Content Focus

Cells are the basis of life. They coordinate activities to form colonial and multicellular organisms. Students examine
the structure and function of organisms at both the cellular and tissue levels in order to describe how they facilitate
the efficient provision and removal of materials to and from all cells in organisms. They are introduced to and
investigate biochemical processes through the application of the Working Scientifically skills processes.

Students are introduced to the study of microbiology and the tools that scientists use in this field.

These tools will be used throughout the course to assist in making predictions and solving problems of a
multidisciplinary nature.

Working Scientifically

In this module, students focus on conducting investigations to collect, process and analyse data and identify trends,
patterns and relationships related to cell structure and function. Students should be provided with opportunities to
engage with all Working Scientifically skills throughout the course.
Cell Structure
Inquiry question: What distinguishes one cell from another?

Students:

● Investigate different cellular structures, including but not limited to:

- examining a variety of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

All cells can be classified as either prokaryotic or eukaryotic cells.

Prokaryotic cells are ‘primitive’ cells and have a much simpler structure than eukaryotic cells. There are also more
prokaryotic cells present on Earth than there are Eukaryotic.

Basic similarities between both types of cells include the presence of a cell membrane, cytoplasm and ribosomes.

Prokaryotic

Range in diameter from 0.1 to 5.0 micrometres.

Four main structures which all prokaryotic cells
possess are the cell membrane, cytoplasm,
ribosomes and genetic material. The cell membrane
is responsible for controlling cell interaction with
the exterior and interior environment.

No membrane surrounding the genetic material and

hence, no nucleus. Most genetic material forms a
large loop called the bacterial chromosome while
some forms in circular rings called plasmids.

The structures and genetic material inside

prokaryotic cells are not surrounded by membranes; they simply ‘float’ in the cytoplasm. In some cells a cell wall,
pili, flagella and/or a capsule are also present in some prokaryotic cells.

Most organisms composed of prokaryotic cells are unicellular. Prokaryotes can be divided into bacteria and archaea.

Eukaryotic

Cells range in size from 10 to 100 micrometres and are much more complex than prokaryotic cells. They are
characterised by a membrane-bound nucleus containing genetic material of the cell. Internal structures of these cells
are membrane bound and are known as organelles. Each organelle has a specific function and they work together to
carry out the required processes for the successful functioning of a living e.g. respiration and photosynthesis.

Eukaryotes can be either unicellular or multicellular.

 - describe a range of technologies that are used to determine a cell’s structure and function

Light Microscope

Size conversion

1 metre (m) = 102 centimetres (cm) 1cm = 1/100m

= 103 millimetres (mm) 1 mm = 1/1000m
= 106 micrometres (μm) 1μm = 1/ 1000 000m
= 109 nanometres (nm) 1μm = 1/ 1000 000 000m

Magnification maths

Magnification Ocular lens Total Field of View

(eyepiece) Magnification diameter
Scanning 4x 10x 40x 4.5mm or 3.8mm

Low Power 10x 10x 100x 1.8mm or 1.6mm

High Power 40x 10x 400x 450μm or
0.45mm
Total magnification = magnification ocular lens (eye piece) x magnification of objective lens.

Calculating the individual length of a cell

Field of view (FOV) = everything in the circle that you see through the eyepiece
Fit# = the number of individual cells or objects across the entire field of view
ESTIMATED CELL SIZE = FOV/Estimated no. of cells that fit across the diameter of the eyepiece

How to calculate the total magnification and diameter of FOV

Thinking Working out
Identify the ocular lens magnification Ocular lengths magnification = 10x (always)
Identify the objective lens magnification Objective lens magnification = 4x, 10x, 40x
Calculate the total magnification = (ocular lens x Total magnification = 10 x either 4, 10 or 40
objective lens magnification)
Identify the diameter of the fov Refer to table above (magnification maths)
How to calculate the actual length of the cells
Thinking Working out
Identify how many cells span the FOV Eg. 3
Calculate the measure length of each cell (what you can Eg. 4.5 mm (FOV)/ 3 cells = 1.5 mm (this represents the
see from the microscope) measured length of each cell at either a total
FOV (mm)/Fit# = measured length of each cell (mm) magnification of 40x, 100x, 400x)
Calculate the actual length of each cell: 1.5mm/(either a total magnification of 40x, 100x, 400x)
Measured length (mm)/ magnification = actual length = XXXXX mm (actual length of cell)
of cell (mm)
Convert mm to μm by multiplying by 1000 (remember Eg. 0.0375mm x 1000 = 37.5μm
the tip)
History of microscopes

Light Microscopes: In the compound light microscope a light source passes

through a condenser lens and then through the specimen. The beam of light
them passes through the convex objective lens, where the image is
magnified and viewed through the ocular lens. Compound light microscopes
can produce image with a magnification up to 1500x. Resolution in a
compound light microscope can be as high as 200nm (nanometres).

Magnification is the ability of optical instruments, such as a telescope or a

microscope, to make an object bigger while resolution is the ability of optical
instruments to produce images that are clearer, finer, and sharper.

Fluorescence microscope – This is similar to the light microscope. The sample is labelled with a fluorescent substance
that will attach to the structures that the scientist wants to specifically observe; it is illuminated with a high-intensity
source of light that causes the fluorescent substance to emit light.

Electron microscope – This instrument uses an electron mean instead of light, and
electromagnets instead of glass lenses. The interaction between the electrons and
the object forms a viewable image on a screen. The use of electrons gives much
greater magnification. Electron microscopes also have a much higher resolving
power than light microscopes because electrons have a much shorter wavelength
than light. The microscope reveals structures at both a cellular and subcellular level.

However, the major disadvantage is that living tissue cannot be viewed under this
microscope. The size, expense and maintenance costs are much larger in this type
of microscope.
● investigate a variety of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell structures, including but not limited to:

- drawing scaled diagrams of a variety of cells

Plant vs Animal Cells

 - comparing and contrasting different cell organelles and arrangements

Organelle Function Where found?

Nucleus Controls cell activity Both
Nucleolus Chromatin is DNA in its active form. The nucleolus is a knot of chromatin. It Both
is the nucleolus that manufactures ribosomes.
Cell It regulates all that ENTERS and leaves the cell; in multicellular organisms it Both
Membrane allows SELF recognition.
Cytoplasm Cytoplasm is present within the cell membrane of all cell types and contains Both
all organelles and cell parts. Holds the cell together.
Centrioles They function in cell DIVISION. They have NINE groups of THREE Animal
arrangement of the protein fibers.
Ribosome Ribosomes are a cell structure that form proteins. Both
Mitochondria Powerhouse of the cell, site of respiration. It has a double membrane. The Both
inner membrane is where most aerobic respiration occurs. The inner
membranes is ruffled, with a very large surface area. These ruffles are called
cristae. Mitochondria have their own DNA and manufacture some of their
own proteins.
Vacuole These membrane-bound structures are basically just enclosed Smaller multiple in
compartments that are filled with both inorganic and organic molecules, animal cell, 1
along with water to support the organelle. larger vacuole in
plant cells.
Golgi Body Protein tagging. Here molecules are tagged with specific labels that Both
transport proteins will use to deliver them to the proper place in the cell.
Rough ER The ER is a series of double membranes that travel between the cell Both
membrane and nucleus. These membranes fill the cytoplasm and are
transparent. The rough E.R. has RIBOSOMES attached to it. This gives it its
texture. These ribosomes manufacture PROTEINS for the cell. The
ribosomes are the ORGANELLES which manufacture proteins.
Smooth ER LACKS ribosomes. It acts as a PATHWAY throughout the cytoplasm. It runs Both
from the cell membrane to the nuclear MEMBRANE and throughout the rest
of the cell. It also produces LIPIDS for the cell. Draw a picture of the smooth
ER.
Lysosome Produced by the golgi body, they consist of a single membrane surrounding Generally, only
powerful DIGESTIVE enzymes. They destroy the bacteria that your white found in animal
blood cells engulf. They act as a clean-up crew for the cell. cells.
Cell Wall Holds cell together/protects organelles inside cell. Only plant cell.
Chloroplast The site of PHOTOSYNTHESIS. They consist of a DOUBLE membrane. The Only plant cell.
stacks of disk like structures are called the GRANA. The membranes
connecting them are the THYLAKOID membranes.
 - modelling the structure and function of the fluid mosaic model of the cell membrane

The cell membrane controls the exchange od material between the internal and external environments of the cell. It
is selectively permeable, meaning that it allows only certain molecules or ions into or out of the cell. The structure of
the cell membrane allows the concentration of substances inside cells to remain fairly constant and different from
the external.

The fluid mosaic model describes the cell membrane as a lipid bi layer with the ability to flow and change shape.
Specialised protein molecules are embedded in the lipid in various mosaic-like patterns. The fluid part of the cell
membrane is composed of two layers of phospholipids forming the bilayer. These layers are made up of hydrophilic,
phosphate heads and hydrophobic, fatty acid tails.

Membrane protein molecules are scattered throughout and suspended in the lipid bilayer. Some penetrate the
bilayer forming channels to allow some materials to cross the surface. Some proteins function as pores or form
active carrier systems, while others have carbohydrates attached for cell recognition.
Cell Function
Inquiry question: How do cells coordinate activities within their internal environment and the external environment?

Students:

● investigate the way in which materials can move into and out of cells, including but not limited to:

- conducting a practical investigation modelling diffusion and osmosis

Diffusion – The net movement of any molecules from a region in which they are highly concentrated to a region in
which they are less concentrated e.g. exchange of gases between cells. There is no energy input. The rate of
diffusion changes depending on the concentration gradient and temperature.

Osmosis – The diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane. Water moves from a high concentration
of water (less salt or sugar dissolved in it) to a low concentration of water (more salt or sugar dissolved in it). This
means that water would cross a selectively permeable membrane from a dilute solution (less dissolved in it) to a
concentrated solution (more dissolved in it). Water moves toward the higher concentration of solutes e.g. dried
apricot swells up in water, absorption of water by plant roots.

Concentrated ->
(Less) ˅ H2O

Dilute -> (More) ˄

H2O

Diffusion vs. Osmosis

Diffusion Osmosis

Water Doesn’t need water for movement. Require water for movement.

Importance To create energy; helps in exchange of gases In animals, osmosis influences the distribution of
during respiration, photosynthesis and nutrients and release of metabolic waste
transpiration. products. In plants, osmosis is partly responsible
for the absorption of water and for the its
movement to the plant’s leaves.

Process Mainly occurs in a gaseous state or within liquid Occurs when the medium surrounding the cell
and gas molecules. (e.g. The molecules of 2 has a higher water concentration than inside the
gases are in constant motion and if the cell. Cell gains water + important molecules +
membrane separating them is removed the particles for growth. It also occurs when water
gases will mix because of random velocities.) and particles move between cells.

What is it? Diffusion is the movement of particles from a Movement of water across the membrane,
higher to lower concentration e.g. tea flavouring moving up a concentration gradient. Therefore,
moving from a high to low concentration area in equalising concentrations on both sides of the
hot water. membrane.

Diffusion Similarities Osmosis

- Both solvent and solute particles - Movement occurs to equalise - Only the diffusion of water.
move. concentrations of two solutions. - Only solvent particles move.
- (Semipermeable membrane is not -Both are moving from high - Solute particles do not move.
involved in the process) concentration to low - Movement occurs through the
concentration semipermeable membrane.
- Passive movement
Simple Diffusion

Movement of substances from regions of higher concentration to lower concentration. Oxygen, Carbon Dioxide and
Lipid-soluble.

Facilitated Diffusion

Transport proteins help substances diffuse through the cell membrane. There are two types of transport proteins are
channel proteins and carrier proteins.

Channel Proteins - Ions and polar molecules important for cell functions diffuse through channel proteins.
Sometimes called pores serve as tunnels through the lipid bilayer. Each channel allows the diffusion of specific
substances that have the right size.

Carrier Proteins - Transport substances that fit within their binding site. A carrier protein binds to a specific
substance on one side of the cell membrane. This binding causes the protein to change shape. As the protein shape
changes, the substance is moved across the membrane and is released on the other side.

Osmosis also depends upon osmotic pressure.

Osmotic pressure: Ability of osmosis to generate enough pressure to move a volume of water. Osmotic pressure
increases as the concentration of non-permeable solutes increases.

When talking about osmosis, there are 3 types of solutions you can refer to:

Isotonic – Concentration of solutes and solvent are equal on both sides of the cell.

Hypotonic – (Hypo means less) Concentration of the dissolved solutes are less outside than inside of the cell.
Hypotonic would mean water will be consistently absorbed by the cell and may eventually explode.

Hypertonic – (Hyper means more) Concentration of the dissolved solutes are more outside than inside of the cell.
Hypertonic will result in water leaving the cell causing the cell to shrivel up and die.

- examining the roles of active transport, endocytosis and exocytosis

Active Transport
How do substances move against their
concentration gradients?
Active transport requires energy to
move substances against their
concentration gradients. In order to
move substance against their
concentration gradients, cells must
use energy. Most often, the energy
needed for active transport is suppled
directly or indirectly by ATP.

Vesicles – Mass Transport

Endocytosis – The movement of a large substance

into a cell by means of a vesicle. Cell engulfs a
substance by forming a vesicle around the
substance. 3 types:

Pinocytosis – Substance is mostly water

Phagocytosis – Substance is solid

Receptor Mediated Endocytosis – Requires the

substance to bind to a membrane-bound receptor.
 Exocytosis – The movement of material out of a cell by means of a
vesicle; the reverse of endocytosis. Substance and vesicle fuse
with cell membrane. Contents released outside of the cell. Release
of neurotransmitters from the nerve cells.

- relating the exchange of materials across membranes to the surface-area-to-volume ratio, concentration
gradients and characteristics of the materials being exchanged

The permeability of a cell membrane to a molecule

depends:

Size - Small molecule will move across faster, where as

larger molecules will have difficulty. Molecules with
low permeability rely on carrier proteins and channel
proteins for transport across the membrane.

Electrical charge – Electrically charged molecules such

as sodium and potassium ions are not very soluble in
lipids and have low membrane permeability. Neutral
molecules such as carbon dioxide and oxygen have
high permeability.

Solubility - Water soluble (hydrophilic) molecules have difficulty penetrating the membrane whereas lipid soluble
ones do not.

Concentration gradient – The higher this is, the faster the substance will diffuse across the membrane.

SA:V Ratio – The SA determines exchange of a material between cell and its environment. There is a need for a
specialised exchange surface to meet the demands of high activity levels in multi-cellular organisms. There is also a
need for an efficient transport system to deliver materials to and from the exchange surface.

As size increases, volume increases disproportionately compared to volume and demand of cells for nutrients and
waste removal also increased disproportionately. The surface does not increase sufficiently to accommodate these
extra demands. The smaller the cell, the faster diffusion will occur which is necessary to ensure efficient function of
the body. Cells are also small because larger cells could not function as efficiently. Commands from the nucleus of
the cell must travel to other parts of the cell, and the less distance they have to travel the quicker communications
can occur.

Where SA:V is applied:

Absorption – absorb oxygen via alveoli air sacs (found at the ends of the bronchioles) where oxygen is
transferred to the blood. Having numerous and small sized alveoli increases the efficiency at which they
can be filled with air and absorb the oxygen into the blood cells.
Excretion – The kidneys contain nephrons which remove waste from the body and produces urine. Once
again, the numerous small nephrons increase the efficiency of the process.
Plants absorb water from soil via the root hair cells through osmosis. To adapt to this process, root hair
cells have a lager surface area to absorb water over a wider area and hence will absorb more water faster.
In this the SA:V ratio still proves that smaller cells with larger surface areas will be more efficient.
● investigate cell requirements, including but not limited to:

The substances needed by living cells for their functioning, are used in two main ways; as essential building blocks
from which the cells and tissue are made, and as a source of stored energy for the cell.

Organic nutrients are the main supply of stored energy in living things but are also used in the structure of cells.
Inorganic nutrients are essential as structural parts of cells and tissues.

Plants and other organisms that carry out photosynthesis absorb inorganic nutrients from the soil and the air and
use these to make their own organic nutrients. In contrast, organisms that do not carry out photosynthesis need to
ingest food to obtain organic nutrients for their cells.

- suitable forms of energy, including light energy and chemical energy in complex molecules

Chemical Energy

Organisms use and store energy in the chemical bond of organic compounds. Almost all of the energy in organic
comes from the sun. Organisms require a constant source of energy to maintain their homeostasis. Homeostasis is
the process of maintaining internal order and balance even when the environment changes.

Light Energy – Role of pigments in photosynthesis: in plants light energy is harvested by pigments that located in
thylakoid membrane of chloroplasts.

Chloroplasts – The organelles that convert light energy into chemical energy. Within the inner membrane of the
chloroplast, is the stroma which contains thylakoid membrane. This membrane produces flat, disc like sacs called
thylakoids that are arranged in stacks and contain pigments.

Light - A form of electromagnetic radiation, energy that can travel through empty space in the form of waves.

-The energy in glucose and other organic compounds is not used directly by cells. Cells carry out a series of reaction
that release chemical energy from glucose and transfer it to ATP. The energy is then available for use by cells.

Process of energy transfer form glucose to AP in not 100% efficient. About 40 % of the chemical energy present in
glucose is transferred to ATOP and the remaining 60% appears as heat energy. The heat energy produced by living
cells cannot be used to drive energy requiring activities such as muscles contraction or transport against a
concentration gradient.
 Chemical Elements of which Parts of the cell in Use or function in cells
it is composed which it is found
Carbohydrate: Carbon, Hydrogen, Mitochondria Glucose is stored in the body as an energy
Glucose Oxygen Mitochondria source for use throughout the body.
Carbohydrate: Carbon, Hydrogen, Amylose Plants store extra glucose in the form of starch
Starch Oxygen for use when they aren't photosynthesizing
Carbohydrate: Carbon, Hydrogen, Plant cell walls Assist in maintaining the rigid structure of plant
Cellulose Oxygen cells.
Lipids Carbon, Hydrogen, Bilayer in the cell Like glucose, lipids also store more energy.
Oxygen membrane
Proteins Carbon, hydrogen, Cell Membrane (Enzymes in particular) speed up the chemical
oxygen, nitrogen, reactions in our bodies to ensure they function
and sometimes healthily.
sulphur.
Nucleic acids Carbon, oxygen, DNA is found in the Function of DNA: Genetic material that carries
hydrogen, chromatin located in information about an organism, it is passed on
nitrogen, and the nucleus. RNA is from parent to offspring.
phosphorus. found in the nucleus. Function of RNA: Helps in the production of
proteins.
Chloride ions Chlorine Cell membrane- bi-lipid They perform a vital role in processes such as
layer cell volume regulation, epithelial transport, the
regulation of nerve and muscle cell membrane
excitability and in determining the pH within
cytoplasmic membrane‐bound organelles.
Sodium ions Sodium Cell membrane Sodium ions are necessary for regulation of
blood and body fluids, transmission of nerve
impulses, heart activity, and certain metabolic
functions.
Lignin Carbon, Hydrogen, Cell wall Forms important structural materials in the
Oxygen support tissues of vascular plants and some
algae.
 - matter, including gases, simple nutrients and ions

Inorganic:

Inorganic
compounds
do NOT
contain the
element
Carbon.
Three
important
inorganic
compounds
for living
organisms:

Organic:

Large organic molecules are called ‘biomacromolecules’ and are required as part of cell structure and to maintain
the biochemical processes involved in effective functioning. Organic compounds DO contain Carbon.

The four main types are:

Carbohydrates:

A carbohydrate is an energy rich organic compound made up of the elements of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
Examples include Sugars, and starches. These are found in all foods from fruits and veggies, to breads and pasta.
When sugar is produced in the plant cell this process is called photosynthesis. This occurs in the chloroplast. Starches
are many sugars strung together (they are called complex carbohydrates). We eat carbs our bodies break them down
into glucose (sugar). Plant cells use starches to store excess energy. The starch that makes up plant cells wall is called
cellulose.

Lipids: Lipids are energy rich compounds made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Examples include fats, oils and
waxes. The cell uses lipids to store energy for later use. -Purpose of fats is to provide insulation for your body. They
are different from carbohydrates in terms of stored energy, as they store more energy.

Proteins: Proteins are large organic molecules made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sometimes
sulphur. The small molecules that make up proteins are called Amino Acids. There are generally 20 Amino Acids in
each protein. The twenty amino acids can string together in different ways to form thousands of proteins.

The makeup most of the cell organelles, proteins are an important part of the cell membrane.

An enzyme is a type of protein that speeds up chemical reactions in your body. For example, the enzymes in your
saliva speed digestion. If we did not have these enzymes, many of the chemical reactions in your body they would
take way too long or not occur at all; You would not be able to convert food to energy, you will not be able to
function properly. The longer this goes on, the more your health will weaken.

Nucleic Acids: These are very large biomacromolecules and contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and
phosphorus. The two types are DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acids). DNA stores the information
that controls the cell and is the main chemical that makes up the nucleus. RNA is found in small amounts in the
nucleus but primarily in the cytoplasm and assists in the manufacture of the proteins. RNA can leave the nucleus,
while DNA cannot.
 - removal of wastes

Cellular products and wastes need to be removed from the cell to maintain efficient functioning.

● investigate the biochemical processes of photosynthesis, cell respiration and the removal of cellular products and
wastes in eukaryotic cells

Light Reactions

We know that suns energy is absorbed by the chlorophyll in the chloroplasts and is converted to chemical energy.

Some of this energy is used to split water up into hydrogen and oxygen.

Water → (light) → Hydrogen + Oxygen

This occurs in the inner membranes of the chloroplasts called the ‘thylakoid membranes’.

Light Independent (Dark) Reactions

Hydrogen released from the first reaction combines with carbon dioxide to form sugars. This process requires some
of the energy created in the first reaction

Hydrogen + Carbon Dioxide → (energy) → Sugars

This reaction occurs in the ‘stroma’ or fluid matrix of the chloroplasts. This reaction can undertake a number of
different pathways.

Features of Leaves

Feature of Leaves How it aids photosynthesis

Broad, flat leaves Increase surface exposure to sunlight.
Stomata Opening and closing of stomata controls water movement – prevents water loss.
Veins Support and transport of water and starch.
Chloroplasts Contains chlorophyll, which is pigment needed to convert sunlight to chemical energy.
Waxy Layer Prevent water loss.
Thin Increasing the SA:V ratio. Increase rate of diffusion.
Factors Affecting Photosynthesis

Light – In general, the rate of photosynthesis increases as light increases until all of the pigments in a chloroplast are
being used.

Carbon dioxide – The concentration of carbon dioxide affects the rate of photosynthesis in a way similar to light.

Temperature – Photosystems is the most efficient in a CERTAIN range of temperatures. Weather that is too hot or
too cold will decrease the rate of photosynthesis.

Reaction for Cellular Respiration

Strictly speaking, cellular respiration refers to aerobic breakdown of glucose to drive the production of ATP; that is,
the pathways that evolved when oxygen became available and which occur in mitochondria, in eukaryotic cells

NOTE: Aerobic (In presence of oxygen), Anaerobic (In absence of oxygen)

The general simplified formula for the complete aerobic breakdown of glucose is:

C6H12O6+6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + 36ATP

Glucose + Oxygen → Carbon Dioxide + Water + ATP (Energy)

Anaerobic Respiration

If oxygen is not available, glycolysis is followed by fermentation and no more energy in the glucose molecule will be
harvested – no further ATP is produced.

The process is referred to as anaerobic respiration.

Pyruvate is converted via an anaerobic pathway to either lactic acid (in most animals) or alcohol and carbon dioxide
(in most plants, and in microorganisms such as yeast and bacteria).

Fermentation is necessary as it prevents the accumulation of pyruvate and this allows glycolysis to continue.

Too much pyruvate results in a funny ‘rancid’ taste in alcohol.

Comparison

Aerobic Respiration Anaerobic Respiration

Oxygen not required Oxygen required.
Rapid ATP production Slower rate of ATP production
Mammals sustain over short time only Sustain indefinitely
Less efficient energy transfer More efficient energy transfer
Two mole ATP produced per mole of glucose used. 36 mole ATP produced per mole of glucose
used (some tissues produce 38)
Various end products: lactose and water (humans), ethanol and End products are
CO2 (yeasts), butyl alcohol (some bacteria) CO2 and water.
Occurs in mitochondria Occurs in cytoplasm

Cellular Respiration
Photosynthesis Similarities Respiration

Site: Chloroplasts (Occurs in plants) -Both utilise oxygen as part of Site: Mitochondria (Occurs in
the processes animals and plants)
Process: The process by which plants,
algae, and some bacteria use sunlight, Process: A process in which glucose
carbon dioxide and water to produce is broken either in absence or
-Both are biochemical reactions
glucose and oxygen. presence of oxygen to form energy
which involve
for various purposes.
Stages: Light phase and Dark (Light conversion/’creation’ of energy.
independent) phase. Stages: Glycolysis and the conversion
of pyruvate into 36 ATP molecules
Reactants: Carbon Dioxide and Water.
-This energy is then used for (Fermentation).
Products: Glucose and Oxygen. various processes throughout
Reactants: Glucose and Oxygen.
the organisms.
Chemical Reactions:
Products: CO2, ATP, H2O.
H2O → (light → H2 + O2
Chemical Reactions: C6H12O6+6O2 →
-Both processes occur in plants.
Water → (light) → Hydrogen + Oxygen 6CO2 + 6H2O + 36ATP

Energy: (Sunlight is converted to Glucose + Oxygen → Carbon Dioxide

chemical energy) + Water + ATP (Energy)

Cycles: Calvin cycle – Hydrogen from Energy: (Energy is obtained by

the light reaction combines with CO2 breaking down glucose in form of 36
(from air) → to form sugars. ATP molecules.)

Cycles: Krebs Cycle – Generates

chemical energy for the cell.
● conduct a practical investigation to model the action of enzymes in cells

● investigate the effects of the environment on enzyme activity through the collection of primary or secondary data

Enzymes

- Catalysts that change rate of chemical reactions and names usually end with -ase, and mostly substrate.
- Active within a limited range of physical and chemical conditions and are very specific.
- Needed in very small amounts because they are constantly re used.
- Some enzymes can only function when another faction, called c factor or co-enzyme is present. These are
often vitamins or minerals.
- Found in living things (they are biological chemicals)
ROLE

- Enzymes control hundreds of chemical reactions that make the metabolism of each cell. These reactions are
needed to obtain energy, build new chemicals for growth and repair of cell and to make new substances
needed by other cells.

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF ENZYMES

- Enzymes are proteins, like all proteins that are built from amino acids. All amino acids are similar in that they
have a chemical structure with amino group -NH2 and a carboxyl or organic acid group -COOH.
- The number and order of amino acid gives an enzyme its primary chemical structure. Each strand of protein
also folds into 3D shape.
- Higher temperatures cause the protein to denature. This changes the structure, distorting the active site,
resulting in it being unable to function. An enzyme has an optimal temperature, in which it functions best.

- pH is a figure which measures the alkalinity

or acidity of a particular solution/ substance.
The range of pH is 0-14, pH 7 is neutral,
anything higher is alkaline and anything lower
than pH 7 is acidic. Changes in pH affect the
shape of enzymes and properties of the
substrate. If properties of the substrate are
changed, it means that the substrate cannot
bind to the active site and go through catalysis.

- The rate of reaction is also influenced by substrate concentration. The rate

of reaction will increase until the point at which all available enzymes are being used
to catalyse reactions; the saturation point.

Enzymes only work on a

specific substrate. This is
because their active site,
only fits one type of
substrate. This the ‘lock
and key’ model. A more
recent model, ‘the
induced fit’ model,
suggests the binding of
the substrate induces
the enzyme to change
shape and fit more
tightly.
Content Focus

Multicellular organisms typically consist of a number of interdependent transport systems that range in complexity
and allow the organism to exchange nutrients, gases and wastes between the internal and external environments.
Students examine the relationship between these transport systems and compare nutrient and gas requirements.

Models of transport systems and structures have been developed over time, based on evidence gathered from a
variety of disciplines. The interrelatedness of these transport systems is critical in maintaining health and in solving
problems related to sustainability in agriculture and ecology.

Working Scientifically

In this module, students focus on collecting, processing and analysing data and information to: identify trends,
patterns and relationships; solve problems; and communicate ideas about the organisation of living things. Students
should be provided opportunities to engage with all Working Scientifically skills throughout the course.
Organisation of Cells

Inquiry question: How are cells arranged in a multicellular organism?

Students:

● compare the differences between unicellular, colonial and multicellular organisms by:

- investigating structures at the level of the cell and organelle

Organism - Anything that can live on its own.

Unicellular organism – an organism made of only one cell. ‘Uni’ means one. These are very small and need to be seen
with a microscope. They cannot be seen with the naked eye.
Examples include amoeba, bacteria, protozoa, unicellular algae, unicellular fungi, unicellular yeasts and paramecium.

Multicellular organisms - an organism made up of 2 or more cells. These cannot be seen with the naked eye. They
need all parts of itself to survive.
Examples include eukaryotic organisms, mammals, birds, reptiles and fish.

Colonial organisms – an organism made up of a group of identical single-celled organisms collectively called a colony.
All individual cells are capable of carrying out each function necessary for life.

Unicellular Colonial Multicellular

Single cell Many cells Many Cells
Prokaryotes Eukaryotes Eukaryotes
One cell carries out all the functions Individual cells work together to Ells are specialised to perform my
to sustain life perform functions to sustain life specific functions required by the
organism
Functions are carried out within the Functions are carried out by Functions are carried out at cellular,
cell individuals (zooids) with specific tissue, organ and system levels
roles within the colony
Microscopic size – SA:V ratio limits Usually macroscopic Macroscopic size – increasing the
size number of cells allows increased
body size
Short lifespan due to energetically Long lifespan, as work and energy Long lifespan, as work is efficiently
expensive workload for one cell costs are shared across cells within divided between specialised cells
the colony
Mostly asexual, clonal reproduction Mostly asexual, clonal reproduction; Mostly sexual reproduction
sexual reproduction is present in
some species
Whole organism is involved in Usually specific zooids are Only cells specialised for
reproduction responsible for reproduction reproduction will reproduce
(gametes)
 - relating structure of cells and cell specialisation to function

The structure and

arrangement of cells in the
organism is closely related
to their specific function.
These specialised cells work
together to ensure the
most efficient functioning
of the organism.

All specialised cells

originate from stem cells –
these are undifferentiated
and are able to divide many
times over a long period of
time.

When cells become

specialised, they are said to
differentiate. They develop
suitable structural feature
that allow them to carry
out specific functions. Note
that cell specialisation
refers to the particular
features that cell has, while
differentiation is the
process the stem cell goes
through to become
specialised.

When organisms are

developing, their cells are
constantly dividing through
the process of mitosis. In
this process of division,
copies of the same cell are
produced.

The type of cell that is formed is determined by the location of the undifferentiated cells in the organism and the
particular genes that are switched on. Gene expression is the specific combination of genes that are turned on or off
(expressed or repressed), and this is what dictates how a cell function. Available nutrients, salinity, and temperature
are all factors that can influence gene expression in organisms.

Stem cells can be either embryonic or adult stem cells. In plants, specialised cells are formed by the differentiation of
meristematic tissue.

Cell structure is related to the particular function of the specialised cell.

Cells whose functions involve exchanging substances with the external environment will probably be flat and long to
increase SA:V ratio, or have many folds to increase SA e.g. root hair cells and the cells lining the small intestine.

Another example of the relationship between the structure of cells and function is that red blood cells are very small
and have a particular shape to increase SA:V for the exchange of oxygen. They lack a nucleus and organelles,
enabling more haemoglobin to be carried into the cell.
● investigate the structure and function of tissues, organs and systems and relate those functions to cell
differentiation and specialisation

Tissue – A group of cells carrying out a similar function e.g. muscle, vascular.

Organs – Organs carry out major functions e.g. roots, leaves, heart, kidneys and lungs.

Systems – A group of organs that work together to perform one or more functions e.g. reproductive.

The arrangement of cells into tissues, organs and systems in multicellular organisms maximises the efficient
functioning of the organisms. The interaction and cooperation between cells, tissues, organs and systems provides
multicellular organisms with abilities that are beyond the limitations of a single cell.

Animal cells

The four main types of mammalian tissue include epithelial, muscle, connective and nervous. The three basic shapes
of epithelial cells are columnar, cubical, or squamous cell shapes.

Microvilli are present in epithelial cells as they increase the SA to aid the movement of substances in and out of the
cell.

Connective tissue is found in many areas including bone, cartilage, blood, tendons and ligaments.

Muscles cells are vital for producing force and motion.

Some proteins made by muscle cells that give these cells their particular ability to contact and relax include myosin
and actin. They are important for muscle cells as they are needed for muscle contraction.

Plant Cells

The four main types of plant tissue are meristematic tissue, vascular tissue, dermal tissue and ground tissue.

● justify the hierarchical structural organisation of organelles, cells, tissues, organs, systems and organisms

Cells: Level One

Within a multicellular organism there is a division of labour. The arrangement of specialized parts within a living this
is sometimes referred to as levels of organisation. Cells of course, are the first level of organization.

Tissues: Level Two

Cells that are similar in structure and function are usually joined together to form bone tissue. Tissues are the
second level of organization. Bone cells in your body form bone tissue. Blood cells in your body form blood tissue.

Organs: Level Three

Tissues are further organized into organs, the third level of organization in living things. Organs are groups of
different tissues that work together. Your heart, for example, is made up of muscle tissue, blood tissue, and nerve
tissue. The brain, stomach, kidneys, and skin are some examples.

Organ Systems: Level Four

Like cells and tissues, organs seldom work alone. They “cooperate” with one another and form specific organ
systems. Organ systems are the third level of organization in living things. An organ system is a group of organs
working together to perform a specific function for the organism. An example would be your digestive system. It is
made up of several organs such as your oesophagus, stomach, and intestines.

Organisms: Level Five

You are an organism. Even unicellular (one celled) bacterium is are organisms. An organism is an entire living thing
that carries out all the basic life functions. The organism is the fifth level of organization.

Cells → Tissues → Organs → Organ Systems → Organisms -- each level of organization interacts with every other
level. The smooth functioning of a complex organism is the result of all its various parts working together.
Nutrient and Gas Requirements
Inquiry question: What is the difference in nutrient and gas requirements between autotrophs and heterotrophs?

Autotrophs are plants as they are able to synthesis their own foods converting solar energy into chemical energy.

Defined: organisms that make their own energy.

2 types

1. Photoautotrophs: They perform photosynthesis to convert sunlight into glucose e.g. plants, cyanobacteria,
algae.
2. Chemoautotrophs: perform.

Often called producers since they produce the energy of an ecosystem.

Heterotrophs are consumers as they are dependent upon other plants/animals for their food requirements.
Heterotrophs can include herbivores, carnivores and omnivores.

Defined: Organisms that cannot make their own energy.

2 types

1. Consumers e.g. herbivores (only eat plants), carnivores (only eat animals), omnivores (eat both).
2. Decomposers that will obtain nutrients from dead organisms e.g. Detritovores (ingest dead organisms),
saprophytes (absorb nutrients from dead organisms)

Directly or indirectly obtain energy from autotrophs.

Students:

● investigate the structure of autotrophs through the examination of a variety of materials, for example:

- dissected plant materials

- microscopic structures

The majority of autotrophic organisms are plants. Most plants are described as vascular plants. These are plants with
a transport system to move substances around the plant and provide support.

Plants have specialised cells that group together in tissues (e.g. photosynthetic tissue). These tissues, along with
other tissues, form organs (e.g. leaf) that carry out particular functions to support the leave’s effective and efficient
function. The structure of a vascular plant ensures each organ – leaves, stem, roots, flowers and seeds – receive
what they need. These organs make up the systems – root system, shoot system and vascular system- found in
plants.

- using a range of imaging technologies to determine plant structure

Radioisotopes are forms of an element that emit radiation, which can be detected by a number of means. The act as
tracers and are used to follow the pathways of molecules involved in photosynthesis.

Radioisotopes were used to determine that oxygen produced in photosynthesis came from the water molecule and
not the molecule of carbon dioxide.

Carbon-14 added to the carbon dioxide supply traced the movement of the glucose produced through the plant.

New technologies can be used to produce 3D images of the structures and pathways involved in the movement of
products of photosynthesis.

Imaging Technologies examples:

Image Description of technology works to identify

plant structures
MRI( Magnetic resonance Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a scan
Imaging) used for an imaging procedure. It uses a
magnetic field and radio waves to study cell
water balance, phloem and xylem transport in
large potted plants.

PET(positron emission Positron-emission tomography is a nuclear

tomography) medicine functional imaging technique that is
used to observe metabolic processes in the
uptake, distribution, retention and clearance of
positron-emitting compounds administered to
living organisms.

Neutron tomography (NT) Neutron tomography is a unique non-invasive

3D tool used to visualize plant root systems
together with the soil water distribution.

X-ray computed X-ray microtomography, uses x-rays to create

microtomography ( micro- cross-sections of a physical object that can be
CT) used to recreate a virtual model without
destroying the original object. In plants, this
method is used to observe the architecture of
the root system of plants.
● investigate the function of structures in a plant, including but not limited to:

- tracing the development and movement of the products of photosynthesis

Vascular System
Vascular system involves the transport of substances in plants composed of two different types of tissues: xylem and
phloem.
Xylem: Vascular tissue that transports water and dissolved mineral ions up the plant as ascending sap.

- Specialized tissue for the transport of water and dissolved inorganic minerals from the roots to the leaves.
- Consist of two main types of elements – xylem tracheids and xylem vessels with other cells such as
parenchyma and fibers between. Tracheids are elongated with end walls that taper to a point. Most of the
xylem in flowering plants occurs in the form of xylem vessels which form continuous tubes for the transport
of water.
- When cells specialize to become xylem vessles, their walls break down, so that the cells are stacked on top of
each other and become continuous tubes. The cell contents die.
- The walls of xylem vessels and tracheids are reinforced with lignin thickenings, laid down in rings, spirals, or
other regular patterns. These thickenings prevent the vessels from collapsing, and help the easy movement
of water and dissolved substances.
- The function of the xylem is to transport water and dissolved inorganic nutrients as ascending sap, from the
root up the plant to the leaves and the reproductive structures (flowers). The movement of water up the
xylem vessels occurs mainly as a result of a transpiration stream that develops when water evaporates from
the stomates.

Phloem: Vascular tissue composed of this-walled cells that transports the products of photosynthesis from one part
of the plant to another.

- Specialized tissue that transports sugars from the leaves to the rest of the plant.
- There are two main types of phloem cells in plants – sieve tubes elements and companion cells. Unlike
xylem vessels, sieve tube elements are cells with living contents. Companion cells are small cells that are
associated with each sieve tube element, and are responsible for keeping the sieve tubes alive.
- Organic substances such as sugars move down or up the plant through a process called translocation. The
active loading of sugars (dissolved with water) into the phloem requires energy. The sap flows from one
elements to the next through perforated holes in plates (sieve plates).
- Movement in phloem occurs in both directions – and moves as a result of flow along a concentration
gradient (no pumping mechanism).

Root System
Root system is responsible for anchoring the plant and absorbing water and inorganic nutrients from the soil. The
root system is usually underground.

- A large SA is required for efficient absorption of water and mineral ions.

- This large SA is achieved with flattened epidermal cells which possess fine extensions called root hairs.
- Branching root systems increase the SA for absorption.
- Water moves from the soil into root through osmosis. Mineral ions usually move into the root by diffusion,
but if the concentration gradient is too low they are moved in by facilitated diffusion or active transport.
- Root cells do not contain chloroplasts and do not photosynthesise but, as with all living cells, they carry out
aerobic cellular respiration.
- Oxygen gas diffuses into the root cells and carbon dioxide gas diffuses out.
The Shoot system
The shoot system is made up of the stem and the leaves.

Stem: The stem provides structural support and a transport pathway between roots and leaves.

- The three main types of tissue in the stem are dermal tissue (outer layer of the stem), vascular tissue
(xylem+phloem tissue organised into vascular bundles) and ground tissue (all the parts of the stem that are
not dermal or vascular tissue).
- Leaf: The leaf’s main function is to absorb sunlight and carry out photosynthesis to produce the organic
compound glucose.
The thin flat structure and orientation of the leaf maximises SA for sunlight absorption. A waxy cuticle
minimises water loss from the leaf.
- Palisade cells containing many chloroplasts are lined up vertically near the upper surface of the leaf to
absorb sunlight. Spongy mesophyll cells are loosely and irregularly organised to allow easy movement of
gases through the leaf.
- Transport tissue in the leaf is organised into veins. This provides support as well as a pathway from the
movement of water and the products of photosynthesis.
- Guard cells (often found more on the underside of the leaf) change shape to open and close stomata. The
gases oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged between the inside and outside of the leaf through stomata.
- All plants carry out cellular respiration both at night and during the day. Oxygen produced in photosynthesis
is used in this process.

● investigate the gas exchange structures in animals and plants through the collection of primary and secondary data
and information, for example:

The movement of gases between the external and internal environment is gaseous exchange. Different animals
possess different specialised structures to exchange gases with their environment BUT do share some characteristics
including a large SA, a close proximity to transport systems, a maintained concentration gradient (for continued
diffusion) and thin, moist surfaces.
 - microscopic structures: alveoli in mammals and leaf structure in plants
- macroscopic structures: respiratory systems in a range of animals

Type of Respiratory Labeled sketch showing gas

Description of gas exchange
Organism surface exchange
The gills are located behind and to the side of
the mouth cavity. Water is taken in
Fish Gills
continuously through the mouth and passes
backward between the gill ‘bars’ and filaments.
Oxygen travels to insect tissues through tiny
openings in the body walls called spiracles, and
Insects Spiracles
then through tiny blind-ended, air-filled tubes
called tracheae

Stomates:
Guard cells have a tick outer wall and a thin
inner wall. When the guard cell fills with
water (becomes turgid), the thin outer
walls (elastic) stretch outwards, but the
thick inner walls (inelastic) do not bulge, so
they are pulled apart, and the pore
between them widens. When stomates
lose water, the outer walls no longer bulge,
Stomates and the pores close.
Plants Lenticels:
& Lenticels
Pores through which gaseous exchange
occurs in the woody parts of plants such as
the trunks and branches of trees and
woody shrubs.
Appear as small dots to the naked eye but
are clusters of loose cells in the cork layer
of bark.
NOTE: Plants have to balance their requirement
for gas exchanges and the necessity for water
conversation.
Oxygen from the atmosphere travels through
the mouth and nose which is then used by cells.
The oxygen diffuses through the lining of the
alveoli and into the capillaries, eventually
Lungs
Mammals diffusing into the red blood cells.
(alveoli)
Meanwhile, carbon dioxide is diffused out of
the capillaries and through the alveoli. It then
leaves through the nose and mouth when we
exhale.
Use their lungs to breathe on land and skin
when they are in water. Young amphibians use
gills to breathe as they don’t leave the water.
The skin, in
As they grow gills disappear and ‘primitive’
the lungs
lungs develop (lungs lack proper diaphragms).
Amphibians and the
Amphibians’ skin most remain moist in order to
lining of the
assist the diffusion of oxygen across it. The skin
mouth.
has vascular tissues to allow for this gas
exchange to occur. This is more useful for when
they are in water.
● trace the digestion of foods in a mammalian digestive system, including:

Digestion: The breaking down of large and complex food particles into much smaller and simpler chemical
substances that are small enough to be absorbed though the walls of the small intestine. The four main processes:

Ingestion - this is the physical intake of foodstuffs into the gastrointestinal tract.

Digestion - a series of physical and chemical processes which begin in the mouth, but take place mainly in the
stomach and small intestine.

Absorption - the passage of the digested food substances across the gastro-intestinal lining, or mucosa, into the
blood and lymph.

Elimination - the excretion, or elimination, of those food substances that cannot be digested (such as cellulose) or
without any nutritional value in the faeces.

The digestive system structure also varies according to the diet of the organism.

Grazing Herbivore Carnivore Nectar-feeding

Examples of animals Deer Fox Honey Possum
Main food source Plants Meat Nectar and Pollen
Chemical composition of that Plants - protein Meat – protein and fats Nectar –
food (protein, carbohydrate: (nutrient rich) (energy rich) carbohydrate
sugar or starch or cellulose, fat) glucose
(energy rich)
Pollen – protein
(nutrient rich)
Stomach (relative size and 4 chambers (stomachs) 1 chamber. 2 chambers
complexity: reasons why) Complex – where microbial Simplest digestive (stomachs).
action occurs. system.
Intestines (length relative to Long, (skinny) and large Shorter digestive tract Small intestine.
body size; how this relates to intestine. where absorption of
the type of food eaten) nutrients occurs, lot of
nutrients available
Caecum (relative size and Enlarged, because digestion Extremely small in size, No caecum as no
complexity; reasons why) of cellulose need bacteria to however has no use as cellulose in diet.
release enzyme called diet is not plant based.
cellulase.
Chemical breakdown (time Long time Moderate amount of Little time taken as
taken for food to digest) time compared to
others.
 - physical digestion

Mechanical digestion begins in the mouth when the different types of teeth break food into smaller pieces by
cutting, tearing, chewing and grinding the food. The churning motion of the stomach continues the process. Breaking
down the food into small pieces increases the SA:V ratio and can then be acted on my enzymes in the chemical
digestion stage.

Mouth: Mastication is the action of the teeth and the jaws working together to break food down. Food needs to be
chewed to be broken down into pieces small enough to swallow. Breaking the food down also gives it a larger
surface area for the digestive enzymes to work on.

There are two different types of teeth in the mouth

- Incisors to tear food e.g. meat
- Molars to grind the food.

Saliva: Saliva contains the enzyme amylase which breaks down starch into simple sugars. It also moistens the food
allowing easier passage through the gastrointestinal tract. Saliva is secreted from glands found under the tongue and
at the back of the mouth. The sight, smell, taste or even the thought of food will start to increase the amount of
saliva secreted.

Bolus: Food is masticated and mixed with saliva in the mouth. The tongue and cheeks help to push the food into the
teeth and also shape the food into a ball or bolus before being swallowed. The bolus is passed through to the
oesophagus.

- chemical digestion

Chemical digestion is the process of using digestive enzymes to chemical break down the large, complex molecules in
the food that has been ingested into their smaller, simpler forms. Complex molecules and their simple products
include: Proteins – amino acids, Carbohydrates – simple sugars such as glucose, Lipids – glycerol and fatty acids.

Chemical digestion begins in the mouth with the enzyme amylase breaking the complex carbohydrate starch down
into simpler sugars. Pepsin beings the chemical digestion of proteins in the chyme to form short peptide chains and
the digestion of nucleic acids to nucleotides.

The small intestine is very long and folded and has three sections; the duodenum, the jejunum and the ileum. Most
digestion is completed in the duodenum.

The pancreas releases many different digestive enzymes and bicarbonate ions. Bile produced by the liver and stored
in the gall bladder emulsifies at molecules to increase SA for breakdown by lipases. Other enzymes complete the
chemical breakdown of larger molecules.
Oesophagus: The oesophagus is similar to a conveyor belt as it transfers the food from the mouth to the stomach in
3-6 seconds. Circular muscles in the wall of the oesophagus relax in front of the bolus whilst circular muscles behind
the food contract, pushing the bolus onward. This is called peristalsis.

People do not have conscious control over the muscles in the oesophagus. Even if someone is upside down, the food
will be passed on to the stomach because of the epiglottis.

Stomach: The stomach is an expandable sack made up of three different layers of muscles where the bolus will be
churned for a few minutes or up to 2 or 3 hours. The bolus is mixed with hydrochloric acid which helps to kill any
bacteria present.

The enzyme pepsin is also active in the stomach. It starts to break down protein to form peptides and amino acids.
Alcohol and a little water is absorbed by the stomach. Alcohol is absorbed through the stomach wall and taken to
the liver where it is metabolised.

When the food has been churned into a creamy mixture known as chyme, the pyloric sphincter (a ring of muscles)
opens and chyme is released gradually into the small intestine.

Small Intestine: Chyme passes out of the stomach through the pyloric sphincter into the small intestine. The small
intestine is a tube about 6 meters long. The small intestine is divided into three sections, the duodenum, jejunum
and the ileum. The first section of the small intestine is the duodenum.

Duodenum: The duodenum receives about 12 grams of chyme each time the pyloric sphincter opens. The
duodenum is about 25 centimetres long and in the shape of a horse shoe. In the duodenum, chyme is diluted with
bile salts (from the gall bladder) and pancreatic juices (from the pancreas).

Bile: Bile is produced in the liver and stored in the gall bladder. This contains bile salts which emulsify fat. Fat is
normally insoluble in water. The bile salts are released into the duodenum making it easier to break down fat.

The bile allows the fats to mix in with the watery digestive juices and allows the enzyme lipase to digest the fats
efficiently. Fat can take from 3 to 5 hours to be broken down and absorbed.

Pancreatic juices: The pancreas provides alkaline pancreatic juices. These juices contain sodium bicarbonate to
neutralise the hydrochloric acid mixed into the chyme from the stomach. Pancreatic juices also contain digestive
enzymes such as:
Trypsin and chymotrypsin – break down protein to peptides and amino acids.
Pancreatic amylase – breaks down starch and glycogen to maltose
Lipase – breaks down fat to fatty acids and glycerol.

Peristalis: Peristalsis is

the action of waves of muscular contractions which moves food along the digestive system. Dietary fibre aids
peristalsis because it increases the bulk of the bolus or chyme being moved along.

Villi: The inner surface of the small intestine is folded into finger-like structures called villi, which greatly increase the
surface area available for absorption. The villi have a surface area of about 30m2

Digestion in the small intestine: Substances absorbed in the small intestine:

- Protease breaks down peptides to amino - Water;

acids. - Alcohol;
- Maltase breaks down maltose to glucose. - Sugars;
- Sucrase breaks down sucrose to glucose and - Minerals;
fructose. - Water soluble vitamins;
- Lactase breaks down lactose to glucose and - Peptides and amino acids;
galactose. - Fatty
- Lipase breaks down fats to fatty acids and - acids, glycerol and fat-soluble vitamins
glycerol.
 - absorption of nutrients, minerals and water

Most absorption of products of digestion occurs in the jejunum.

Villi are microscopic projections on the wall of the jejunum that are one cell thick. There are blood capillaries and
lymph vessels in

close contact with these cells. Small molecules diffuse or are actively transported through the walls of the villi into
the capillary or lymph vessels to be distributed throughout the body.

Water and mineral salts are absorbed from the large intestine into the bloodstream.

Absorption: The villi in the small intestine have a high blood supply. There are two types of absorption which occur
here.

Passive – through the process of osmosis the nutrients pass through the wall of the small intestine and into the
blood supply.
Active – a carrier transports the nutrient through the wall of the small intestine into the blood supply. This type of
absorption requires energy.

Once in the blood the nutrients are transported to the liver via the hepatic portal vein. The liver filters, converts the
nutrients into substances that can be used by the body’s cells for energy and growth.

Most fatty acids and glycerol pass into the lymphatic system, and then the bloodstream.

Once in the blood, nutrients are carried to all the cells of the body. Some are oxidised to produce energy and other
are used to repair the cell or to build new cells.

Once the nutrients have been absorbed, the remaining chyme passes into the large intestine or the colon.

- elimination of solid waste

The remaining undigested material is called faeces and is store in the rectum before being eliminated from the body.

Digestive products absorbed into the body are used in many different ways, including for structural purposes and for
energy storage.

Colon: The colon is a tube just over one meter long, which is inhabited by bacteria. The main function of the colon is
to absorb water into the bloodstream.

Bacteria in the colon ferment dietary fibre (NSP) and produce fatty acids and gas. Other bacteria produce vitamin K,
which is also absorbed. The products of bacterial digestion, along with water and any remaining minerals are
absorbed leaving a residue behind. The watery residue moves along the colon, and the faeces are formed and stored
in the rectum before being excreted through the anus.

It may take 12-24 hours for the faeces to pass through the colon. This time can be reduced if the diet is high in fibre.
● compare the nutrient and gas requirements of autotrophs and heterotrophs

Autotrophs and heterotrophs require gases and nutrients to maintain

efficient and effective metabolic function.
Both heterotrophs and autotrophs require inorganic and organic
substances, water and oxygen gas. Autotrophs also require carbon
dioxide gas.

Heterotrophs need to take in all of their nutrients. Autotrophs produce

their own organic nutrients using the energy from the sun, but need to
obtain water, mineral ions and the gases carbon dioxide and oxygen.

Autotrophs manufacture their own glucose and other organic substances

from inorganic nutrients.

Heterotrophs must obtain all of their organic nutrients by consuming

autotrophs or other heterotrophs.
Transport
Inquiry question: How does the composition of the transport medium change as it moves around an organism?

Students:

● investigate transport systems in animals and plants by comparing structures and components using physical and
digital models, including but not limited to:

Unicellular organisms and very simple multicellular organisms obtain their nutrients and dispose of their wastes by
diffusion, osmosis and active transport directly between the surface of the organism and the surrounding
environment.
Effective transport systems in multicellular plants and animal, although very different, have certain similarities:
- A system of vessels
- A suitable transport medium
- A driving mechanism to ensure the substances move in the correct direction
Transport systems can be distinguished in terms:
- Types of structures present
- Types of components present
- Substances that are transports
- Mechanisms that drive the movement of these substances

- macroscopic structures in plants and animals

- microscopic samples of blood, the cardiovascular system and plant vascular systems

● investigate the exchange of gases between the internal and external environments of plants and animals

Substances carried by Blood

Substance Source (carried Destination (carried Form of chemical in the blood Component of
from) to) blood in which
it travels
Oxygen Lungs (from inhaled Heart and all tissues of - 98.5% as - RBC
air) the body oxyhaemoglobin in blood
- 1.5% dissolved in plasma - Plasma
Carbon Produced in all body Lungs - 70% hydrogen bicarbonate - RBC
dioxide cells by chemical - 23% carbamino haemoglobin - RBC
respiration. - 7% dissolved in plasma - Plasma
Water Digestive tract – by- All body cells; excess - Water molecules forming - Plasma
product of cellular to skin and kidneys liquid medium
respiration.
Salts Absorbed from All body cells; excess - Dissolved, dissociated into - Plasma
digestive tract (large to skin and kidneys positive and negative ions
intestine)
Lipids Absorbed from Lymph and eventually - Most as chylomicrons in - (Lymph)
digestive tract (small bloodstream, liber and lymph and as lipo-proteins in Plasma
intestine) all body cells blood; short, fatty acids,
glycerol dissolved in plasma
Other Absorbed from Liver and then all body - Dissolved - Plasma
products of digestive tract (small cells
digestion: intestine)
Nitrogenous Produced as a result Kidneys (and small - Dissolved, mostly as urea, but - Plasma
wastes of metabolism amounts to skin) some uric acid and ammonia
(protein breakdown
in liver)
● compare the structures and function of transport systems in animals and plants, including but not limited to:

- vascular systems in plants and animals

Lymphatic System – The part of the transport system in mammals through which lymph drains excess tissue fluid
back into the cardiovascular system and is made up of lymph vessels (thin walled vessels with valves that transports
the lymph) and lymph (fluid which circulates throughout the system composed of tissue fluid, white blood cells and
the end products of lipid digestion).

Cardiovascular System – The transport system in mammals composed of the heart, blood and blood vessels.

Blood

- Blood is a fluid connective tissue and transport medium which flows through the heart and blood vessels of
the cardiovascular system.
- Blood transports oxygen around our bodies, fights disease and infections and maintains body temperature
(homeostasis).
- White and red blood cells are produced from bone marrow
- Blood is not just red liquid. It is made up of plasma (55%) and blood cells (about 45%). Blood cells include the
white blood cells, red blood cells and platelets.

Plasma

- Pale yellow liquid that carries blood cells and many other dissolved substances required by cells.

Red Blood Cells

- RBC’s transport oxygen to all parts of the body.

- Sickle cell anemia is a genetic disorder that affects the red blood cells.

White Blood Cells and the Immune System

- White blood cells protect the organism and are part of the circulatory system.
- There are two types of white blood cells:
Neutrophils - Fight infection by “neutralising” cells they recognize as foreign. Mostly only recognize invading
microorganisms, so the immune system needs more cells to fully protect our bodies.
Lymphocytes - 2 types; B cells act like factories for the immune system. They create antibodies to help fight
toxic substances. T cells act like armies for the immune system. Different cells work together to protect the
body from germs by stopping them in their tracks, creating clumps that alert your body to the presence of
intruders.

Platelets

- Platelets form clots (to stop bleeding). Certain proteins help platelets clump together at the site of an injury.
- If the proteins are missing, the blood can’t clot and the person has haemophilia.
Blood Vessels

ARTERIES carry blood away from the heart. They have valves, thick outer walls that are made of muscle and elastic
fibres and can stand the enormous pressure created by the heart.
CAPILLARIES are blood vessels that run all through your circulatory system in the body. The walls are very thin to
allow substances to easily and quickly diffuse through them.
VEINS carry deoxygenated blood from parts of the body back to the heart. They have thinner walls than arteries do,
because there is much more blood from the heart.

Arteries Veins Capillaries

Transports blood away from heart Transports blood to heart Links arteries to veins
Oxygenated blood (except Deoxygenated blood (except Blood changes to deoxygenated
pulmonary artery pulmonary vein) (Except in lungs)
Blood High pressure Blood low pressure Blood pressure reducing
Blood moves in pulses No pulses No pulses
Blood flow rapidly Blood flow slowly Blood flow slowing
Thick muscular wall Thin muscular wall No muscle
Much elastic tissue Little elastic tissue No elastic tissue
Small lumen Large lumen Large lumen (relative)
They are not larger than arteries but
relatively large to the size of the
capillaries
Capable of constriction Not capable of constriction Not capable of construction
Not permeable Not permeable Permeable
Valves (Aorta and pulmonary artery) Valves throughout No valves

The Heart

- Mammals have a four-chambered heart with two chambers on each side. The top chamber on each side is
called the atrium and the bottom chamber on each side is called the ventricle.
- The septum separated the two sides.
- The left ventricle has a thicker muscular wall because it has to pump blood all around the body while the
right ventricle only has to pump the blood to the lungs.
- Deoxygenated blood enters the right atrium and then moves to the right ventricle from which it is pumped
to the lungs to gain oxygen.
- Oxygenated blood flows back to the left atrium and then to the left ventricle from which it is pumped to the
rest of the body before it once again returns to the right atrium.
Blood Technologies
 - open and closed transport systems in animals

The transport systems of multicellular animals can be divided into open and closed systems.

Similarities between both types include:

- Heart is the driving mechanism

- Fluid transports substances
- A system of vessels is present

The primary point of distinction between both systems is that the transport medium remains enclosed in the system
of vessels at all times in a closed circulatory system whereas in an open circulatory system the transport medium
leaves the vessels, enters cavities in the body and comes into direct contact with the organs.

Open Closed
One or more hearts One heart (2, 3 or 4 chambered)
Open-ended blood vessels Blood vessels
Not sealed Sealed system
The heart pumps blood into a cavity that Blood flows through the veins (carry blood from organs to the
surround organs, after which the blood is heart), arteries (carry blood away from the heart to organs)
returned to the heart through special openings. and capillaries (form a ling between arteries and veins).
Transport medium: haemolymph (mixture of Transport medium: blood
blood and tissue fluid).
Only exchanges nutrients and wastes (not gases) Exchange of nutrients, wastes and gases take place between
by direct diffusion between haemolymph and the blood in the capillaries and fluids surrounding the cells, which
cells. capillaries supply
Less efficient as the fluid pressure is low causing More efficient as fluid pressure is higher
slow circulation
Examples include spiders, insects, crabs and Examples include all vertebrate animals.
snails
When heart muscle relaxes, it expands, and the Pathway of fluid: arteries → arterioles → capillaries →
fluid is drawn back into the heart. venules → veins → heart.
No distinction between blood and interstitial Blood is confined to vessels and is distinct from the interstitial
fluid and this general body fluid is called fluid.
hemolymph

● interpret a range of secondary-sourced information to evaluate processes, claims and conclusions that have led
scientists to develop hypotheses, theories and models about the structure and function of plants, including but not
limited to:

Transport systems in plants carry water and mineral ions in one direction only, from the roots to the leaves, in the
xylem tissue. The products of photosynthesis and delivered wherever required around the plant in the phloem
tissue.

Our scientific understanding of the structure and functioning of plants has been developed by scientists over many
years. Hypotheses (educated prediction), theories (suggested explanation backed up with evidence and facts) and
models are modified when new information and results indicate they are no longer correct.

- photosynthesis

Phloem tissue is composed of two types of living cells; sieve tube cells (long, thin phloem cells with large pores
through the cell walls at each end) and companion cells (a type of cell found alongside sieve tubes that is thought to
assist neighbouring sieve tube cells). Sieve tube cells are lined up one under the other and have sieve plates at each
end. The products of photosynthesis move through these tubes in a process called translocation. The movement of
products of photosynthesis in any direction is explained by the source-sink theory.
Sugars are actively loaded at the source of production; water diffuses in from xylem by osmosis, creating a high-
pressure region. Sugars are actively unloaded where required at the sink; water diffuses out by osmosis, creating a
low-pressure region. Materials in the phloem move from a high-pressure region to a low-pressure region.

- transpiration-cohesion-tension theory

Xylem tissue is composed of xylem vessels (long, thin, continuous tubes composed of dead tissue with lignin-
strengthened walls) and xylem tracheids (non-living xylem elements formed from a single cell, with strong tapered,
elongated ends and pitted walls thickened with lignin). The transpiration-cohesion-theory currently explains the
upward movement of the materials in the xylem vessels.

Water evaporates from the leaves and creates tension, which pulls more water from the veins and then up the
xylem vessel. Cohesion between water molecules and adhesion between the water molecules and the walls of the
xylem maintain the column of water. When molecules of water are pulled up, others will follow. A small amount of
root pressure forces the water already present in the xylem vessel upwards.

● compare the changes in the composition of the transport medium as it moves around an organism

- The composition of blood changes as it moves around the body and depends on the organ it is moving
through.
- In all organs and tissues except lungs, blood loses oxygen and gains carbon dioxide. In the lungs it gains
oxygen and loses carbon dioxide.
- In all organs except the small intestine, blood loses nutrients, such as the products of digestion, and gains
wastes. Blood gains products of digestion in the small intestine.
- In the kidneys, blood has less urea when it leaves, and the concentration of water and salts will have changes
according to the needs of the body.