe coastal areas (socio of
ctones_1° anals for the farmers, environment disasters etc
· 'dOOl l C • ' '
1rrt~- he single case study, there are multiple case studie s where
~gai;s;~es are stu~ied for ~esting a ':ell-develop~ theory. How
i sertes should be included m a multiple case design will depend
lflatlY cases of the problem under study and the conditions in
e nature which
on th
it occurs.
CRITICISMS OF CASE STUDIES
d method is generally criticised on the following basis:
stu
caseSubjecty ive bi.as:
T~e cas~ study. des.•g~
. 1s. ~egarded · h d'
w_1t 1sdain be-
1. e of investigator s subJect1v1ty m collectmg data for
caus orting
or refutmg
' a part1c·1 u ar exp1 . n. Many a time
anat1o . the
sup P
• vestigator allows personal views . . fl uence t he d'1recti
to m on of
::e findings and his conclusions. The external checks on the inves-
tigator are so weak that he does not miss opportunity to advance
personal views..
2. Little evidence for scientific generalisations: It is said that case study
provides little evidence for inferences and generalising theory.
The common complaint is: How can generalisation be made from
asingle ~ase? Robert Burn's (2000:474) answer to this question is:
The c~e studies are generaliseable to theoretical propositions, not
to statistical populations. The object of case study is to expand
theory and not to undertake statistical generalisation. It may also
be said that if the uniformity of nature is assumed, the objection
(o~ generalising on the basis (?f a single case) disappears as one case
will demonstrate what is true of all other cases of the same cate-
gory. This assumption ·is accepted in natural sciences too. We can
I
 270
take an illustration from soci~ sci~nces, say criminol?gy, l'he
• f thieves who commit minor thefts for the first t• ~-
amp1e is o h . ·11 irne d
to poverty, hunger, unemploymen t, c
. , f ronic. i. ness' etc·, or lit
h rt, due to 'economic compulsions . I a cruninologist w , 1·n
s o . . . d . ants t
t blish assoc iation between crim e an economic depri v . o
es a
d tries to propound a hypothesis . h at1011
or at eory, could it b .s
an .
that the inference is uncertain. uppos~ later on differ
. ) S . e said
ent ri
o!
searchers t~e different cases thefts_ def!ned by three :ariables
namely, minor theft, economic deprivation, opportunity st ,
ture, and then s~parate stud'1es are compared and genera rue.
}
conclusions drawn 1n te~ms of the_po~erty. Such case studies will
represent categories and illustrate findings.
. 3. Time-consuming: Case study is time-consuming as it produces a lo
of information which is difficult ~o analyse ~dequately. Selectivi~
has naturally a tendency to be biased. But 1£ the case study is fo. ·
cused on relevant issues of person or event under study, it need
not be lengthy.
4. Doubtful reluibility: It is very difficult to establish reliability in the
case study. The investigator c~n ot prove his authenticity for ob-
taining data or having no ·bias in analysing them. It is not easy to
fix steps and procedures explicitly to the extent that others are en- _
abled to replicate the same study. _
5. Missing validity: The investigators in the case study fail to develop
a sufficiently operational set of measures. As such, checks and bal-
ances of reliable instruments are found missing. For investigator,
what seems true is more important than what is true. The case
study can oversimplify or exaggerate leading to erroneous conclu-
sions. The validity question also arises because the investigator by
his presence and actions affects the behaviour of the observed but
he does not give importance to this reaction while interpreting
the facts.
6. Yet one more argument against the case study is that it has no rep-
resentativeness, i.e., each case studied does not represent other
similar cases.
Yin (1989:21-22) has criticised case studies mainly on three
grounds: .
1. The findings of case studies are biased because the research is usu-
ally sloppy. This criticism is probably based on the prejudice that
quantitative researchers are against qualitative data. They think
\
 Case Study 271

that on ly nu mb ers ca n be use d to de scr ibe and exp lai n soc ial life
y an d rel iab ly. Th ey als o bel iev e tha t qu alitative stu dy can -
validl
not be replicated.
se stu die s are no t use ful for ge ne ralisa tio n. On e arg um ent is
2. Ca
it is no t po ssi ble to ge ne ral ise fro m a sin gle case. Th e oth er ar- .
that
nt is tha t if a nu mb er of cas es are use d for the pu rpo se, it wi ll
gume
me ly dif ficult to estab lish the ir com pcl rab ility. Ea ch cas e
be extre
ma ny un iqu e asp ect s. Bu t, the sam e arg um ent s can be
has too
raised against the experimental study too.
3. Case studies take too long time and produce unmanageable
ds
amounts of data. In fact, it is not the case study but the metho
I of data collection which are time-consuming.