UNIT 2

1) Why DC shunt motor is termed as a constant speed motor? (AU/APR-2015)

In DC shunt motor flux produced by field winding is proportional to field current Ish.Here the input
voltage is constant so field current and flux is also constant .Therefore, DC shunt motor is also
called a constant flux or constant speed motor.
2) Why starters are required? (AU/APR-2015)

When induction motor is switched on to the supply, it takes about 5 to 8 times full load current at
starting. This starting current may be of such a magnitude as to cause objectionable voltage drop in
the lines. So Starters are necessary
A DC motor is directly switched on, at the time of starting, the motor back emf is zero. Due to this,
the armature current is very high. Due to the very high armature current, the motor become
damaged. The starting current can be limited by using starter.
3) Define pulsating and impact loads with examples. (AU/NOV-2014)
Pulsating loads: Reciprocating pumps and compressors; frame saws, textile looms and generally ,
all machines having crank shaft .
Impact loads: Apparent, regular and repetitive load peaks or pulses which occur in rolling mills,
presses, shearing machines, forging hammers etc. Drives for such machines are characterized by
heavy flywheels.
4) What are the advantages of electric braking over other type of breaking? (AU/NOV-2014)
1) High efficient method
2) Low maintenance
3) Breaking is very smooth
5) What are the methods of breaking of electric motors? (AU/NOV-2013) (AU/NOV-2015)
(AU/APR-2013)
 Dynamic or Rheostatic braking,
 Counter current or plugging.
 Regenerative braking.
6) Write down the equation for the back EMF of DC motor in terms of flux per pole and
speed (AU/NOV-2012)
𝒁𝑵𝑷
𝑬𝒃 = ∅
𝟔𝟎𝑨
Ø= flux per pole
P= number of poles
N= speed in r.p.m
 Z= total armature conductors

A= number of parallel parts

7) Draw speed-torque characteristics of constant torque type load (AU/APR-2014)

SPEED
TL

TORQUE

Most of the working machines that have mechanical nature of work like shaping, cutting,
Grinding or shearing, require constant torque irrespective of speed. Similarly cranes during the
hoisting and conveyors handling constant weight of material per unit time also exhibit this type of
characteristics.

8) Draw speed-armature current characteristics of DC series motor. (AU/APR-2014)

Speed VS armature current characteristics of DC series motor

9) Draw speed- torque characteristics during regenerative breaking of induction motor?

(AU/APR-2013)
10) Draw the mechanical characteristics of a three phase induction motor? (AU/NOV-2013)

11) List the types of single phase induction motors? (AU/NOV-2012)

(i) Split phase induction motor

(ii)Capacitor start induction motor

(iii)Capacitor run induction motor

(iv)Capacitor start capacitor run induction motor

(v)Shaded pole induction motor

12) It is said that the speed of a DC motor depends on the back EMF and on the flux produced.
State what kind of proportionality exists between these quantities. (AU/APR-2012)
(AU/NOV-2011)

N=Eb/Ø

The speed of the dc motor is directly proportional to the back EMF Eb and inversely proportional to
the flux produced by the rotor.

13) Single phase induction motor is not a self-starting motor. Why? (AU/APR-2012)
When a single phase supply is fed to the single phase induction motor, its stator winding produces
a flux which only alternates along one space axis .It is not a synchronously revolving field, as in
the case of a 2 or three phase stator winding, fed from 2 or 3 phase supply.
14) Why is DC series motor used for traction purpose? (AU/NOV-2011)
DC series motor used in traction purpose, because we know any type of dc motor Torque is
directly proportional to flux and armature current. Particularly in dc series motor torque is directly
 proportional to flux and square of armature current, so it’s starting torque is high. Which reason for
dc series motor used in traction purpose.
15) Discuss briefly about counter-current breaking of DC shunt motor. (AU/APR-2011)

Braking accomplished by reversing the motor connections, at the same time inserting appropriate
resistance in the rotor circuit to adjust the negative torque to the desired value. With this method,
complete control of deceleration is obtained, even to a dead stop. Its greatest disadvantage is that it
is expensive in current consumption. It is unsuitable for winders sited at depth, owing to the heat
given out.

16 MARKS

1) Explain the four quadrant operation in motor drives. (AU/NOV-2015) (AU/APR-2015)

 For consideration of multi quadrant operation of drives, it is useful to establish suitable
Conventions about the signs of torque and speed.
 A motor operates in two modes – Motoring and braking.
MOTORING MODE:
In motoring, it converts electrical energy into mechanical energy, which supports its motion.
BREAKING MODE:
In braking it works as a generator converting mechanical energy into electrical energy and thus opposes
the motion.

Four- quadrant operation of drives

 Motor can provide motoring and braking operations for both forward and reverse directions. Figure
shows the torque and speed co-ordinates for both forward and reverse motions. Power developed by a
 motor is given by the product of speed and torque. For motoring operations power developed is positive
and for braking operations power developed is negative.

 In quadrant I, developed power is positive, hence machine works as a motor supplying

 Mechanical energy. Operation in quadrant I is therefore called Forward Motoring.
 In quadrant II, power developed is negative. Hence, machine works under braking opposing the
motion. Therefore operation in quadrant II is known as forward braking.
 Similarly operation in quadrant III and IV can be identified as reverse motoring and reverse braking
since speed in these quadrants is negative. For better understanding of the above notations, let us
consider operation of hoist in four quadrants as shown in the figure. Direction of motor and load
torques and direction of speed are marked by arrows.
For better understanding of the above notations, let us consider operation of hoist in four quadrants.
Direction of motor and load torques, and direction of speed are marked by arrows.
Construction:
 A hoist consist of a rope wound on a drum coupled to the motor shaft.one end of the rope is tied to a
cage which is used to transport man or material from one level to another level.
 Other end of the rope has a counter weight. Weight of the counter weight is chosen to be higher than
the weight of an empty cage but lower than of a fully loaded cage.
 Forward direction of motor speed will be one which gives upward motion of the cage. Load torque
line TL1 in quadrants I and IV represents speed- torque characteristics for the load hoist. This torque is
the difference of the torque due to loaded hoist and counter weight.
 The load torque the TL2 in the quadrant II& III is the speed- torque characteristics for an empty hoist.
This torque is the difference of torques due to counter weight and the empty hoist.
 It’s sign is negative because the counter weight is always higher than that of an empty case
QUADRANT 1:
 The quadrant I operation of a hoist requires the movement of the cage upward, which corresponds to
the positive motor speed which is in CCW direction here.
 This motion will be obtained if the motor products positive torque in CCW direction equal to the
magnitude of the load torque TL1.
 Since developed power is positive, this is forward motoring operation.
QUADRANT IV
 This operation is obtained when a loaded cage is lowered. Since the weight of the loaded cage is
higher than the weight of the counter weight. It is able to come down due to the gravity itself.
  In order to limit the speed of a cage within a safe value, motor must produce a positive torque T
equal to TL2 in anticlockwise direction. As both power and speed are negative, drive is operating
in reverse breaking.

Four quadrant operation of a motor driving a hoist load

QUADRANT II
  This operation is obtained when an empty cage is moved up. Since a counter weight is heavier than
an empty cage, it is able to pull it up.
 In order to limit the speed within a safe value, motor must produce a breaking torque equal to TL2 in
clockwise direction.
 Since speed is positive and developed power is negative, it is forward breaking operation.
QUADRANT III
 This operation is obtained when an empty cage is lowered. Since an empty cage has a lesser weight
than a counter weight, the motor should produce a torque in clockwise direction.
 Since speed is negative and developed power is positive, this is reverse motoring operation.
2) Discuss the dynamic breaking of DC shunt motor (AU/NOV-2015) (AU/APR-2012) (AU/APR-2011)
Dynamic braking of DC Shunt machine
 In dynamic braking the motor is disconnected from the supply and connected to a dynamic
braking resistance RDB. This is done by changing the switch from position 1 to 2.
 The supply to the field should not be removed. Due to the rotation of the armature during
motoring mode and due to the inertia, the armature continues to rotate. An emf is induced due
to the presence of the field and the rotation.
 This voltage drives a current through the braking resistance. The direction of this current is
opposite to the one which was owing before change in the connection. Therefore, torque
developed also gets reversed. The machine acts like a brake.
 The torque speed characteristics separate by excited shunt of the machine under dynamic
braking mode is as shown in Figure below. For a particular value of RDB. The positive torque
corresponds to the motoring operation.
 Fig. shows the dynamic braking of a shunt excited motor and the corresponding torque-speed
curve. Here the machine behaves as a self-excited generator. Below a certain speed the self-
excitation collapses and the braking action becomes Zero. Process time improves the
throughput.
 Basically the electric braking involved is fairly simple. The electric motor can be made to work
as a generator by suitable terminal conditions and absorb mechanical energy.
Speed torque characteristics of the dynamic breaking of DC shunt motor

The dynamic breaking of DC shunt motor

3) (ii) Describe the speed- torque characteristics of DC shunt and series motor with neat
sketch(AU/NOV-2015)
The speed-torque characteristics of DC shunt motor:

Speed torque characteristics of DC shunt motor.

 This graph is similar to speed- armature current characteristics as torque is proportional to the
armature current. This curve shows that the speed almost remains constant though torque
changes from no load to full load conditions.
 The modification in the various characteristics can be obtained by adding a variable resistance
in series with armature or field circuit. In some cases, supply voltage also can be varied to
modify the characteristics.
 When the resistance is inserted in the armature circuit, the voltage across the armature
decreases and hence the speed from zero to normal speed can be achieved. As voltage
decreases, the torque developed also decreases.
 Similarly the speed from zero to twice the normal speed can be obtained by adding resistance
in series with the field winding. As the resistance in the field circuit is increased, the current
through the field winding decreases, decreasing the flux.
 As the speed is inversely proportional to the flux the speed increases. Such increase in the
speed is possible up to twice the normal speed from the mechanical safety point of view.
The speed-torque characteristics of DC series motor:

The speed Vs Torque characteristics of series motor will be similar to the speed Vs armature current
characteristics. It will be a rectangular hyperbola as shown in the following figure.
 TαIa2 and Nα1/Ia

𝑁 ∝ 1/√𝑇

In dc series motors, torque increases with decrease of speed and they are most suitable for operating
cranes, lifts, trains, etc.

4) List out the advantages and disadvantages of electrical breaking over mechanical breaking. Discuss
any one method of electrical breaking of DC machines. (AU/APR-2015)
Advantages of electrical breaking over mechanical breaking :
(i)High efficient method
(ii)Low maintenance
(iii)Breaking is very smooth

2. Electric braking of DC series motor

D. Rheostatic braking
In this method of breaking, the motor is disconnected from the supply, the field connections are reversed and
motor is connected in series with a variable resistance R as shown in
 Rheostatic breaking

 The field connections are reversed to make sure that,the current through the field winding
flows in the same direction as before (i.e., from A to B )in order to assist for residual
magnetism.
 In practice, the variable resistance used for starting purpose is itself used for braking
purposes.
 The speed-torque characteristics of DC series motor during rheostatic braking is shown in
the following figure. Explanations are similar to rheostatic braking method applied to DC
shunt motor.
5) Derive the torque equation of a 3- phase induction motor from the basics and obtain the speed VS
torque characteristics. (AU/NOV-2014) (AU/NOV-2011)

It has been shown in the case of a DC motor that the torque T is proportional to the product of the
armature current and flux per pole .i.e.

Tα Ia

In case of the induction motor, however, in addition to the flux and rotor current, the rotor power factor has
also to be taken into account. Hence
𝑇 ∝ 𝐼2𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ 2𝑟 -----------(A)
Where,
Ø= flux responsible to produce induced emf.
I2r= rotor current under running condition.
CosØ2r= rotor power factor under running condition.
Let E2 be the rotor induced emf per phase under standstill condition and
let X2 be the rotor reactance per phase under standstill condition. Since thr rotor frequency at a slip s is
fr=sf, the rotor reactance varies,
X2r=Sx2
 E2α Ø
E2r= sE2
𝐸2𝑟 𝑠𝐸2
And 𝐼2𝑟 = =
𝑧2𝑟 √𝑅22 +(𝑆𝑋2 ) 2

𝑅
cosØ2r=𝑍 2 = 𝑅 2
2𝑟
√𝑅2
2 +(𝑆𝑋2 )
2

in equation (A), Ø can be replaced by E2,

Hence the torque under running condition is
𝐸2 𝑅2
𝑇∝ .
√𝑅22 + (𝑠𝑋2 ) 2 √𝑅22 + (𝑠𝑋2 )2

𝑠𝐸22 𝑅2
𝑇∝ 2
𝑅2 + (𝑠𝑋2 )2
𝐾𝑠𝐸22 𝑅2
𝑇= 𝑁 − 𝑚 --------(B)
𝑅22 +(𝑠𝑋2 )2

Where K= constant of proportionality

3
𝐾=
2𝜋𝑛𝑠

𝑁𝑆
ns= synchronous speed in rps= =
60

At standstill s= 1 and therefore the starting torque is ,

𝐾𝐸22 𝑅2
𝑇𝑠𝑡 = 2 𝑁−𝑚
𝑅2 + 𝑋22

Condition for maximum running torque

Torque under running condition ,

𝐾𝐸22 𝑅2
𝑇= 2 𝑁−𝑚
𝑅2 + (𝑆𝑋2 )2

𝑑𝑇
Torque T for fixed input voltage will be maximum when =0
𝑑𝑠

(𝑅22 + 𝑆 2 𝑋22 )(𝐾𝑠𝐸22 𝑅2 ) − (𝐾𝑠𝐸22 𝑅2 )( 2𝑠𝑋22 ) = 0

i.e., R2= s X2
 𝑅
𝑆𝑚 = 𝑋2 In the slip at which the torque is maximum.
2

𝑅
Then substituting 𝑠 = 𝑋2 in equation (B) we have,
2

𝐾𝐸22
𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
2𝑋2

From this equation, it can be observed that

1. The maximum torque is independent of rotor resistance R2.

2. Maximum torque is directly proportional to the square of the induced emf at standstill (i.e.,E2)
3. Maximum torque is inversely proportional to the rotor reactance.

Torque- speed characteristics of induction motor :

Torque- speed characteristics of induction motor

This curve can be divided into 3 region according to the slip value .

1) Motoring region (0 ≤ 𝑠 ≤ 1)
2) Generating region (𝑠 < 0)
3) Plugging region (1.0 ≤ 𝑠 ≤ 2.0 )
6) With circuit diagram explain plugging method of breaking of DC shunt motor and its torque
speed – characteristics. (AU/APR-2014) (AU/NOV-2012)

Counter- current breaking or plugging occurs when the motor windings are connected for reverse
direction of rotation at a time when the armature is still rotating in the forward direction either under
the action of an external torque or due to inertia.
 For the plugging of motor reversal may be accomplished by reversing the polarity of the applied
voltage either to the armature or to the field winding.

If the polarity of the voltage applied to the motor armature is reversed while it is still rotating in the
initial direction, then the armature induced back emf Eb has the same polarity as before but the polarity
of the input voltage V is reversed so that the armature circuit voltage can be written has ,

−𝑉 = 𝐸𝑏 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎

𝐸𝑏
𝐼𝑎 = 𝑉 +
𝑅𝑎

Reversal of polarity of armature current produces a plugging torque which is given by

𝑇𝑝 = 𝐾𝑡 ∅𝐼𝑎

𝑉 + 𝐸𝑏
= −𝐾𝑡 ∅
𝑅𝑎
The total plugging torque at the instant of plugging is given by
𝑇𝑏𝑝 = 𝑇𝑃 𝑇𝐿 -------(A)
Where TL = load torque at the instant of plugging

Plugging of dc shunt motor.

 Equation (A) shows that at the instant of plugging the armature current becomes very large as both V
and Eb have the same polarity at that instant.
 Hence to limit the armature current during plugging it is necessary to insert suitable additional
resistance in the armature circuit.
 Torque speed characteristics:
 Plugging is executed at a time when the motor is operating at the point E on the characteristics A for
the load TL
 Due to plugging the operating point shift to point F on characteristics B as the speed of the motor
cannot change instantaneously due to inertia. As a result of the breaking torque developed, the motor
accelerates along characteristics B until the motor stops at G.
 When the reversal of rotation is not required the supply must be switched off when the motor speed
becomes very nearly equal to zero.
 If the supply is not switched off, then the motor will gain speed in opposite direction along GH
characteristics B.
 Note that as soon as the direction of rotation if reversed , the induced emf in the armature changes its
polarity and again acts against the input voltage so that the drive will rotate in the off from the armature
circuit and hence, operating point shifts to point I on the natural characteristics C.
 The motor finally runs steadily in the reverse direction at the point J on the characteristics C for the
load torque TL.
7) Describe speed-torque characteristics for DC dynamic breaking of three-phase induction motor
(AU/APR-2014)

DC dynamic breaking:

For dynamic breaking of an induction motor, its AC supply is disconnected and a DC supply is
connected to the two phases of stator winding. A limiting resistor R1 is used in the circuit for
controlling DC excitation.

Alternatively an AC supply may be rectified by means of a SCR bridge rectifier and the resulting DC
may be fed to the stator winding.
 The DC voltage produces a stationary magnetic field in the air gap. Since the rotor is continuously
rotating because of kinetic energy stored in it, an EMF is induced in rotor conductors will be opposite
in direction to that corresponding to motoring operation and produce breaking torque.

DC Dynamic breaking (i) with separate DC- source (ii) bridge rectifier

Speed torque characteristics for DC dynamic breaking – induction motor.

The breaking torque for the motor is given by

3 𝐼22 𝑅2
𝑇𝑏 =
𝜔𝑠 𝑠

Where I2 is current in the rotor circuit. The current in the rotor circuit produced due to an EMF induced in
the rotor circuit due to flux produced by stator current. It is a function of frequency or in other words, the
speed of the motor.
 If E1 is the EMF induced in the rotor circuit at standstill (s=1) the EMF at any slip s is sE1.

There are number of ways in which the three phase stator winding can be connected as DC field
winding. Some of these connections are given below

Various stator connections for dc dynamic breaking

The dc dynamic or rheostatic breaking of induction motor is quite convenient in practice and
commonly used with active loads.

8) Explain speed-torque characteristics of different types of load with graph? (AU/APR-2013)

Speed- torque characteristics of different types of load:

In electric drives the driving equipment is an electric motor. One of the essential requirements in the
selection of a particular type of motor for driving a machine is the matching of speed- torque
characteristics of the driven unit and that of motor.

Therefore, the knowledge of how the load torque varies with speed of the driven machine is necessary.
Different types of loads exhibit different speed torque characteristics.’

The most of the industrial loads can be classified into the following four general categories:

i) constant torque type load

ii) torque proportional to speed (generator type load)
iii) torque proportional to square of the speed ( fan type load)
iv) torque inversely proportional to speed ( constant power type load)

Constant torque characteristic:

Speed torque curve of a constant troque load

Most of the working machines that have mechanical nature of work like shaping, cutting, grinding or
shearing , require constant torque irrespective of speed .similarly ,cranes during the hoisting and conveyors
handling constant weight of material per unit time also exhibit this type of characteristics. The speed torque
characteristics of this type of load is given by T= K .

Torque proportional to speed:

Separately excited dc generators connected to a constant resistive load, eddy current brakes, and
calendaring machines have a speed-torque characteristics given by T=Kω.

Speed- torque curve of a generator type load

Tα N (OR) Tα ω (OR) T=Kω

Torque proportional to square of the speed:

Another type of load met in practice is the one in which load torque is proportional to the square of
the speed. The typical examples are: fans , rotary pumps, compressors, and ship propellers. The speed
torque characteristics of this type of load is given by T= Kω2
 Speed -torque curve of a fan type load

Tα ω2

T=Kω2

Torque inversely proportional to speed:

Certain types of lathes, boring machines, milling machines , steel mill coiler and electric traction load
exhibit hyperbolic speed torque characteristics. In such loads the torque is inversely proportional to speed
or the load power remains constant. This type of characteristics is given by T= K/ω

Speed- torque curve of a constant power type load

𝟏
𝑇𝛂
𝝎
𝐾
𝑇= 𝜔

Most of the loads require extra effort at the time of starting to overcome static friction. In power application
it is known as break way torque and the control engineers call it ‘ stiction’. Because of stiction , the speed-
torque characteristics of the loads are modified near the zero speed.
Speed- torque curve of a constant – torque type load as modified due to stiction

The characteristics described above do not represent all type of machines that are likely to be met in
practice. However, they do represent a large group of industrial equipment which have their speed- torque
characteristic typically belonging to any one of the above categories.

9)(i) Explain with necessary circuit diagram the reverse current breaking and the breaking
characteristics of the following :

(1) DC series motor (5) (AU/NOV-2012)

For DC series motor also plugging can be accomplished by reversing the polarity of the voltage applied to
the armature.

However, it should be ensured that the current flowing in the field winding remains in the same direction
as before when the armature current is reversed.

Plugging in DC series motor

Speed- torque characteristics of dc series motor under plugging