Power Series

MATH 211, Calculus II

J. Robert Buchanan

Department of Mathematics

Fall 2021
Introduction

▶ We have been studying series for which the individual

terms are constant.
▶ Today we consider the case in which the terms of a series
contain a variable.

Example
∞
X 1
xk = 1 + x + x2 + · · · =
1−x
k =0

provided |x| < 1.

Remark: the series converges for |x| < 1 to a function,
1
f (x) = 1−x , but diverges for |x| ≥ 1.
Power Series

Definition
If x is a variable, a power series in x is a series of the form
∞
X
ak x k = a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + · · ·
k =0

where the coefficients ak are constants.

Definition
If x is a variable and c is a constant, a power series in x − c is
a series of the form
∞
X
ak (x − c)k = a0 + a1 (x − c) + a2 (x − c)2 + · · ·
k =0

where the coefficients ak are constants.

Where does a Power Series Converge?

Almost always the Ratio Test will answer this question.

Example
Determine the values of x for which the following series
converge.
∞
X xk
1.
4k
k =0
∞
X (x − 1)k
2.
k!
k =0
∞
X 1
3. (x − 2)k
k
k =1
∞
X xk
4k
k =0

Using the Ratio Test:

 k +1 
x   k
 4 x k +1 

 k +1 
lim  4x k  = lim  
k →∞   k →∞  4k +1 x k 
4 k

1
= lim |x|
k →∞ 4
1
= |x|.
4
The series converges absolutely when

1
|x| < 1 ⇐⇒ |x| < 4 ⇐⇒ −4 < x < 4.
4
∞
X (x − 1)k
k!
k =0

Using the Ratio Test:

 
 (x−1)k +1 
(x − 1)k +1 
 
 (k +1)!   k!
lim  k
 = lim 
k →∞  (x−1)  k →∞  (k + 1)! (x − 1)k 
k!
1
= lim |x − 1|
k →∞ k + 1
= 0.

The series converges absolutely for all −∞ < x < ∞.

∞
X 1
(x − 2)k
k
k =1

Using the Ratio Test:

 
 1 (x − 2)k +1   k (x − 2)k +1 
 
 k +1
lim  1  = lim
  
k k →∞  k + 1 (x − 2)k 
k (x − 2)
k →∞  
k
= lim |x − 2|
k →∞ k + 1
= |x − 2|.

The series converges absolutely when

|x − 2| < 1 ⇐⇒ −1 < x − 2 < 1 ⇐⇒ 1 < x < 3.

Remarks

∞
X
Consider the generic power series ak (x − c)k .
k =0

Remarks:
▶ The series always converges for x = c.
▶ If the series converges for some x ̸= c there is a number
r > 0 called the radius of convergence such that the
power series converges absolutely for x in the interval
(c − r , c + r ), the interval of convergence, and diverges
when |x − c| > r .
▶ Further investigation on a case-by-case basis is needed to
determine if the power series converges for x = c ± r .
Result

Theorem ∞
X
Given any power series ak (x − c)k , there are exactly three
k =0
possibilities:
1. The series converges absolutely for all x in (−∞, ∞) and
the radius of convergence is r = ∞.
2. The series converges only for x = c and diverges for all
x ̸= c and the radius of convergence is r = 0.
3. The series converges absolutely for x in (c − r , c + r ) and
diverges for x < c − r and x > c + r for some number r
with 0 < r < ∞.
Examples (1 of 2)

Find the interval and radius of convergence for the following

power series.
∞
X xk
1.
k +1
k =0
∞
X (x − 2)k
2.
3k
k =0
∞
X (−1)k x k
3. √
k =1
k
∞
X
4. k !x k
k =1
∞
X xk
k +1
k =0

Using the Ratio Test:

 k +1 
x   k + 1 x k +1 
 
 k +2 
lim  x k  = lim   = lim k + 1 |x| = |x| < 1.
k →∞   k →∞ k + 2 x k  k →∞ k + 2
k +1

Thus the power series converges absolutely for −1 < x < 1.

∞
X (−1)k
▶ At x = −1 the series is which converges by the
k +1
k =0
Alternating Series Test.
∞
X 1
▶ At x = 1 the series is which diverges by the
k +1
k =0
Integral Test.
The power series converges for −1 ≤ x < 1.
∞
X (x − 2)k
3k
k =0

Using the Ratio Test:

 
 (x−2)k +1   k
 3 (x − 2)k +1 

 = lim 1 |x−2| = 1 |x−2| < 1
 3k +1 
lim  (x−2)k  = lim  k +1
  
k
k →∞   k →∞ 3 (x − 2)  k →∞ 3 3
3k

Thus the power series converges absolutely for −1 < x < 5.

∞ ∞
X (−3)k X
▶ At x = −1 the series is = (−1)k which
3k
k =0 k =0
diverges by the k th Term Test.
∞ ∞
X 3k X
▶ At x = 5 the series is = 1 which diverges by the
3k
k =0 k =0
k th Term Test.
The power series converges for −1 < x < 5.
 ∞
X (−1)k x k
√
k =1
k
Using the Ratio Test:

 (−1)k +1 x k +1 
  √  √
√ k +1 x k +1 
 k +1   k (−1) k
lim  (−1)k x k  = lim  √  = lim √ |x| =
   
k k
x  k →∞ k + 1
k →∞  √  k →∞  k + 1 (−1)
k

Thus the power series converges absolutely for −1 < x < 1.

∞ ∞
X (−1)k (−1)k X 1
▶ At x = −1 the series is √ = which
k 1/2
k =1
k k =1
diverges by the p-Series Test.
∞ ∞
X (−1)k (1)k X (−1)k
▶ At x = 1 the series is √ = which
k k 1/2
k =1 k =1
converges by the Alternating Series Test.
The power series converges for −1 < x ≤ 1.
∞
X
k !x k
k =1

Using the Ratio Test:

 (k + 1)!x k +1 
 
lim   = lim (k + 1)|x| = ∞ > 1 if x ̸= 0.
k →∞  k !x k  k →∞

Thus the power series converges only for x = 0. The radius of

convergence is r = 0.
Questions

1. If the interval of convergence of a power series is (2, 4),

what is the radius of convergence?
X∞
2. If the power series ak x k has radius of convergence
k =0
r = 5, what do we know about the convergence of
∞
X
▶ ak 3k ?
k =0
∞
X
▶ ak (−6)k ?
k =0
∞
X
▶ ak 5k ?
k =0
Examples (2 of 2)

Find power series whose sums are the following functions.

State the radius and interval of convergence of those series.
∞
3 X
1. f (x) = = 3x 2k if −1 < x < 1, radius r = 1.
1 − x2
k =0
∞
4 X (5x)k
2. g(x) = = 4 if − 35 < x < 53 , radius
3 − 5x 3k +1
k =0
r = 35 .
Calculus and Power Series

Remark: inside of the radius of convergence of a power series,

the series converges to a function of x, i.e.,
∞
X
f (x) = ak (x − c)k = a0 + a1 (x − c) + a2 (x − c)2 + · · ·
k =0

for x in (c − r , c + r ).
We can differentiate and integrate these convergent power
series term-by-term.
Differentiating a Power Series
∞
X
If f (x) = ak (x − c)k , then
k =0
"∞ #
′ d X k
f (x) = ak (x − c)
dx
k =0
∞
X d h i
= ak (x − c)k
dx
k =0
X∞
= k ak (x − c)k −1
k =0
X∞
= k ak (x − c)k −1
k =1
Example

1
Use the power series representation of f (x) = to find the
1−x
1
power series representation of .
(1 − x)2

∞
1 X
= x k (if |x| < 1)
1−x
k =0
  "∞ #
d 1 d X k
= x (if |x| < 1)
dx 1 − x dx
k =0
∞
1 X
= kx k −1 (if |x| < 1)
(1 − x)2
k =1
Integrating a Power Series

∞
X
If f (x) = ak (x − c)k , then
k =0

∞
!
Z x Z x X
k
f (t) dt = ak (t − c) dt
c c k =0
∞
X Z x 
= ak (t − c)k dt
k =0 c
∞
X ak
= (x − c)k +1
k +1
k =0
Examples (1 of 2)
1
Use the power series representation of f (x) = to find the
1−x
power series representation of ln(1 − x).

∞
1 X
= x k (if |x| < 1)
1−x
k =0
∞
" #
Z x Z x
1 X
dt = tk dt (if |x| < 1)
0 1−t 0 k =0
∞ Z x
X
[− ln(1 − t)]t=x
t=0 =
k
t dt (if |x| < 1)
k =0 0
∞
X 1
− ln(1 − x) + ln 1 = x k +1 (if |x| < 1)
k +1
k =0
∞
X −1 k +1
ln(1 − x) = x (if |x| < 1)
k +1
k =0
Examples (2 of 2)
Find a power series representation for tan−1 x using the fact
d h −1 i 1
that tan x = .
dx 1 + x2

∞
1 1 X
2
= = (−x 2 )k (if |x| < 1)
1+x 1 − (−x 2 )
k =0
∞
Z x " #
Z x
1 X
k 2k
dt = (−1) t dt (if |x| < 1)
0 1 + t2 0 k =0
h it=x ∞
X Z x
−1 k
tan t = (−1) t 2k dt (if |x| < 1)
t=0 0
k =0
∞
X (−1)k 2k +1
tan−1 x = x (if |x| < 1)
2k + 1
k =0
Other Series Containing Variables

There are other types of infinite series which contain variables,

but which are not power series.
For example, the infinite series of the form
∞
a0 X
+ (ak cos(k x) + bk sin(k x))
2
k =1

is called a Fourier series.

Differentiating a Non-Power Series

Remark: Differentiating a non-power series does not

necessarily produce a convergent derivative series.

Example
∞
X cos(k 3 x)
Suppose f (x) = . Show that the original series
k2
k =1
converges but that its derivative does not when x ̸= 0.
By the Comparison Test, the absolute value series converges
for all x, thus the given series converges absolutely for
−∞ < x < ∞.
∞
X
f ′ (x) = (−k ) sin(k 3 x)
k =1

diverges by the k th Term Test except for x = 0.

Homework

▶ Read Section 6.1

▶ Exercises: 1, 5, 9, . . . , 41/handout