UNIT 4

Transistor Amplifiers and Oscillators

 Transistor Amplifier
A transistor acts as an amplifier by raising the
strength of a weak signal.

Any small change in input signal to result in

an appreciable change in the output.

The emitter current caused by the input signal

contributes the collector current, which when
flows through the load resistor RL, results in a
large voltage drop across it.

Thus a small input voltage results in a large

output voltage, which shows that the
transistor works as an amplifier.

2
Let 0.1v is input voltage applied, which produces a change
of 1mA in the emitter current.

This emitter current will produce a change in collector

current of 1mA.

A load resistance of 5kΩ placed in the collector would

produce a voltage of 5 kΩ × 1 mA = 5V

Hence it is observed that a change of 0.1v in the input

gives a change of 5v in the output, which means the
voltage level of the signal is amplified

3
 Types of amplifiers
1. Based on the property of their output
Voltage Amplifier
Power Amplifier

2. Based on the number of stages

Single stage Amplifier
Multistage Amplifier

3. Based on the size of the input signals

Small signal Amplifiers
Large signal amplifiers

4. Based on the mode of operation

Class A
Class B
Class AB
Class C
5. Based on the operating frequency
Audio frequency (AF) amplifier
Radio Frequency (RF) amplifier

6. Based on coupling used

RC coupled amplifier
Transformer coupled Amplifier
Direct coupled amplifier

7. Based on configuration
CB amplifier
CE amplifier
CC amplifier
 RC coupled transistor Amplifier
RC பிணைப்பு பபருக்கி
output resistance=high input resistance=less
The two stage amplifier circuit has two transistors connected in
CE configuration

Power supply VCC is used

R1 and R2 form the biasing

RE stabilization network

Emitter by-pass capacitor CE (capacitor allows ac blocks dc)

It offers a low reactance path to the signal

RL - load impedance.

Input capacitor - Cin couples AC signal to the base of the

transistor.
Capacitor CC is the coupling capacitor - connects two stages

It prevents DC interference between the stages

Controls the shift of operating point

AC input signal is applied to the base of first transistor, it gets

amplified and appears at the collector load RL

Amplified signal is passed through the coupling capacitor CC to the

next stage.

This becomes the input of the next stage, whose amplified output
again appears across its collector load.

Thus the signal is amplified in stage by stage action.

The total gain is less than the product of the gains of individual
stages. G<G1XG2XG3

When a second stage is made to follow the first stage,

the effective load resistance of the first stage is reduced due to
the shunting effect of the input resistance of the second stage

Only the gain of the last stage remains unchanged

In a two stage amplifier, the output phase is same as input.

The phase reversal is done two times by the two stage CE

configured amplifier circuit
Frequency Response
அதிர்வெண் உணர்திறன் ெரைபடம்

Frequency response curve is a graph that indicates the

relationship between voltage gain and function of
frequency.
The frequency decreases for the frequencies below 50Hz and for the
frequencies above 20 KHz

voltage gain (frequencies between 50Hz and 20 KHz) is constant.

XC=1/ωC=1/2πfc
Capacitive reactance is inversely proportional to the frequency.

At Low frequencies (i.e. below 50 Hz)

At low frequencies, the reactance is quite high.

The reactance of Cin and CC are so high and a small part of the input
signal is allowed.
The reactance of CE is also very high during low frequencies (cannot
shunt the emitter resistance effectively)

Voltage gain decreases at low frequencies

At High frequencies (above 20 KHz)

Capacitive reactance is low at high frequencies (XC=1/ωC=1/2πfc)

Capacitor behaves as a short circuit, at high frequencies.

The loading effect of the next stage increases, which reduces the
voltage gain.

Capacitance of emitter diode decreases, it increases the base current

and the current gain (β=IC/IB) reduces

Hence the voltage gain decreases off at high frequencies

Mid-frequencies (i.e. 50 Hz to 20 KHz)

The voltage gain of the capacitors is maintained constant in

this range of frequencies

If the frequency increases, the reactance of the capacitor

CC decreases which tends to increase the gain.

Lower capacitance reactive increases the loading effect of

the next stage and is a reduction in gain.

Due to these two factors, the gain is maintained constant.

Advantages

•The frequency response of RC amplifier provides

constant gain over a AUDIBLE frequency range

•Suitable for audio applications

•Circuit is simple

•Low cost (because it employs resistors and capacitors

which are cheap)

•It becomes more compact

Disadvantages
The voltage and power gain are low because of the effective load
resistance.

But many stages can be employed to increase the gain

They become noisy with age

Poor impedance matching so power transfer will be low

Applications
They have excellent audio fidelity over a wide range of frequency

Widely used as Voltage amplifiers

Due to poor impedance matching, RC coupling is rarely used in

the final stages.
 Transformer coupled amplifier
மின்மாற்றி பிணைப்பு பபருக்கி

The main drawback of RC coupled amplifier is that the effective

load resistance gets reduced.

The input impedance of an amplifier is low, while its output

impedance is high.

When they are coupled to make a multistage amplifier, the high

output impedance of one stage comes in parallel with the low
input impedance of next stage.

Hence, effective load resistance is decreased. This problem can

be overcome by a transformer coupled amplifier.

Here the stages of amplifier are coupled using a transformer

 Construction of Transformer Coupled Amplifier

The previous stage is connected to the next stage using a coupling

transformer

The coupling transformer T1 is used to feed the output of 1st stage to

the input of 2nd stage

The collector load is replaced by the primary winding of the

transformer.

The secondary winding is connected between the potential divider

and the base of 2nd stage, which provides the input to the 2nd stage.

A transformer is used for coupling any two stages, in the transformer

coupled amplifier circuit
The potential divider network R1 and R2 and the resistor
RE together form the biasing and stabilization network.

The emitter by-pass capacitor CE offers a low reactance path

to the signal.

The input capacitor Cin present at the initial stage of the

amplifier couples AC signal to the base of the transistor.

It prevents DC interference between the stages and controls the

shift of operating point.
 Operation of Transformer Coupled Amplifier
When an AC signal is applied to the input at the base of the first
transistor

It gets amplified by the transistor and appears at the collector to

which the primary of the transformer is connected

The transformer is a coupling device it has the property of

impedance matching

The voltage at the primary is transferred according to the turns

ratio of the secondary winding of the transformer

This transformer coupling provides good impedance matching

between the stages of amplifier

The transformer coupled amplifier is generally used for power

amplification.
 Frequency Response of Transformer Coupled Amplifier

The gain of the amplifier is constant for a small range of frequencies

The output voltage is equal to the collector current multiplied by the
reactance of primary Vo=IXL
 Vo=IXL (XL= ωL=2πfL)

At low frequencies, the reactance of primary begins to fall,

resulting in decreased gain. [Gain=Vo/Vi]

At high frequencies, the capacitance between turns of windings

acts as a bypass condenser to reduce the output voltage and hence
gain (Vo=IXC) (XC=1/ωC=1/2πfc)

Amplification of audio signals will not be proportionate and

some distortion- Frequency distortion

Reactance of primary=o/p impedence of transistor

Reactance of secondary= i/p impedence of transistor
Step down transformer
RL’= (Np/Ns)2 RL
Np:Ns=10:1 , RL=100 Ω; RL’ =(10/1)2100= 10000=10 kΩ
Advantages of Transformer Coupled Amplifier
•An excellent impedance matching is provided.
•Gain achieved is higher. (2RC)
•There will be no power loss in collector and base resistors.
•Efficient in operation.

Disadvantages of Transformer Coupled Amplifier

•Though the gain is high, it varies considerably with frequency.
• Poor frequency response.
•Frequency distortion is higher.
•Transformers tend to produce hum noise.
•Transformers are bulky and costly.

Applications
•Mostly used for impedance matching purposes.
•Used for Power amplification.
•Used in applications where maximum power transfer is needed
 Direct coupled amplifier - னேர் பிணைப்பு பபருக்கி
Direct coupled amplifier is used to amplify lower frequency
(<10Hz) signals

Amplifying photo-electric current ஒளிமின்னியமின்னனோட்டம் or

thermo-couple current வெப்ப மின்னிைட்ரடமின்னனோட்டம்

As no coupling devices are used

The coupling of the amplifier stages is done directly and hence

called as Direct coupled amplifier

Construction
Complementary transistors are used

The output of first stage transistor T1 is connected to the input of

second stage transistor T2.
The transistor in the first stage will be an NPN transistor

The transistor in the next stage will be a PNP transistor and so

on.

The variations in one transistor tend to cancel the variations in

the other.

The rise in the collector current and the variation in β of one

transistor gets cancelled by the decrease in the other
 Operation
The input signal when applied at the base of transistor T1, it gets
amplified due to the transistor action

The amplified output appears at the collector resistor Rc of

transistor T1.

This output is applied to the base of transistor T2 which further

amplifies the signal.

In this way, a signal is amplified in a direct coupled amplifier

circuit.
Advantages
•The circuit arrangement is simple because of minimum use of
resistors.
• Impedence matching good
•The circuit is of low cost because of the absence of expensive
coupling devices.

Disadvantages
•It cannot be used for amplifying high frequencies.

•The operating point is shifted due to temperature variations, No

proper biasing

Applications
•Low frequency amplifications.
•Low current amplifications.
 Transformer Direct
S.No Particular RC Coupling
Coupling Coupling
Frequency Excellent(AF)
1 response Poor Best

2 Cost Less More Least

Space and
3 Less More Least
Weight
Impedance
4 Not good Excellent Good
matching
For voltage For Power Amplify low
5 Use
amplification amplification frequencies
 Classification of power amplifiers
திறன் பபருக்கி- வணகப்படுத்துதல்
On the basis of the mode of operation, i.e., the portion of the input
cycle during which collector current flows

Class A Power amplifier (A-ெரை திறன் வபருக்ைி)

− When the collector current flows at all times during the full cycle of
signal, the power amplifier is known as class A power amplifier - Q
point at centre of load line- efficiency வெயல்திறன் =25%

Class B Power amplifier (B-ெரை திறன் வபருக்ைி) − When the

collector current flows only during the positive half cycle of the input
signal, the power amplifier is known as class B power amplifier - Q
point-cutoff- efficiency=78%
Class C Power amplifier (C-ெரை திறன் வபருக்ைி)
− When the collector current flows for less than half cycle of
the input signal, the power amplifier is known as class C
power amplifier – Q point – below cutoff- efficiency=100%

Class AB amplifier (AB-ெரை திறன் வபருக்ைி) :if we

combine the class A and class B amplifiers so as to utilize the
advantages of both-Q point is between centre and cutoff-
efficiency =between 25-75%
 Class A Power Amplifier

A Class A power amplifier is one in which the output current flows for the
entire cycle of the AC input supply

The complete signal present at the input is amplified at the output

The operating point of this amplifier is present in the linear region

(At the centre of the load line)

It is so selected that the current flows for the entire ac input cycle
 The output characteristics with operating point Q is shown in the figure

Here (IC)Q and (VCE)Q represent no signal collector current and voltage between
collector and emitter respectively

When signal is applied, the Q-point shifts to Q1 and Q2

The output current increases to (IC)max and decreases to (IC)min

Similarly, the collector-emitter voltage increases to (VCE)max and decreases to

(VCE)min
DC power dissipated in the collector region of the transistor in the form of heat PC(DC)
Advantages of Class AAmplifiers

•The current flows for complete input cycle

•It can amplify small signals

•The output is same as input

•No distortion is present

Disadvantages of Class AAmplifiers

•Low power output

•Low collector efficiency

Class A power amplifier has low output power and low efficiency.
So, the transformer coupled class A power amplifier has been introduced.
Class A transformer coupled power amplifier
 Class A transformer coupled power amplifier

▪This is similar to the normal amplifier circuit but connected with a transformer
in the collector load.

▪Here R1 and R2 provide potential divider arrangement.

▪The resistor RE provides stabilization, CE is the bypass capacitor

▪The transformer used here is a step-down transformer.

▪The high impedance primary of the transformer is connected to the high

impedance collector circuit.

▪The low impedance secondary is connected to the load (generally loud

speaker).
Transformer Action

The transformer used in the collector circuit is for impedance matching.

RL is the load connected in the secondary of a transformer.

RL’ is the reflected load in the primary of the transformer.

The number of turns in the primary are n1 and the secondary are n2.

Let V1 and V2 be the primary and secondary voltages

I1 and I2 be the primary and secondary currents respectively.

A power amplifier may be matched by taking proper turns ratio in step

down transformer.
Circuit Operation

In order to achieve complete amplification, the operating point should lie at the
center of the load line.

The operating point obviously varies when the signal is applied. The collector
voltage varies in opposite phase to the collector current.

The variation of collector voltage appears across the primary of the transformer.

Circuit Analysis

The power loss in the primary is assumed to be negligible, as its resistance is very
small.

Overall and collector efficiency are equal in this case.

Advantages
•No loss of signal power in the base or collector resistors
•Excellent impedance matching is achieved
•Gain is high

Disadvantages
•Hum noise is introduced by transformers.
•Transformers are bulky and costly.
•Poor frequency response.

Applications
•This circuit is used where impedance matching is the main criterion.
•These are used as driver amplifiers and sometimes as output amplifiers
 Class B Power Amplifier
•When the collector current flows only during the positive half
cycle of the input signal, the power amplifier is known as class B
power amplifier.

•The biasing of the transistor in class B operation is in such a

way that at zero signal condition, there will be no collector
current.

•The operating point is selected at cut off voltage.

•When the signal is applied, only the positive half cycle is

amplified at the output

•The figure shows the input and output waveforms during class
B operation.
When the signal is applied, the circuit is forward biased for the
positive half cycle of the input and hence the collector current
flows.

But during the negative half cycle of the input, the circuit is reverse
biased and the collector current will be absent.

Hence only the positive half cycle is amplified at the output.

As the negative half cycle is completely absent, the signal

distortion will be high.

Also, when the applied signal increases, the power dissipation will
be more.

But when compared to class A power amplifier, the output

efficiency is increased.
 Class B - Push-Pull Amplifier - தள்ளு இழு வபருக்ைி

Though the efficiency of class B power amplifier is higher than class

A, only one half cycle of the input is amplified, so the distortion is
high.
Also, the input power is not completely utilized. So push-pull
configuration is introduced in class B amplifier.
Construction

The circuit of a push-pull class B power amplifier consists of two

identical transistors T1 and T2 whose bases are connected to the
secondary of the center-tapped input transformer Tr1. The emitters
are shorted and the collectors are given the VCC supply through the
primary of the output transformer Tr2.
In class B push-pull amplifier the transistors are biased at cut off,
instead of using the biasing resistors
 Operation
The circuit of class B push-pull amplifier has two center-tapped
transformers

When no signal is applied at the input, the transistors T1 and T2 are

in cut off condition ; no collector currents flow.

As no current is drawn from VCC, no power is wasted.

When input signal is given, it is applied to the input transformer

Tr1 which splits the signal into two signals that are 180o out of phase
with each other.

These two signals are given to the two identical transistors T1 and
T2.
For the positive half cycle, the base of the
transistor T1 becomes positive and
forward biased and

The transistor T1 is in the ON state and

collector current flows.

At the same time, the transistor T2 has

negative half cycle, and base of the
transistor T2 is negative and reverse
biased

The transistor T2 is in cutoff condition

and hence no collector current flows.

The waveform is produced as shown in

the following figure
For the next half cycle, the transistor T1 gets into cut off condition and the transistor
T2 gets into conduction, to contribute the output.

Hence for both the cycles, each transistor conducts alternately.

The output transformer Tr2 serves to join the two currents producing an almost
undistorted output waveform.
 Efficiency of Class B Push-Pull Amplifier
Current in each transistor is the average value of half sine loop.
For half sine loop, Idc is given by
Hence the class B push-pull amplifier improves the efficiency than the
class A push-pull amplifier.
 Advantages
• Output ac power and efficiency are high
• Distortion is reduced

Disadvantages
• Two center tapped transformers are needed, so circuit is costly
and bulkier
• Equal and opposite input signal voltages are required
• Two identical transistors to be used
• If the parameters of the transistors are not the same; unequal
amplification of the 2 halves of the signal
 Complementary symmetry push pull class B amplifier
The push pull amplifier improves efficiency

But the usage of center-tapped transformers makes the circuit bulky,

heavy and costly.

To make the circuit simple and to improve the efficiency, the

transistors used can be complemented,
 Thermal Runaway - பவப்ப ஓட்டம்
The self-destruction of such an unstabilized transistor is known
as Thermal run away.

All semiconductors are sensitive to temperature; as temp

increases, collector current increases and produces heat at
collector junction and if not controlled , transistor gets damaged

Si transistor can withstand upto 230˚C and Ge transistor upto

100˚C

In order to avoid thermal runaway and the destruction of

transistor, it is necessary to stabilize the operating point, i.e., to
keep IC constant.

Operating point depends on surrounding temp, power dissipated

by the transistor
 Heat sink- வெப்ப ெோங்ைி

A metal sheet that serves to dissipate heat from a transistor-

protect transistor from thermal run away

Dissipation α material, volume, area, shape, contact between case

and sink, movement of air around sink

To prevent thermal runaway:

1. Choice of Q point
2. Ambient temperature
3. Type of transistor( metal case / plastic case)
4. Circuit to compensate temp changes and stabilize Q point
 Amplifier vs. Oscillator
An oscillator generates AC output without any ac input signal.

An electronic oscillator is a circuit which converts dc energy into ac at a

very high frequency.

An amplifier with a positive feedback can be act as an oscillator.

An amplifier increases the signal strength of the input signal applied,

whereas an oscillator generates a signal without that input signal

Both require dc for its operation.

 Oscillator Types

Oscillators
Sinusoidal
oscillators Non sinusoidal
LC RC Crystal Oscillators /
Oscillators Oscillators Oscillators Relaxation
Oscillators/
Multivibrators

Astable Bistable
Monostable
MV MV
MV
 Nature of Sinusoidal Oscillation
ரென்ெரளனெோட்டம் அரைவு
The nature of oscillations in a sinusoidal wave are generally of two types.
They are damped and undamped oscillations.

Damped Oscillations தணடயுற்ற அணைவுகள்

The electrical oscillations whose amplitude goes on decreasing with time
are called as Damped Oscillations. The frequency of the damped
oscillations may remain constant depending upon the circuit parameters.

Damped oscillations are generally

produced by the oscillatory circuits
that produce power losses and doesn’t
compensate if required
Undamped Oscillation-தரடயற்ற அரைவு

The electrical oscillations whose amplitude remains constant with time are called
as Undamped Oscillations. The frequency of the Undamped oscillations remains
constant.

Undamped oscillations are generally produced by the oscillatory circuits that

produce no power losses and follow compensation techniques if any power losses
occur

An amplifier with positive feedback produces its output to be in phase with the
input and increases the strength of the signal.
The Oscillatory Circuit - அரைவுச்சுற்று

An oscillatory circuit produces electrical oscillations of a desired frequency.

They are also known as tank circuits.

A simple tank circuit comprises of an inductor L and a capacitor C which

determine the oscillatory frequency of the circuit.

The capacitor in this circuit is already charged using a dc source. In this

situation, the lower plate of the capacitor has excess of electrons whereas the
upper plate has deficit of electrons. The capacitor holds some electrostatic
energy and there is a voltage across the capacitor.

When the switch S is closed, the capacitor discharges and the current flows
through the inductor. Due to the inductive effect, the current builds up slowly
towards a maximum value. Once the capacitor discharges completely, the
magnetic field around the coil is maximum.
Once the capacitor is discharged completely, the magnetic field begins to
collapse and produces a counter EMF according to Lenz’s law.

The capacitor is now charged with positive charge on the lower plate and
negative charge on the upper plate.

Once the capacitor is fully charged, it starts to discharge to build up a

magnetic field around the coil

Continuous charging and discharging results in alternating motion of

electrons or an oscillatory current. The interchange of energy between L
and C produce continuous oscillations.

In an ideal circuit, where there are no losses, the oscillations would continue
indefinitely.

In a practical tank circuit, there occur losses such as resistive and radiation
losses in the coil and dielectric losses in the capacitor. These losses result in
damped oscillations.
Frequency of Oscillations - அணைவு அதிர்பவண்

The frequency of the oscillations produced by the tank circuit are determined
by the components of the tank circuit, L and C.

The actual frequency of oscillations is the resonant frequency (or natural

frequency) of the tank circuit which is given by
 Essentials of an Oscillator circuit
Practical Oscillator circuit consists of a tank circuit, a transistor amplifier, and a
feedback circuit.
•Tank Circuit − The tank circuit consists of an inductance L connected in parallel with
capacitor C. The values of these two components determine the frequency of the oscillator
circuit and hence this is called as Frequency determining circuit.

•Transistor Amplifier − The output of the tank circuit is connected to the amplifier circuit
so that the oscillations produced by the tank circuit are amplified here. Hence the output of
these oscillations are increased by the amplifier.

•Feedback Circuit − The function of feedback circuit is to transfer a part of the output
energy to LC circuit in proper phase. This feedback is positive in oscillators while
negative in amplifiers.
Positive Feedback- நேர் பின்னூட்டம்
The feedback in which the feedback energy i.e., either voltage or current is
in phase with the input signal

The amplifier introduces a phase shift of 180o into the circuit and the
feedback network amplifier introduces a phase shift of 180o. Total phase
shift is 360o around the loop, i.e, feed back signal is in phase with the input
signal.

Advantage: Increases the gain of the amplifier

Disadvantages :Increasing distortion; Instability

If the positive feedback is sufficiently large, it leads to oscillations, by which

oscillator circuits are formed
Negative Feedback-எதிர் பின்னூட்டம்
The feedback in which the feedback energy i.e., either voltage or current is out
of phase with the input

The amplifier introduces a phase shift of 180o into the circuit while the feedback
network is so designed that it produces no phase shift or zero phase shift. Thus
the resultant feedback voltage Vf is 180o out of phase with the input signal Vin.

Disadvantage: gain of the amplifier is reduced,

Advantages :
Stability of gain is improved; Reduction in distortion
Reduction in noise; Increase in input impedance
Decrease in output impedance
Principle of Feedback Amplifier- பின்னூட்ட தத்துவம்

A feedback amplifier generally consists of two parts. They are the amplifier and
the feedback circuit.

The feedback circuit usually consists of resistors.

The concept of feedback amplifier can be understood from the following figure
below.
 The gain of the amplifier A is the ratio of output voltage Vo to the input
voltage Vi.

A=Vo/Vi

The feedback network extracts a voltage Vf = β Vo from the output Vo of

the amplifier.(Feed fraction , β )

This voltage is added for positive feedback and subtracted for negative
feedback, from the signal voltage Vs

So, for a positive feedback,

Vi = Vs + Vf = Vs + β Vo

The quantity β = Vf/Vo is called as feedback ratio or feedback fraction.

 The output Vo must be equal to the input voltage (Vs + βVo) multiplied by
the gain A of the amplifier. (A)= (V0) / (Vi)

(Vs+βVo)A=Vo
AVs+AβVo=Vo
AVs=Vo(1−Aβ)
Vo / Vs = A /(1−Aβ)

Let Af be gain with the feedback of the amplifier.

Af=Output Voltage/Input Signal Voltage=Vo/Vs

Af=A/(1−Aβ)

Where Aβ is the feedback factor or the loop gain.

If Aβ = 1, Af = ∞. Thus the gain becomes infinity, i.e., there is output

without any input. In another words, the amplifier works as an Oscillator.

The condition Aβ = 1 is called as Barkhausen Criterion of oscillations.

 Hartley Oscillator
ஹோர்ட்ைி அரையியற்றி
Construction

The resistors R1, R2 and Re provide necessary bias condition for the
circuit.
The capacitor CE provides a.c. ground thereby providing any signal
degeneration. This also provides temperature stabilization.

The capacitors Cc and CB are employed to block d.c. and to provide an

a.c. path.

The radio frequency choke (R.F.C) offers very high impedance to high
frequency currents which means it shorts for d.c. and opens for a.c.

Hence it provides d.c. load for collector and keeps a.c. currents out of
d.c. supply source
Tank Circuit- பதாட்டி சுற்று

The frequency determining network is a parallel resonant circuit which

consists of the inductors L1 and L2 along with a variable capacitor C.

The junction of L1 and L2 are earthed. The coil L2 has its one end
connected to base via Cin and the other to emitter via CE.

So, L1 is in the output circuit. Both the coils L1 and L2 are inductively
coupled and together form an Auto-transformer.
Operation
When the collector supply is given, a transient current is produced in the
oscillatory or tank circuit.

The oscillatory current in the tank circuit produces a.c. voltage across L1.

The auto-transformer made by the inductive coupling of L1 and L2 helps in

determining the frequency and establishes the feedback.

As the CE configured transistor provides 180o phase shift, another 180o phase
shift is provided by the transformer, which makes 360o phase shift between the
input and output voltages.

This makes the feedback positive which is essential for the condition of
oscillations.

When the loop gain |βA| of the amplifier is greater than one, oscillations are
sustained in the circuit.
 Colpitts Oscillator- ைோல்பிட் அரையியற்றி

A Colpitts oscillator looks just like the Hartley oscillator but the inductors and
capacitors are replaced with each other in the tank circuit

The resistors R1, R2 and RE provide necessary bias condition for the circuit.

The capacitor CE provides a.c. Ground; This also provides temperature

stabilization.

The capacitors Cc and CB are employed to block d.c. and to provide an a.c. path.

The radio frequency choke (R.F.C) offers very high impedance to high frequency
currents which means it shorts for d.c. and opens for a.c.

Hence it provides d.c. load for collector and keeps a.c. currents out of d.c. supply
source.
Tank Circuit

The frequency determining network is a parallel resonant circuit which

consists of variable capacitors C1 and C2 along with an inductor L.

The junction of C1 and C2 are earthed.

The capacitor C1 has its one end connected to collector via C c and the other
to emitter via CE

Voltage developed across C2 provides the regenerative feedback required for

the sustained oscillations.
Operation
When the collector supply is given, a transient current is produced in the oscillatory
or tank circuit.

The oscillatory current in the tank circuit produces a.c. voltage across C1 which are
applied to the base emitter junction and appear in the amplified form in the collector
circuit and supply losses to the tank circuit.

If terminal 1 is at positive potential with respect to terminal 3 at any instant, then

terminal 2 will be at negative potential with respect to 3 at that instant because
terminal 3 is grounded. Therefore, points 1 and 2 are out of phase by 180o.

As the CE configured transistor provides 180o phase shift, it makes 360o phase shift
between the input and output voltages.

Hence, feedback is properly phased to produce continuous Undamped oscillations.

When the loop gain |βA| of the amplifier is greater than one, oscillations are
sustained in the circuit.
ADVANTAGES
Sine waves of high frequency
Freq stability
Frequency can be varied by using both the variable capacitors.
Less number of components are sufficient.
The amplitude of the output remains constant over a fixed frequency
range.

APPLICATIONS
High frequency sinewave generator.
Local oscillator in radio receivers.
R.F. Oscillator.
Mobile applications.
Drawbacks of LC circuits
LC circuits have few drawback:
Frequency instability
Waveform is poor
Cannot be used for low frequencies
Inductors are bulky and expensive

By replacing the inductors with resistors –RC oscillators

Frequency stability is improved
A good quality waveform is obtained
Can also produce lower frequencies.
The circuit is not bulky or expensive.

All the drawbacks of LC oscillator circuits are eliminated

in RC oscillators.
 Principle of Phase-shift oscillators
RC network- RC வணையணமப்பு

Output voltage of an RC circuit for a sinewave input

leads the input voltage.

The phase angle by which it leads is determined by the

value of RC components used in the circuit

The output voltage V1’ across the resistor R leads the

input voltage applied input V1 by some phase angle ɸo.

If R were reduced to zero, V1’ will lead the V1 by

90o i.e., ɸo = 90o.

However, adjusting R to zero would be impracticable,

because it would lead to no voltage across R.
Therefore, in practice, R is varied to such a value that makes V1’ to lead V1 by 60o.

The following circuit diagram shows the three sections of the RC network.

Each section produces a phase shift of 60o.

Consequently, a total phase shift of 180o is produced, i.e., voltage V2 leads the voltage V1 by
180o.
Phase-shift Oscillator - கட்டப் பபயர்ச்சி அணையியற்றி

The oscillator circuit that produces a sine wave using a RC network is called
as a Phase-shift oscillator circuit.

Construction

The phase-shift oscillator circuit consists of a single transistor amplifier

section and a RC phase-shift network.

The phase shift network in this circuit, consists of three RC sections.

At the resonant frequency fo, the phase shift in each RC section is 60o so that
the total phase shift produced by RC network is 180o.

Freq below 10KHz - generated

 The frequency of oscillations is given by

N- No. of RC networks

Operation

The circuit when switched ON oscillates at the resonant frequency fo.

The output Eo of the amplifier is fed back to RC feedback network.

This network produces a phase shift of 180o and a voltage Ei appears at its
output.

This voltage is applied to the transistor amplifier.

The feedback applied will be β=Vf/Vo =Ei/Eo

The feedback is in correct phase, whereas the transistor amplifier, which is in
CE configuration, produces a 180o phase shift.

The phase shift produced by network and the transistor add to form a phase
shift around the entire loop which is 360o.

Thus the voltage gain of the amplifier must be sufficiently high enough to
overcome these passive RC losses.

Advantages
It does not require transformers or inductors.
It can be used to produce very low frequencies.
The circuit provides good frequency stability.

Disadvantages
Starting the oscillations is difficult as the feedback is small.
The output produced is small.
 Wien Bridge Oscillator
வியன் சமன சுற்று அணையியற்றி

Popular audio frequency oscillator

This circuit is free from the circuit fluctuations and the ambient
temperature.

The main advantage of this oscillator is that the frequency can be varied in
the range of 10Hz to about 1MHz

Construction
It is a two-stage amplifier with RC bridge circuit.

The bridge circuit has the arms R1C1, R3, R2C2 and the tungsten lamp Lp.

Resistance R3 and the lamp Lp are used to stabilize the amplitude of the
output.
The transistor T1 serves as an oscillator

The other transistor T2 serves as an inverter.

The inverter operation provides a phase shift of 180o.

This circuit provides positive feedback to the transistor T1 through R1C1, C2R2

Negative feedback - through the voltage divider to the input of transistor T2

The frequency of oscillations is determined by the series element R1C1 and

parallel element R2C2 of the bridge.
The oscillator consists of two stages of RC coupled amplifier and a
feedback network.

The voltage across the parallel combination of R and C is fed to the

input of amplifier 1.

The net phase shift through the two amplifiers is zero.

Output of amplifier 2 is connected to amplifier 1 (to provide
signal regeneration for oscillator)

Amplifier 1 will amplify signals over a wide range of

frequencies

Direct coupling would result in poor frequency stability

By adding Wien bridge feedback network, the oscillator

becomes sensitive to a particular frequency and hence
frequency stability is achieved.
Operation

When the circuit is switched ON, the bridge circuit produces oscillations

The two transistors produce a total phase shift of 360o so that proper positive
feedback is ensured.

The negative feedback in the circuit ensures constant output.

This is achieved by temperature sensitive tungsten lamp Lp.

Its resistance increases with current.

If the amplitude of the output increases, more current is produced and more
negative feedback is achieved. Gain is low; o/p is decreased

Due to this, the output would return to the original value.

If the output tends to decrease, negative feedback is less ; Gain more ; O/P is
increased to original value
Advantages
Good frequency stability.
Constant output.
The operation of circuit is quite easy.
The overall gain is high because of two transistors.
The frequency of oscillations can be changed easily.

Disadvantages
The circuit cannot generate very high frequencies.
Two transistors and number of components are required for the circuit
construction