Iodine

An overview

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Contents
Articles
Overview
Iodine 1 1 15 15 24

Isotopes
Isotopes of iodine

Miscellany

References
Article Sources and Contributors Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 25 26

Article Licenses
License 27

Overview
Iodine
Iodine Appearance Lustrous metallic gray, violet as a gas

General properties Name, symbol, number Pronunciation iodine, I, 53 /a.dan/ eye-o-dyne, /a.dn/ eye-o-dn, or /a.din/ eye-o-deen halogen 17,5, p

Element category Group, period, block

Standard atomic weight 126.90447 gmol1 Electron configuration Electrons per shell [Kr] 4d 5s 5p
10 2 5

2, 8, 18, 18, 7 (Image)

Physical properties Phase Density (near r.t.) Melting point Boiling point Triple point Critical point Heat of fusion Heat of vaporization Specific heat capacity solid 4.933 gcm3 386.85K,113.7C,236.66F 457.4K,184.3C,363.7F 386.65K(113C),12.1kPa 819 K, 11.7 MPa (I ) 15.52 kJmol1
2 2

(I ) 41.57 kJmol1 (25 C) (I ) 54.44 Jmol1K1

2

Vapor pressure(rhombic) P/Pa 1 10 282 100 309 1k 342 10 k 381 100 k 457

at T/K 260

Atomic properties

Iodine

2
Oxidation states Electronegativity Ionization energies 7, 5, 3, 1, -1 (strongly acidic oxide) 2.66 (Pauling scale) 1st: 1008.4 kJmol1 2nd: 1845.9 kJmol1 3rd: 3180 kJmol1 Atomic radius Covalent radius Van der Waals radius 140 pm 1393 pm 198 pm

Miscellanea Crystal structure Magnetic ordering Electrical resistivity Thermal conductivity Bulk modulus CAS registry number orthorhombic diamagnetic
[1]
7

(0 C) 1.310 m (300 K) 0.449Wm K 7.7 GPa 7553-56-2

1 1

Most stable isotopes iso

123 127 129 131

NA syn

half-life 13 h
127

DM DE (MeV) , 0.16

DP
123

Te

I 100% I I trace syn

I is stable with 74 neutron

6

15.710 y

0.194 0.971

129 131

Xe Xe

8.02070 d ,

Iodine is a chemical element with the symbol I and atomic number 53. The name is pronounced /a.dan/ eye-o-dyne, /a.dn/ eye-o-dn, or (British English) /a.din/ eye-o-deen. The name is from the Greek: iodes, meaning violet or purple, due to the color of elemental iodine vapor. Iodine and its compounds are primarily used in nutrition, and industrially in the production of acetic acid and certain polymers. Iodine's relatively high atomic number, low toxicity, and ease of attachment to organic compounds have made it a part of many X-ray contrast materials in modern medicine. Iodine has only one stable isotope. A number of iodine radioisotopes are also used in medical applications. Iodine is found on Earth mainly as the highly water-soluble iodide I-, which concentrates it in oceans and brine pools. Like the other halogens, free iodine occurs mainly as a diatomic molecule I2, and then only momentarily after being oxidized from iodide by a an oxidant like free oxygen. In the universe and on Earth, iodine's high atomic number makes it a relatively rare element, ranking 47th in abundance. However, its presence in ocean water has given it a role in biology. It is the heaviest essential element utilized widely by life in biological functions (only tungsten, employed in enzymes by a few species of bacteria, is heavier). Iodine's rarity in many soils, due to initial low abundance as a crust-element, and also leaching of soluble iodide by rainwater, has led to many deficiency problems in land animals and inland human populations. Iodine deficiency affects about two billion people and is the leading preventable cause of mental retardation.[2]

Iodine Iodine is required by higher animals, which use it to synthesize thyroid hormones, which contain the element. Because of this function, radioisotopes of iodine are concentrated in the thyroid gland along with nonradioactive iodine. The radioisotope iodine-131, which has a high fission product yield, concentrates in the thyroid, and is one of the most carcinogenic of nuclear fission products.

Characteristics
Iodine under standard conditions is a bluish-black solid. It can be seen apparently sublimating at standard temperatures into a violet-pink gas that has an irritating odor. This halogen forms compounds with many elements, but is less reactive than the other members of its Group VII (halogens) and has some metallic light reflectance. Elemental iodine dissolves easily in most organic solvents such as hexane or chloroform owing to its lack of polarity, but is only slightly soluble in water. However, the solubility of elemental iodine in water can be increased by the addition of potassium iodide. The molecular iodine reacts reversibly with the negative ion, generating the triiodide anion I3 in equilibrium, which is soluble in water. This is also the formulation of some types of medicinal (antiseptic) iodine, although tincture of iodine classically dissolves the element in aqueous ethanol. The colour of solutions of elemental iodine change depends on the polarity of the solvent. In non-polar solvents like hexane, solution are violet; in moderately polar dichloromethane, the solution is dark crimson, and, in strongly polar solvents such as acetone or ethanol, it appears orange or brown. This effect is due to the formation of adducts.

In the gas phase, iodine shows its violet color.

Iodine melts at the relatively low temperature of 113.7C, although the liquid is often obscured by a dense violet vapor of gaseous iodine.

Occurrence
Iodine is rare in the solar system and Earth's crust (47th in abundance); however, iodide salts are often very soluble in water. Iodine occurs in slightly greater concentrations in seawater than in rocks, 0.05 vs 0.04 ppm. Minerals containing iodine include caliche, found in Chile. The brown algae Laminaria and Fucus found in temperate zones of the Northern Hemisphere contain 0.0280.454 dry weight percent of iodine. Aside from tungsten, iodine is the heaviest element to be essential in living organisms, and iodine is the heaviest element thought to be needed by higher animals. About 19,000 tonnes are produced annually from natural sources.[3]

Iodomethane

Organoiodine compounds are produced by marine life forms, the most notable being iodomethane (commonly called methyl iodide). The total iodomethane that is produced by the marine environment, by microbial activity in rice paddies and by the burning of biological material is estimated to be 214 kilotonnes/year.[4] The volatile iodomethane is broken up in the atmosphere as part of a global iodine cycle.[4] [5]

Iodine

Structure and bonding

Iodine normally exists as a diatomic molecule with a I-I bond length of 270pm,[6] one of the longest single bonds known. The I2 molecules tend to interact via weak van der Waals forces, and this interaction is responsible for the higher melting point compared to more compact halogens, which are also diatomic. Since the atomic size of Iodine is larger, its melting point is higher. The solid crystallizes as orthorhombic crystals. The crystal motif in the HermannMauguin notation is Cmca (No 64), Pearson symbol oS8. The I-I bond is relatively weak, with a bond dissociation energy of 36 kcal/mol. In fact, most bonds to iodine tend to be weaker than for the lighter halides. One consequence of this weak bonding is the relatively high tendency of I2 molecules to dissociate into atomic iodine.

Structure of solid iodine

Production
Of the several places in which iodine occurs in nature, only two sources are useful commercially: the caliche, found in Chile, and the iodine-containing brines of gas and oil fields, especially in Japan and the United States. The caliche, found in Chile, contains sodium nitrate, which is the main product of the mining activities and small amounts Crystalline iodine of sodium iodate and sodium iodide. In the extraction of sodium [7] nitrate, the sodium iodate and sodium iodide are extracted. The high concentration of iodine in the caliche and the extensive mining made Chile the largest producer of iodine in 2007. Most other producers use natural occurring brine for the production of iodine. The Japanese Minami Kanto gas field east of Tokyo and the American Anadarko Basin gas field in northwest Oklahoma are the two largest sources for iodine from brine. The brine has a temperature of over 60C owing to the depth of the source. The brine is first purified and acidified using sulfuric acid, then the iodide present is oxidized to iodine with chlorine. An iodine solution is produced, but is dilute and must be concentrated. Air is blown into the solution, causing the iodine to evaporate, then it is passed into an absorbing tower containing acid where sulfur dioxide is added to reduce the iodine. The hydrogen iodide (HI) is reacted with chlorine to precipitate the iodine. After filtering and purification the iodine is packed.[7] [8] 2 HI + Cl2 I2 + 2 HCl I2 + 2 H2O + SO2 2 HI + H2SO4 2 HI + Cl2 I2 + 2 HCl The production of iodine from seawater via electrolysis is not used owing to the sufficient abundance of iodine-rich brine. Another source of iodine was kelp, used in the 18th and 19th centuries, but it is no longer economically viable.[9]

Iodine

Commercial samples often contain high concentrations of impurities, which can be removed by sublimation. The element may also be prepared in an ultra-pure form through the reaction of potassium iodide with copper(II) sulfate, which gives copper(II) iodide initially. That decomposes spontaneously to copper(I) iodide and iodine: Cu2+ + 2 I CuI2
Iodine output in 2005

2 CuI2 2 CuI + I2 There are also other methods of isolating this element in the laboratory, for example, the method used to isolate other halogens: Oxidation of the iodide in hydrogen iodide (often made in situ with an iodide and sulfuric acid) by manganese dioxide (see below in Descriptive chemistry).

Isotopes and their applications

Of the 37 known (characterized) isotopes of iodine, only one, 127I, is stable. The longest-lived radioisotope, 129I, has a half-life of 15.7 million years. This is long enough to make it a permanent fixture of the environment on human time scales, but far too short for it to exist as a primordial isotope today. Instead, iodine-129 is an extinct radionuclide, and its presence in the early solar system is inferred from the observation of an excess of its daughter xenon-129. This nuclide is also newly-made by cosmic rays and as a byproduct of human nuclear fission, which it is used to monitor as a very long-lived environmental contaminant. The next-longest-lived radioisotope, iodine-125, has a half-life of 59 days. It is used as a convenient gamma-emitting tag for proteins in biological assays, and a few nuclear medicine imaging tests where a longer half-life is required. It is also commonly used in brachytherapy implanted capsules, which kill tumors by local short-range gamma radiation (but where the isotope is never released into the body). Iodine-123 (half-life 13 hours) is the isotope of choice for nuclear medicine imaging of the thyroid gland, which naturally accumulates all iodine isotopes. Iodine-131 (half-life 8 days) is a beta-emitting isotope, which is a common nuclear fission product. It is preferably administered to humans only in very high doses which destroy all tissues that accumulate it (usually the thyroid), which in turn prevents these tissues from developing cancer from a lower dose (paradoxically, a high dose of this isotope appears safer for the thryoid than a low dose). Like other radioiodines, I-131 accumulates in the thyroid gland, but unlike the others, in small amounts it is highly carcinogenic there, it seems, owing to the high local cell mutation due to damage from beta decay. Because of this tendency of 131I to cause high damage to cells that accumulate it and other cells near them (0.6 to 2mm away, the range of the beta rays), it is the only iodine radioisotope used as direct therapy, to kill tissues such as cancers that take up artificially iodinated molecules (example, the compound iobenguane, also known as MIBG). For the same reason, only the iodine isotope I-131 is used to treat Grave's disease and those types of thyroid cancers (sometimes in metastatic form) where the tissue that requires destruction, still functions to naturally accumulate iodide. Nonradioactive ordinary potassium iodide (iodine-127), in a number of convenient forms (tablets or solution) may be used to saturate the thyroid gland's ability to take up further iodine, and thus protect against accidental contamination from iodine-131 generated by nuclear fission accidents, such as the Chernobyl disaster and more recently the Fukushima I nuclear accidents, as well as from contamination from this isotope in nuclear fallout from nuclear weapons.

Iodine

History
Iodine was discovered by Bernard Courtois in 1811.[10] [11] He was born to a manufacturer of saltpeter (a vital part of gunpowder). At the time of the Napoleonic Wars, France was at war and saltpeter was in great demand. Saltpeter produced from French niter beds required sodium carbonate, which could be isolated from seaweed collected on the coasts of Normandy and Brittany. To isolate the sodium carbonate, seaweed was burned and the ash washed with water. The remaining waste was destroyed by adding sulfuric acid. Courtois once added excessive sulfuric acid and a cloud of purple vapor rose. He noted that the vapor crystallized on cold surfaces, making dark crystals. Courtois suspected that this was a new element but lacked funding to pursue it further. Courtois gave samples to his friends, Charles Bernard Desormes (17771862) and Nicolas Clment (17791841), to continue research. He also gave some of the substance to chemist Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac (17781850), and to physicist Andr-Marie Ampre (17751836). On 29 November 1813, Dersormes and Clment made public Courtois's discovery. They described the substance to a meeting of the Imperial Institute of France. On December 6, Gay-Lussac announced that the new substance was either an element or a compound of oxygen.[12] [13] [14] It was Gay-Lussac who suggested the name "iode", from the Greek word (iodes) for violet (because of the color of iodine vapor).[10] [12] Ampre had given some of his sample to Humphry Davy (17781829). Davy did some experiments on the substance and noted its similarity to chlorine.[15] Davy sent a letter dated December 10 to the Royal Society of London stating that he had identified a new element.[16] Arguments erupted between Davy and Gay-Lussac over who identified iodine first, but both scientists acknowledged Courtois as the first to isolate the element.

Applications
Catalysis
The major application of iodine is as a co-catalyst for the production of acetic acid by the Monsanto and Cativa processes. In these technologies, which support the world's demand for acetic acid, hydroiodic acid converts the methanol feedstock into methyl iodide, which undergoes carbonylation. Hydrolysis of the resulting acetyl iodide regenerates hydroiodic acid and gives acetic acid.[3]

Animal feed
The production of ethylenediammonium diiodide (EDDI) consumes a large fraction of available iodine. EDDI is provided to livestock as a nutritional supplement.[3]

Disinfectant and water treatment

Elemental iodine is used as a disinfectant in various forms. The iodine exists as the element, or as the water-soluble triiodide anion I3- generated in situ by adding iodide to poorly water-soluble elemental iodine (the reverse chemical reaction makes some free elemental iodine available for antisepsis). In alternative fashion, iodine may come from iodophors, which contain iodine complexed with a solubilizing agent (iodide ion may be thought of loosely as the iodophor in triiodide water solutions). Examples of such preparations include:[17] Tincture of iodine: iodine in ethanol, or iodine and sodium iodide in a mixture of ethanol and water. Lugol's iodine: iodine and iodide in water alone, forming mostly triiodide. Unlike tincture of iodine, Lugol's has a minimized amount of the free iodine (I2) component. Povidone iodine (an iodophor)

Iodine

Health, medical, and radiological use

In most countries, table salt is iodized. Iodide is required for the essential thyroxin hormones produced by and concentrated in the thyroid gland. Potassium iodide has been used as an expectorant, although this use is increasingly uncommon. In medicine, potassium iodide is used to treat acute thyrotoxicosis, usually as a saturated solution of potassium iodide (SSKI). It is also used to block uptake of iodine-131 in the thyroid gland (see isotopes section above), when this isotope is used as part of radiopharmaceuticals (such as iobenguane) that are not targetted to the thyroid or thyroid type tissues. Iodine-131 (in the chemical form of iodide) is a component of nuclear fallout and a particularly dangerous one owing to the thyroid gland's propensity to concentrate ingested iodine, where it is kept for periods longer than this isotope's radiological half-life of eight days. For this reason, if people are expected to be exposed to a significant amount of environmental radioactive iodine (iodine-131 in fallout), they may be instructed to take non-radioactive potassium iodide tablets. The typical adult dose is one 130mg tablet per 24 hours, supplying 100mg (100,000 micrograms) iodine, as iodide ion. (Note: typical daily dose of iodine to maintain normal health is of order 100 micrograms; see "Dietary Intake" below.) By ingesting this large amount of non-radioactive iodine, radioactive iodine uptake by the thyroid gland is minimized. See the main article above for more on this topic.[18]

Radiocontrast agent
Iodine, as a heavy element, is quite radio-opaque. Organic compounds of a certain type (typically iodine-substituted benzene derivatives) are, thus, used in medicine as X-ray radiocontrast agents for intravenous injection. This is often in conjunction with advanced X-ray techniques such as angiography and CT scanning. At present, all water-soluble radiocontrast agents rely on iodine.

Other uses
Inorganic iodides find specialized uses. Hafnium, zirconium, titanium Diatrizoic acid, a radiocontrast agent are purified by the van Arkel Process, which involves the reversible formation of the tetraiodides of these elements. Silver iodide is a major ingredient to traditional photographic film. Thousands of kilograms of silver iodide are consumed annually for cloud seeding.[3] The organoiodine compound erythrosine is an important food coloring agent. Perfluoroalkyl iodides are precursors to important surfactants, such as perfluorooctanesulfonic acid.[3]

Iodine chemistry
Iodine adopts a variety of oxidation states, commonly ranging from (formally) I7+ to I-, and including the intermediate states of I5+, I3+ and I+. Practically, only the 1- oxidation state is of significance, being the form found in iodide salts and organoiodine compounds.

Solubility
Being a nonpolar molecule, iodine is highly soluble in nonpolar organic solvents, including ethanol (20.5g/100 ml at 15C, 21.43g/100ml at 25C), diethyl ether (20.6g/100ml at 17C, 25.20g/100ml at 25C), chloroform, acetic acid, glycerol, benzene (14.09g/100ml at 25C), carbon tetrachloride (2.603g/100ml at 35C), and carbon disulfide (16.47g/100ml at 25C).[19] Elemental iodine is poorly soluble in water, with one gram dissolving in 3450ml at 20C and 1280ml at 50C. Aqueous and ethanol solutions are brown reflecting the role of these

Iodine solvents as Lewis bases. Solutions in chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, and carbon disulfide are violet, the color of iodine vapor. One of the most distinctive properties of iodine is the way that its solubility in water is enhanced by the presence of iodide ions. The dissolution of iodine in aqueous solutions containing iodide (e.g., from hydroiodic acid, potassium iodide, etc.) results from the formation of the I3 ion. Dissolved bromides also improve water solubility of iodine.

Redox reactions
In everyday life, iodides are slowly oxidized by atmospheric oxygen in the atmosphere to give free iodine. Evidence for this conversion is the yellow tint of certain aged samples of iodide salts and some organoiodine compounds.[3] The oxidation of iodide to iodine in air is also responsible for the slow loss of iodide content in iodized salt if exposed to air.[20] Some salts use iodate to prevent the loss of iodine. Iodine is easily oxidized and easily reduced. Most common is the interconversion of I- and I2. Molecular iodine can be prepared by oxidizing iodides with chlorine: or with manganese dioxide in acid solution:[21] 2 I + 4 H+ + MnO2 I2 + 2 H2O + Mn2+ Iodine is reduced to hydroiodic acid by hydrogen sulfide and hydrazine:[22] 8 I2 + 8 H2S 16 HI + S8 2 I2 + N2H4 4 HI + N2 When dissolved in fuming sulfuric acid (65% oleum), iodine forms an intense blue solution. The blue color is due to I cation, the result of iodine being oxidized by SO3:[23] 2 I2 + 2 SO3 + H2SO4 2 I The I of the I 2I + SO2 + 2 HSO Sb2F or I Ta2F can be cation is also formed in the oxidation of iodine by SbF5 or TaF5. The resulting I cation:[23] I disproportionates into I (black).
[23]

2 I + Cl2 I2 + 2 Cl

isolated as deep blue crystals. The solutions of these salts turn red when cooled below 60C, owing to the formation

Under slightly more alkaline conditions, I can then react with I to form I

and an iodine(III) compound. Excess iodine

(green) and I

Oxides of iodine
The best-known oxides are the anions, IO3 and IO4, but several other oxides are known, such as the strong oxidant iodine pentoxide. By contrast with chlorine, the formation of the hypohalite ion (IO) in neutral aqueous solutions of iodine is negligible. I2 + H2O H+ + I + HIO (K = 2.01013)[21] In basic solutions (such as aqueous sodium hydroxide), iodine converts in a two stage reaction to iodide and iodate:[21]
I2 + 2 OH I + IO + H2O (K = 30) 3 IO 2 I + IO3 (K = 1020)

Organic derivatives of hypoiodate (2-Iodoxybenzoic acid, and Dess-Martin periodinane) are used in organic chemistry.

Iodine Iodic acid (HIO3), periodic acid (HIO4) and their salts are strong oxidizers and are of some use in organic synthesis. Iodine is oxidized to iodate by nitric acid as well as by chlorates:[24] I2 + 10 HNO3 2 HIO3 + 10 NO2 + 4 H2O I2 + 2 ClO3 2 IO3 + Cl2

Inorganic iodine compounds

Iodine forms compounds with all the elements except for the noble gases. From the perspective of commercial applications, an important compound is hydroiodic acid, used as a co-catalyst in the Cativa process for the production of acetic acid. Titanium and aluminium iodides are used in the production of butadiene, a precursor to rubber tires.[3] Alkali metal salts are common colourless solids that are highly soluble in water. Potassium iodide is a convenient source of the iodide anion; it is easier to handle than sodium iodide because it is not hygroscopic. Both salts are mainly used in the production of iodized salt. Sodium iodide is especially useful in the Finkelstein reaction, because it is soluble in acetone, whereas potassium iodide is less so. In this reaction, an alkyl chloride is converted to an alkyl iodide. This relies on the insolubility of sodium chloride in acetone to drive the reaction: R-Cl (acetone) + NaI (acetone) R-I (acetone) + NaCl (s) Despite having the lowest electronegativity of the common halogens, iodine reacts violently with some metals, such as aluminium: 3 I2 + 2 Al 2 AlI3 This reaction produces 314 kJ per mole of aluminum, comparable to thermite's 425 kJ. Yet the reaction initiates spontaneously, and if unconfined, causes a cloud of gaseous iodine due to the high temperature. Interhalogen compounds Interhalogen compounds are well known; examples include iodine monochloride and trichloride; iodine pentafluoride and heptafluoride.

Organic compounds
Many organoiodine compounds exist; the simplest is iodomethane, approved as a soil fumigant. Iodinated organics are used as synthetic reagents, and also radiocontrast agents. The thyroid hormones are naturally occurring organoiodine compounds.[25] Organic synthesis With phosphorus, iodine is able to replace hydroxyl groups on alcohols with iodide. For example, the synthesis of methyl iodide from methanol, red phosphorus, and iodine.[26] The iodinating reagent is phosphorus triiodide that is formed in situ: 3 CH3OH + PI3 3 CH3I + H3PO3 Phosphorous acid is formed as a side-product. The iodoform test uses an alkaline solution of iodine to react with methyl ketones to give the labile triiodomethide leaving group, forming iodoform, which precipitates. Iodine is sometimes used to activate magnesium when preparing Grignard reagents; aryl and alkyl iodides both form Grignard reagents. Alkyl iodides such as iodomethane are good alkylating agents. Some drawbacks to use of organoiodine compounds in chemical synthesis are: iodine compounds tend to be more expensive than the corresponding bromides and chlorides, in that order

Iodine iodides tend to be much stronger alkylating agents, and so are more toxic (e.g., methyl iodide is very toxic (T+)[27] low-molecular-weight iodides tend to have a much higher equivalent weight, compared to other alkylating agents (e.g., methyl iodide versus dimethyl carbonate), owing to the atomic mass of iodine.

10

Analytical chemistry and bioanalysis

Iodine is a common general stain used in thin-layer chromatography. In particular, iodine forms an intense blue complex with the glucose polymers starch and glycogen. Several analytical methods rely on this property: Iodometry. The concentration of an oxidant can be determined by adding it to an excess of iodide, to destroy elemental iodine/triiodide as a result of oxidation by the oxidant. A starch indicator is then used as the indicator close to the end-point, in order to increase the visual contrast (dark blue becomes colorless, instead of the yellow of dilute triiodide becoming colorless).

Testing a seed for starch with a solution of iodine

An Iodine test may be used to test a sample substance for the presence of starch. The Iodine clock reaction is an extension of the techniques in iodometry. Iodine solutions are used in counterfeit banknote detection pens; the premise being that counterfeit banknotes made using commercially available paper contain starch. Starch-iodide paper are used to test for the presence of oxidants such as peroxides. The oxidants convert iodide to iodine, which shows up as blue. A solution of starch and iodide can perform the same function.[28] During colposcopy, Lugol's iodine is applied to the vagina and cervix. Normal vaginal tissue stains brown owing to its high glycogen content (a color-reaction similar to that with starch), while abnormal tissue suspicious for cancer does not stain, and thus appears pale compared to the surrounding tissue. Biopsy of suspicious tissue can then be performed. This is called a Schiller's Test.

Clandestine synthetic chemical use

In the United States, the Drug Enforcement Agency (DEA) regards iodine and compounds containing iodine (ionic iodides, iodoform, ethyl iodide, and so on) as reagents useful for the clandestine manufacture of methamphetamine.[29]

Biological role
Iodine is an essential trace element for life, the heaviest element commonly needed by living organisms, and the second-heaviest known to be used by any form of life (only tungsten, a component of a few bacterial enzymes, has a higher atomic number and atomic weight). Iodine's main role in animal biology is as a constituent of the thyroid hormones thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3). These are made from addition condensation products of the amino acid tyrosine, and are stored prior to release in an iodine-containing protein called thyroglobulin. T4 and T3 contain four and three atoms of iodine per molecule, respectively. The thyroid gland actively absorbs iodide from the blood to make and release these hormones into the blood, actions that are regulated by a second hormone TSH from the pituitary. Thyroid hormones are phylogenetically very old molecules that are synthesized by most multicellular organisms, and that even have some effect on unicellular organisms. Thyroid hormones play a basic role in biology, acting on gene transcription to regulate the basal metabolic rate. The total deficiency of thyroid hormones can reduce basal metabolic rate up to 50%, while in excessive production of

Iodine thyroid hormones the basal metabolic rate can be increased by 100%. T4 acts largely as a precursor to T3, which is (with minor exceptions) the biologically active hormone. Iodine has a nutritional relationship with selenium. A family of selenium-dependent enzymes called deiodinases converts T4 to T3 (the active hormone) by removing an iodine atom from the outer tyrosine ring. These enzymes also convert T4 to reverse T3 (rT3) by removing an inner ring iodine atom, and convert T3 to 3,3'-diiodothyronine (T2) also by removing an inner ring atom. Both of the latter are inactivated hormones that are ready for disposal and have, in essence, no biological effects. A family of non-selenium-dependent enzymes then further deiodinates the products of these reactions. Iodine accounts for 65% of the molecular weight of T4 and 59% of the T3. Fifteen to 20mg of iodine is concentrated in thyroid tissue and hormones, but 70% of the body's iodine is distributed in other tissues, including mammary glands, eyes, gastric mucosa, the cervix, and salivary glands. In the cells of these tissues, iodide enters directly by sodium-iodide symporter (NIS). Its role in mammary tissue is related to fetal and neonatal development, but its role in the other tissues is unknown.[30]

11

Dietary intake
The daily Dietary Reference Intake recommended by the United States Institute of Medicine is between 110 and 130 g for infants up to 12 months, 90g for children up to eight years, 130g for children up to 13 years, 150g for adults, 220g for pregnant women and 290g for lactating mothers.[31] The Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL) for adults is 1,100g/day (1.1mg/day).[32] The tolerable upper limit was assessed by analyzing the effect of supplementation on thyroid-stimulating hormone.[30] The thyroid gland needs no more than 70 micrograms /day to synthesize the requisite daily amounts of T4 and T3. The higher recommended daily allowance levels of iodine seem necessary for optimal function of a number of body systems, including lactating breast, gastric mucosa, salivary glands, oral mucosa, thymus, epidermis, choroid plexus, etc.[33] [34] [35] The high iodide-concentration of thymus tissue in particular suggests an anatomical rationale for this role of iodine in the immune system.[36] The trophic, antioxidant and apoptosis-inductor actions and the presumed anti-tumour activity of iodides has been suggested to also be important for prevention of oral and salivary glands diseases.[37] Natural sources of iodine include sea life, such as kelp and certain seafood, as well as plants grown on iodine-rich soil.[38] [39] Iodized salt is fortified with iodine.[39] As of 2000, the median intake of iodine from food in the United States was 240 to 300g/day for men and 190 to 210g/day for women.[32] In Japan, consumption is much higher, owing to the frequent consumption of seaweed or kombu kelp.[30] After iodine fortification programs (e.g., iodized salt) have been implemented, some cases of iodine-induced hyperthyroidism have been observed (so called Jod-Basedow phenomenon). The condition seems to occur mainly in people over forty, and the risk appears higher when iodine deficiency is severe and the initial rise in iodine intake is high.[40]

Deficiency
In areas where there is little iodine in the diet,[5] typically remote inland areas and semi-arid equatorial climates where no marine foods are eaten, iodine deficiency gives rise to hypothyroidism, symptoms of which are extreme fatigue, goitre, mental slowing, depression, weight gain, and low basal body temperatures.[41] Iodine deficiency is the leading cause of preventable mental retardation, a result that occurs primarily when babies or small children are rendered hypothyroidic by a lack of the element. The addition of iodine to table salt has largely eliminated this problem in the wealthier nations, but, as of March 2006, iodine deficiency remained a serious public health problem in the developing world.[42] Iodine deficiency is also a problem in certain areas of Europe.

Iodine Other possible health effects being investigated as being related to deficiency include: Breast cancer. The breast strongly and actively concentrates iodine into breast-milk for the benefit of the developing infant, and may develop a goiter-like hyperplasia, sometimes manifesting as fibrocystic breast disease, when iodine level are low. Studies indicate that iodine deficiency, either dietary or pharmacologic, can lead to breast atypia and increased incidence of malignancy in animal models, while iodine treatment can reverse dysplasia.[43] [44] [45] The role of iodide in breast dysplasia and development of breast cancer is an area of active research.[43] Stomach cancer. Some researchers have found an epidemiologic correlation between iodine deficiency, iodine-deficient goitre and gastric cancer.[46] [47] [48] A decrease of the incidence of death rate from stomach cancer after implementation of the effective iodine-prophylaxis has been reported also.[49]

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Precautions and toxicity of elemental iodine

Elemental iodine is an oxidizing irritant and direct contact with skin can cause lesions, so iodine crystals should be handled with care. Solutions with high elemental iodine concentration such as tincture of iodine and Lugol's solution are capable of causing tissue damage if use for cleaning and antisepsis is prolonged. Elemental iodine (I2) is poisonous if taken orally in larger amounts; 23grams of it is a lethal dose for an adult human. Iodine vapor is very irritating to the eye, to mucous membranes, and in the respiratory tract. Concentration of iodine in the air should not exceed 1mg/m3 (eight-hour time-weighted average). When mixed with ammonia and water, elemental iodine forms nitrogen triiodide, which is extremely shock-sensitive and can explode unexpectedly.

Toxicity of iodide ion

Excess iodine has symptoms similar to those of iodine deficiency. Commonly encountered symptoms are abnormal growth of the thyroid gland and disorders in functioning and growth of the organism as a whole. Iodides are similar in toxicity to bromides. Excess iodine can be more cytotoxic in the presence of selenium deficiency.[50] Iodine supplementation in selenium-deficient populations is, in theory, problematic, partly for this reason.[30]

Iodine sensitivity
Some people develop a sensitivity to iodine. Application of tincture of iodine can cause a rash. Some cases of reaction to Povidone-iodine (Betadine) have been documented to be a chemical burn.[51] Eating iodine-containing foods can cause hives. Medical use of iodine (i.e. as a contrast agent, see above) can cause anaphylactic shock in highly iodine-sensitive patients. Some cases of sensitivity to iodine can be formally classified as iodine allergies. Iodine sensitivity is rare but has a considerable effect given the extremely widespread use of iodine-based contrast media.[52]

Iodine

13

References
[1] Magnetic susceptibility of the elements and inorganic compounds (http:/ / www-d0. fnal. gov/ hardware/ cal/ lvps_info/ engineering/ elementmagn. pdf), in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 81st edition, CRC press. [2] McNeil, Donald G. Jr (2006-12-16). "In Raising the Worlds I.Q., the Secrets in the Salt" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2006/ 12/ 16/ health/ 16iodine. html?fta=y). New York Times. . Retrieved 2008-12-04. [3] Lyday, Phyllis A. "Iodine and Iodine Compounds" in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, 2005, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, ISBN 9783527306732 doi:10.1002/14356007.a14_381 Vol. A14 pp. 382390. [4] Bell, N. et al. (2002). "Methyl iodide: Atmospheric budget and use as a tracer of marine convection in global models". Journal of GeophysicalResearch 107: 4340. Bibcode2002JGRD..107.4340B. doi:10.1029/2001JD001151. [5] Dissanayake, C. B.; Chandrajith, Rohana; Tobschall, H. J. (1999). "The iodine cycle in the tropical environment implications on iodine deficiency disorders". International Journal of Environmental Studies 56 (3): 357. doi:10.1080/00207239908711210. [6] Wells, A.F. (1984) Structural Inorganic Chemistry, Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-855370-6. [7] Kogel, Jessica Elzea et al. (2006). Industrial Minerals & Rocks: Commodities, Markets, and Uses (http:/ / www. google. com/ books?id=zNicdkuulE4C). SME. pp.541552. ISBN9780873352338. . [8] Maekawa, Tatsuo; Igari, Shun-Ichiro and Kaneko, Nobuyuki (2006). "Chemical and isotopic compositions of brines from dissolved-in-water type natural gas fields in Chiba, Japan". Geochemical Journal 40 (5): 475. doi:10.2343/geochemj.40.475. [9] Stanford, Edward C. C. (1862). "On the Economic Applications of Seaweed" (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=wW8KAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA185). Journal of the Society of Arts: 185189. . [10] Courtois, Bernard (1813). "Dcouverte d'une substance nouvelle dans le Vareck" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=YGwri-w7sMAC& pg=RA2-PA304). Annales de chimie 88: 304. . In French, seaweed that had been washed onto the shore was called "varec", "varech", or "vareck", whence the English word "wrack". Later, "varec" also referred to the ashes of such seaweed: The ashes were used as a source of iodine and salts of sodium and potassium. [11] Swain, Patricia A. (2005). "Bernard Courtois (17771838) famed for discovering iodine (1811), and his life in Paris from 1798" (http:/ / www. scs. uiuc. edu/ ~mainzv/ HIST/ awards/ OPA Papers/ 2007-Swain. pdf). Bulletin for the History of Chemistry 30 (2): 103. . [12] Gay-Lussac, J. (1813). "Sur un nouvel acide form avec la substance dcourverte par M. Courtois" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=YGwri-w7sMAC& pg=RA2-PA511). Annales de chimie 88: 311. . [13] Gay-Lussac, J. (1813). "Sur la combination de l'iode avec d'oxigne" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=YGwri-w7sMAC& pg=RA2-PA519). Annales de chimie 88: 319. . [14] Gay-Lussac, J. (1814). "Mmoire sur l'iode" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Efms0Fri1CQC& pg=PA5). Annales de chimie 91: 5. . [15] Davy, H. (1813). "Sur la nouvelle substance dcouverte par M. Courtois, dans le sel de Vareck" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=YGwri-w7sMAC& pg=RA2-PA522& lpg=RA2-PA522). Annales de chemie 88: 322. . [16] Davy, Humphry (January 1, 1814). "Some Experiments and Observations on a New Substance Which Becomes a Violet Coloured Gas by Heat". Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. 104: 74. doi:10.1098/rstl.1814.0007. [17] Block, Seymour Stanton (2001). Disinfection, sterilization, and preservation. Hagerstwon, MD: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p.159. ISBN0-683-30740-1. [18] U.S. Centers for Disease Control "CDC Radiation Emergencies" (http:/ / www. bt. cdc. gov/ radiation/ ki. asp), U.S. Centers for Disease Control, October 11, 2006, accessed November 14, 2010. [19] Windholz, Martha; Budavari, Susan; Stroumtsos, Lorraine Y. and Fertig, Margaret Noether, ed (1976). Merck Index of Chemicals and Drugs, 9th ed. J A Majors Company. ISBN0911910263. [20] Waszkowiak, Katarzyna; Szymandera-Buszka, Krystyna (2008). "Effect of storage conditions on potassium iodide stability in iodised table salt and collagen preparations". International Journal of Food Science & Technology 43 (5): 895899. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2621.2007.01538.x. [21] Cotton, F. A. snd Wilkinson, G. (1988). Advanced Inorganic Chemistry, 5th ed.. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN0471849979. [22] Glinka, N.L. (1981). General Chemistry (volume 2). Mir Publishing. [23] Wiberg, Egon; Wiberg, Nils and Holleman, Arnold Frederick (2001). Inorganic chemistry. Academic Press. pp.419420. ISBN0123526515. [24] Linus Pauling (1988). General Chemistry. Dover Publications. ISBN0486656225. [25] Gribble, G. W. (1996). "Naturally occurring organohalogen compounds A comprehensive survey". Progress in the Chemistry of Organic Natural Products 68 (10): 1423. doi:10.1021/np50088a001. PMID8795309. [26] King, C. S.; Hartman, W. W. (1943), "Methyl Iodide" (http:/ / www. orgsyn. org/ orgsyn/ orgsyn/ prepContent. asp?prep=CV2P0399), Org. Synth., ; Coll. Vol. 2: 399 [27] "Safety data for iodomethane" (http:/ / msds. chem. ox. ac. uk/ IO/ iodomethane. html). Oxford University. . [28] Toreki, R.. "Peroxide" (http:/ / www. ilpi. com/ msdS/ ref/ peroxide. html). The MSDS HyperGlossary. . [29] 21 "USC Sec. 872 2007-01-03" (http:/ / www. deadiversion. usdoj. gov/ 21cfr/ 21usc/ 872. htm). 21. [30] Patrick L (2008). "Iodine: deficiency and therapeutic considerations" (http:/ / www. thorne. com/ altmedrev/ . fulltext/ 13/ 2/ 116. pdf). Altern Med Rev 13 (2): 116. PMID18590348. . [31] "Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs): Recommended Intakes for Individuals, Vitamins" (http:/ / iom. edu/ en/ Global/ News Announcements/ ~/ media/ Files/ Activity Files/ Nutrition/ DRIs/ DRISummaryListing2. ashx). Institute of Medicine. 2004. . Retrieved 2010-06-09.

Iodine
[32] United States National Research Council (2000). Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc (http:/ / books. nap. edu/ openbook. php?record_id=10026& page=258). National Academies Press. pp.258259. . [33] Brown-Grant, K. (1961). "Extrathyroidal iodide concentrating mechanisms" (http:/ / physrev. physiology. org/ cgi/ reprint/ 41/ 1/ 189. pdf). Physiol Rev. 41 (1): 189. . [34] Spitzweg, C., Joba, W., Eisenmenger, W. and Heufelder, A.E. (1998). "Analysis of human sodium iodide symporter gene expression in extrathyroidal tissues and cloning of its complementary deoxyribonucleic acid from salivary gland, mammary gland, and gastric mucosa". J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 83 (5): 1746. doi:10.1210/jc.83.5.1746. PMID9589686. [35] Banerjee, R.K., Bose, A.K., Chakraborty, T.K., de, S.K. and Datta, A.G. (1985). "Peroxidase catalysed iodotyrosine formation in dispersed cells of mouse extrathyroidal tissues". J Endocrinol. 2 (2): 159. PMID2991413. [36] Venturi S, Venturi M (September 2009). "Iodine, thymus, and immunity". Nutrition 25 (9): 9779. doi:10.1016/j.nut.2009.06.002. PMID19647627. [37] Venturi S.; Venturi M. (2009). "Iodine in evolution of salivary glands and in oral health". Nutrition and Health 20 (2): 119134. PMID19835108. [38] "Sources of iodine" (http:/ / www. iccidd. org/ pages/ iodine-deficiency/ sources-of-iodine. php). International Council for the Control of Iodine Deficiency Disorders. . [39] "MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia: Iodine in diet" (http:/ / www. nlm. nih. gov/ medlineplus/ ency/ article/ 002421. htm). . [40] Wu T, Liu GJ, Li P, Clar C (2002). Wu, Taixiang. ed. "Iodised salt for preventing iodine deficiency disorders". Cochrane Database Syst Rev (3): CD003204. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003204. PMID12137681. [41] Felig, Philip; Frohman, Lawrence A. (2001). "Endemic Goiter" (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=AZUUGrp6yUgC& pg=RA1-PA351). Endocrinology & metabolism. McGraw-Hill Professional. ISBN9780070220010. . [42] "Micronutrients Iodine, Iron and Vitamin A" (http:/ / www. unicef. org/ nutrition/ index_iodine. html). UNICEF. . [43] Stoddard II, F. R.; Brooks, A. D.; Eskin, B. A.; Johannes, G. J. (2008). "Iodine Alters Gene Expression in the MCF7 Breast Cancer Cell Line: Evidence for an Anti-Estrogen Effect of Iodine" (http:/ / www. medsci. org/ v05p0189. htm). International Journal of Medical Science 5 (4): 189. PMC2452979. PMID18645607. . [44] Eskin, B. A.; Grotkowski, C. E.; Connolly, C. P.; Ghent W. R.; (1995). "Different tissue responses for iodine and iodide in rat thyroid and mammary glands". Bioligal Trace Elements Research 49 (5): 9. doi:10.1007/BF02788999. PMID7577324. [45] Venturi, S.; Grotkowski, CE; Connolly, CP; Ghent, WR (2001). "Is there a role for iodine in breast diseases?". The Breast 10 (1): 379. doi:10.1054/brst.2000.0267. PMID14965610. [46] Josefssson, M.; Ekblad, E. (2009). "Sodium Iodide Symporter (NIS) in Gastric Mucosa: Gastric Iodide Secretion". In Preedy, Victor R.; Burrow, Gerard N.; Watson, Ronald. Comprehensive Handbook of Iodine: Nutritional, Biochemical, Pathological and Therapeutic Aspects. [47] Abnet CC, Fan JH, Kamangar F, Sun XD, Taylor PR, Ren JS, Mark SD, Zhao P, Fraumeni JF Jr, Qiao YL, Dawsey SM (2006). "Self-reported goiter is associated with a significantly increased risk of gastric noncardia adenocarcinoma in a large population-based Chinese cohort". International Journal of Cancer 119 (6): 15081510. doi:10.1002/ijc.21993. PMID16642482. [48] Behrouzian, R.; Aghdami, N. (2004). "Urinary iodine/creatinine ratio in patients with stomach cancer in Urmia, Islamic Republic of Iran". East Mediterr Health J. 10 (6): 921924. PMID16335780.. [49] Golkowski F, Szybinski Z, Rachtan J, Sokolowski A, Buziak-Bereza M, Trofimiuk M, Hubalewska-Dydejczyk A, Przybylik-Mazurek E, Huszno B. (2007). "Iodine prophylaxisthe protective factor against stomach cancer in iodine deficient areas". Eur J Nutr. 46 (5): 251. doi:10.1007/s00394-007-0657-8. PMID17497074. [50] Smyth, PP (2003). "Role of iodine in antioxidant defence in thyroid and breast disease". BioFactors (Oxford, England) 19 (3-4): 12130. PMID14757962. [51] Lowe, D. O. et al. (2006). "Povidone-iodine-induced burn: case report and review of the literature". Pharmacotherapy 26 (11): 16415. doi:10.1592/phco.26.11.1641. PMID17064209. [52] Katelaris, Constance (2009). "'Iodine Allergy' label is misleading" (http:/ / www. australianprescriber. com/ magazine/ 32/ 5/ 125/ 8/ ). Australian Prescriber 32 (5): 125128. .

14

External links
"Micronutrient Research for Optimum Health", Linus Pauling Institute, OSU Oregon State University (http://lpi. oregonstate.edu/infocenter/minerals/iodine/) ATSDR CSEM: Radiation Exposure from Iodine 131 (http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/csem/iodine/) U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (public domain) ChemicalElements.com Iodine (http://chemicalelements.com/elements/i.html) who.int, WHO Global Database on Iodine Deficiency (http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2004/ 9241592001.pdf) Oxidizing Agents > Iodine (http://www.organic-chemistry.org/chemicals/oxidations/iodine.shtm)

15

Isotopes
Isotopes of iodine
There are 37 known isotopes of iodine (I) and only one, 127I, is stable. Iodine is thus a monoisotopic element. Its longest-lived radioactive isotope, 129I, has a half-life of 15.7 million years, which is far too short for it to exist as a primordial nuclide. Cosmogenic sources of 129I produce very tiny quantities of it that are too small to affect atomic weight measurements; iodine is thus also a mononuclidic elementone that is found in nature essentially as a single nuclide. Most 129I derived radioactivity on Earth is man-made: an unwanted long-lived byproduct of early nuclear tests and nuclear fission accidents. All other iodine radioisotopes have half-lives less than 60 days, and four of these are used as tracers and therapeutic agents in medicine. These are 123I, 124I, 125I, and 131I. Essentially all industrial production of radioactive iodine isotopes involves these four useful radionuclides. The isotope 135I has a half-life less than seven hours, which is too short to be used in biology. Unavoidable in situ production of this isotope is important in nuclear reactor control, as it decays to 135Xe, the most powerful known neutron absorber, and the nuclide responsible for the so-called iodine pit phenomenon. In addition to commercial production, 131I (half life 8 days) is the most common radioactive fission-product of nuclear fission, and is thus produced inadvertently in very large amounts inside nuclear reactors. Due to its volatility, short half life, and high abundance in fission products, 131I, (along with the short-lived iodine isotope 132I from the longer-lived 132Te with a half life of 3 days) is responsible for the largest part of radioactive contamination during the first week after accidental environmental contamination from the radioactive waste from a nuclear power plant. The standard atomic mass for iodine is 126.90447(3) u.

A Pheochromocytoma is seen as a dark sphere in the center of the body (it is in the left adrenal gland). Image is by MIBG scintigraphy, with radiation from radioiodine in the MIBG. Two images are seen of the same patient from front and back. Note the dark image of the thyroid due to unwanted uptake of radioiodine from the medication by the thyroid gland in the neck. Accumlation at the sides of the head is from salivary gland uptake of iodide. Radioactivity is also seen in the bladder.

Isotopes of iodine

16

Notable radioisotopes
Iodine-129 as an extinct radionuclide
Excesses of stable 129Xe in meteorites have been shown to result from decay of "primordial" iodine-129 produced newly by the supernovas which created the dust and gas from which the solar system formed. This isotope has long decayed and is thus referred to as "extinct." Historically, 129I was the first extinct radionuclide to be identified as present in the early solar system. Its decay is the basis of the I-Xe iodine-xenon radiometric dating scheme, which covers the first 85million years of solar system evolution.

Iodine-129 as a long-lived marker for nuclear fission contamination

Iodine-129 (129I; half-life 15.7 million years) is a product of cosmic ray spallation on various isotopes of xenon in the atmosphere, in cosmic ray muon interaction with tellurium-130, and also uranium and plutonium fission, both in subsurface rocks and nuclear reactors. Artificial nuclear processes, in particular nuclear fuel reprocessing and atmospheric nuclear weapons tests, have now swamped the natural signal for this isotope. Nevertheless, it now serves as a groundwater tracer as indicator of nuclear waste dispersion into the natural environment. In a similar fashion, 129I was used in rainwater studies to track fission products following the Chernobyl disaster. In some ways, 129I is similar to 36Cl. It is a soluble halogen, fairly non-reactive, exists mainly as a non-sorbing anion, and is produced by cosmogenic, thermonuclear, and in-situ reactions. In hydrologic studies, 129I concentrations are usually reported as the ratio of 129I to total I (which is virtually all 127I). As is the case with 36 Cl/Cl, 129I/I ratios in nature are quite small, 1014 to 1010 (peak thermonuclear 129I/I during the 1960s and 1970s reached about 107). 129I differs from 36Cl in that its half-life is longer (15.7 vs. 0.301 million years), it is highly biophilic, and occurs in multiple ionic forms (commonly, I and IO3) which have different chemical behaviors. This makes it fairly easy for 129I to enter the biosphere as it becomes incorporated into vegetation, soil, milk, animal tissue, etc.

The portion of the total radiation dose (in air) contributed by each isotope versus time after the Chernobyl disaster, at the site. Note the prominence of radiation from I-131 and Te-132/I-132 for the first week. (Image using data from the OECD [1] report, and the second edition of 'The radiochemical manual'. )

Radioiodines I-123, I-124, I-125, and I-131 in medicine and biology

Due to preferential uptake of iodine by the thyroid, radioiodine isotopes are extensively used in imaging and (in the case of I-131) destroying dysfunctional thyroid tissues, and other types of tissue that selectively take up certain iodine-131-containing tissue-targeting and killing radiopharmaceutical agents (such as MIBG). Iodine-125 is the only other iodine radioisotope used in radiation therapy, but only as an implanted capsule in brachytherapy, where the isotope never has a chance to be released for chemical interaction with the body's tissues.

Isotopes of iodine Iodine-131 Iodine-131 (I131) is a beta-emitting isotope with a half-life of eight days, and comparatively energetic (190 KeV average and 606 KeV maximum energy) beta radiation, which penetrates 0.6 to 2.0mm from the site of uptake. This beta radiation can be used in high dose for destruction of thyroid nodules and for elimination of remaining thyroid tissue after surgery for the treatment of Grave's disease. Especially in Grave's disease, often a thyroidectomy is performed before the radiotherapy, in order to avoid side effects of epilation and radiation toxicity. The purpose of this therapy, which was first explored by Dr. Saul Hertz in 1941,[2] is to destroy the remaining thyroid tissue that was impossible to be removed by surgery. In this procedure, I131 is administered either intravenously or orally following a diagnostic scan. This procedure may also be used to treat patients with thyroid cancer or hyperfunctioning thyroid tissue. After the intake, the beta particles emitted by the high dose of radioisotope destroys the associated thyroid tissue with little damage to surrounding tissues (more than 2.0mm from the tissues absorbing the iodine). Due to similar destruction, iodine-131 is the iodine radioisotope used in other water-soluble iodine-labeled radiopharmaceuticals (such as MIBG) which are intended to be used therapeutically to destroy tissues. The high energy beta radiation from I-131 causes it to be the most carcinogenic of the iodine isotopes, and it is thought to cause the majority of the excess in thyroid cancers seen after nuclear fission contamination (such as bomb fallout or severe nuclear reactor accidents like the Chernobyl disaster). Iodine-123 and iodine-125 The gamma-emitting isotopes iodine-123 (half-life 13 hours), and (less commonly) the longer-lived and less energetic iodine-125 (half-life 59 days) are used as nuclear imaging tracers to evaluate the anatomic and physiologic function of the thyroid. Abnormal results may be caused by disorders such as Graves' disease or Hashimoto's thyroiditis. Both isotopes decay by electron capture (EC) to the corresponding tellurium nuclides, but in neither case are these the metastable nuclides Te-123m and Te125m (which are of higher energy, and are not produced from radioiodine). Instead, the excited tellurium nuclides decay immediately (half-life too short to detect). Following EC, the excited Te-123 from I-123 emits a high-speed 127 keV internal conversion electron (not a beta ray) about 13% of the time, but this does little cellular damage due to the nuclide's short half-life and the relatively small fraction of such events. In the remainder of cases, a 159 keV gamma ray is emitted, which is well-suited for gamma imaging. Excited Te-125 from EC decay of I-125 also emits a much lower-energy internal conversion electron (35.5 keV) which does relatively little damage due to its low energy, even though its emission is more common. The relatively low-energy gamma from I-125/Te-125 decay is poorly suited for imaging, but can still be seen, and this longer-lived isotope is necessary in tests which require several days of imaging, for example fibrinogen scan imaging to detect blood clots. Both I-123 and I-125 emit copious low energy Auger electrons after their decay, but these do not cause serious damage (double-stranded DNA breaks) in cells, unless the nuclide is incorporated into a medication that accumulates in the nucleus, or into DNA (this is never the case is clinical medicine, but it has been seen in experimental animal models).[3] Iodine-125 is also commonly used by radiation oncologists in low dose rate brachytherapy in the treatment of cancer at sites other than the thyroid, especially in prostate cancer. When I-125 is used therapeutically, it is encapsulated in titanium seeds and implanted in the area of the tumor, where it remains. The low energy of the gamma spectrum in this case limits radiation damage to tissues far from the implanted capsule. Iodine-125, due to its suitable longer half-life and less penetrating gamma spectrum, is also often preferred for laboratory tests that rely on iodine as a tracer that is counted by a gamma counter, such as in radioimmunoassaying. Most medical imaging with iodine is done with a standard gamma camera. However, the gamma rays from iodine-123 and iodine-131 can also be seen by single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) imaging.

17

Isotopes of iodine Iodine-124 Iodine-124 is a proton-rich isotope of iodine with a half-life of 4.18 days. Its modes of decay are: 74.4% electron capture, 25.6% positron emission. 124I decays to 124Te. Iodine-124 can be made by numereous nuclear reactions via a cyclotron. The most common starting material used is 124Te. Iodine-124 as the iodide salt can be used to directly image the thyroid using positron emission tomography (PET).[4] Iodine-124 can also be used as a PET radiotracer with a usefully longer half-life compared with fluorine-18. In this use, the nuclide is chemically bonded to a pharmaceutical to form a positron-emitting radiopharmaceutical, and injected into the body, where again it is imaged by PET scan.

18

Iodine-135 and nuclear reactor control

Iodine-135 is an isotope of iodine with a half-life of 6.6 hours. It is an important isotope from the viewpoint of nuclear reactor physics. It is produced in relatively large amounts as a fission product, and decays to xenon-135, which is a nuclear poison with a very large slow neutron cross section, which is a cause of multiple complications in the control of nuclear reactors. The process of buildup of xenon-135 from an accumulated iodine-135 can temporarily preclude a shut-down reactor from restarting. This is known as xenon-poisoning or "falling into an iodine pit."

Iodine-128 and other isotopes

Iodine fission-produced isotopes not discussed above (iodine-128, iodine-130, iodine-132, and iodine-133) have a life lives of a couple of hours or minutes, rendering them almost useless in other applicable areas. Those mentioned are neutron-rich and so go through beta decay to their xenon counterparts. Iodine-128 (25 min half-life) can decay to either tellurium-128 by electron capture, or to xenon-128 by beta decay. It has a specific radioactivity of 2.177 x 106 TBq/g.

Non-radioactive iodide as protection from unwanted radioiodine uptake by the thyroid

Thyroid iodine uptake blockade with potassium iodide is used in nuclear medicine scintigraphy and therapy with some radioiodinated compounds that are not targeted to the thyroid, such as iobenguane (MIBG), which used to image or treat neural tissue tumors, or iodinated fibrinognen, which is used in fibrinogen scans to investigate clotting. These compounds contain iodine, but not in the iodide form. However, since they may be ultimately metabolized or break down to radioactive iodide, it is common to administer non-radioactive potassium iodide to insure that iodide from these radiopharmaceuticals is not sequestered by the normal affinity of the thryoid for iodide. Potassium iodide has been distributed to populations exposed to nuclear fission accidents such as the Chernobyl disaster. The iodide solution SSKI, a saturated solution of potassium (K) iodide in water, has been used to block absorption of the radioiodine (it has no effect on other radioisotopes from fission). Tablets containing potassium iodide are now also manufactured and stocked in central disaster sites by some governments for this purpose. In theory, many harmful late-cancer effects of nuclear fallout might be prevented in this way, since an excess of thyroid cancers, presumably due to radioiodine uptake, is the only proven radioisotope contamination effect after a fission accident, or from contamination by fallout from an atomic bomb (prompt radiation from the bomb also cases other cancers, such as leukemias, directly). Taking large amounts of iodide saturates thyroid receptors and prevents uptake of most radioactive iodine-131 that may be present from fission product exposure (although it does not protect from other radioisotopes, nor from any other form of direct radiation). The protective effect of KI lasts approximately 24 hours, so must be dosed daily until a risk of significant exposure to radioiodines from fission products no longer exists.[5] [6] Iodine-131 (the most common radioiodine contaminant in fallout) also decays relatively rapidly with a half-life of eight days, so that 99.95% of the original radioiodine has vanished after three months.

Isotopes of iodine

19

Table
nuclide Z(p) N(n) symbol isotopic mass (u) half-life decay [7] mode(s)
[8]

daughter [9] isotope(s)

nuclear spin

excitation energy
108

representative range of isotopic natural composition variation (mole (mole fraction) fraction)

53

55 107.94348(39)#

36(6) ms

(90%) + (9%) p (1%)

104 108 107 108 105 110 106 109 106

Sb Te Te Te Sb Te Sb Sb Sn

(1)#

109

53

56 108.93815(11)

103(5) s

p (99.5%) (.5%)

(5/2+)

110

53

57 109.93524(33)#

650(20) ms

+ (83%) (17%) +, p (11%) +, (1.09%)

1+#

111

53

58 110.93028(32)#

2.5(2) s

+ (99.91%) (.088%)

111 107 112 111 108

Te Sb Te Sb Sn

(5/2+)#

112

53

59 111.92797(23)#

3.42(11) s

+ (99.01%) +, p (.88%) +, (.104%) (.0012%)

108 113 109

Sb Te Sb 5/2+#

113

53

60 112.92364(6)

6.6(2) s

+ (100%) (3.3107%) +,

109 114 113 114 114 115 116

Sn Te Sb Te I Te Te (5/2+)# 1+ (7-) (7) 1+

114

53

61 113.92185(32)#

2.1(2) s

+ +, p (rare)

114m

265.9(5) keV

6.2(5) s

+ (91%) IT (9%)

115 116

I I I

53 53

62 63

114.91805(3) 115.91681(10)

1.3(2) min 2.91(15) s 3.27(16) s

+ +

116m 117

400(50)# keV 53 64 116.91365(3)

2.22(4) min +

117

Te

(5/2)+

Isotopes of iodine

20
65 117.913074(21) 13.7(5) min + 8.5(5) min + IT (rare)
118 118 118 119 120

118

I I

53

Te Te I Te Te

2(7-)

118m

190.1(10) keV

119 120

I I I

53 53

66 67

118.91007(3) 119.910048(19)

19.1(4) min + 81.6(2) min + 228(15) ns

5/2+ 2-

120m1

72.61(9) keV

(1+,2+,3+) 320(15) keV 53 68 120.907367(11) 53(4) min 2.12(1) h 9.0(15) s 3.63(6) min + 13.2235(19) + h 4.1760(3) d +
122 123

120m2 121

+ +

120 121

Te Te

(7-) 5/2+

I I

121m 122

2376.9(4) keV 53 53 53 69 70 71 123.9062099(25) 53 72 121.907589(6) 122.905589(4)

I I I

Te Te Te

1+ 5/2+ 2-

123 [10]

124 [10]

124

125 [10]

59.400(10) 124.9046302(16) d 12.93(5) d

EC

125

Te

5/2+

126

53

73 125.905624(4)

+ (56.3%) - (44.7%)

126 126

Te Xe

2-

127 [11]

I I

53 53

74

126.904473(4)

Observationally Stable 24.99(2) min - (93.1%) + (6.9%)

[12]

5/2+ 1+

1.0000

128

75 127.905809(4)

128 128

Xe Te

128m1 128m2

I I

137.850(4) keV 167.367(5) keV 53 76 128.904988(3)

845(20) ns 175(15) ns 1.57(4)107 a 12.36(1) h 8.84(6) min IT (84%) - (16%)

129

4(6)Xe 7/2+ Trace

[14]

129 [11]

[13]
130

I I

53

77

129.906674(3)

130 130 130

Xe I Xe

5+ 2+

130m1

39.9525(13) keV

130m2 130m3 130m4

I I I

69.5865(7) keV 82.3960(19) keV 85.1099(10) keV 53 78

133(7) ns 315(15) ns 254(4) ns

131

(6)(6)Xe 7/2+

131 [11]

[10]

8.02070(11) 130.9061246(12) d

Isotopes of iodine

21
79 131.907997(6) 2.295(13) h 1.387(15) h IT (86%) - (14%)
132 132 132 133 133

132

I I

53

Xe I Xe Xe I

4+ (8-)

132m

104(12) keV

133

I I I

53

80

132.907797(5)

20.8(1) h 9(2) s ~170 ns

IT

7/2+ (19/2-) (15/2-)

133m1 133m2 134

1634.174(17) keV 1729.160(17) keV 53 81 133.909744(9)

I I

52.5(2) min 3.52(4) min IT (97.7%) - (2.3%)

134 134 134 135 136 136 137 136

Xe I Xe Xe Xe Xe Xe Xe

(4)+ (8)-

134m

316.49(22) keV

135 [15]

I I

53 53

82 83

134.910048(8) 135.91465(5)

6.57(2) h 83.4(10) s 46.9(10) s 24.13(12) s

- (92.86%) -, n (7.14%)

7/2+ (1-) (6-) (7/2+)

136

136m 137

650(120) keV 53 84 136.917871(30)

138

53

85 137.92235(9)

6.23(3) s

- (94.54%) -, n (5.46%)

138 137

Xe Xe

(2-)

139

53

86 138.92610(3)

2.282(10) s

- (90%) -, n (10%)

139 138 140 139 141 140 142 141 143

Xe Xe Xe Xe Xe Xe Xe Xe Xe Xe

7/2+#

140

53

87 139.93100(21)#

860(40) ms

- (90.7%) - (9.3%)

(3)(-#)

141

53

88 140.93503(21)#

430(20) ms

- (78%) -, n (22%)

7/2+#

142

53

89 141.94018(43)#

~200 ms

- (75%) -, n (25%)

2-#

143

I I

53 53

90 91

142.94456(43)# 100# ms [>300 ns] 143.94999(54)# 50# ms [>300 ns]

7/2+# 1-#

144

144

[1] "Nuclear Data Evaluation Lab" (http:/ / atom. kaeri. re. kr/ ). . Retrieved 2009-05-13. [2] Hertz, Barbara, Schuleller, Kristin, Saul Hertz, MD (1905 - 1950) A Pioneer in the Use of Radioactive Iodine, Endocrine Practice 2010 16,4;713-715. [3] V. R. Narra et al. (1992). "Radiotoxicity of Some Iodine-123, Iodine-125, and Iodine- 131-Labeled Compounds in Mouse Testes: Implications for Radiopharmaceutical Design" (http:/ / jnm. snmjournals. org/ cgi/ reprint/ 33/ 12/ 2196. pdf). Journal of Nuclear Medicine 33 (12): 2196. .

Isotopes of iodine
[4] E. Rault et al. (2007). "Comparison of Image Quality of Different Iodine Isotopes (I-123, I-124, and I-131)". Cancer Biotherapy & Radiopharmaceuticals 22 (3): 423430. doi:10.1089/cbr.2006.323. PMID17651050. [5] "Frequently Asked Questions on Potassium Iodide" (http:/ / www. fda. gov/ Drugs/ EmergencyPreparedness/ BioterrorismandDrugPreparedness/ ucm072265. htm). Food and Drug Administration. . Retrieved 2009-06-06. [6] "Potassium Iodide as a Thyroid Blocking Agent in Radiation Emergencies" (http:/ / www. thefederalregister. com/ d. p/ 2001-12-11-01-30492). The Federal Register. Food and Drug Administration. . Retrieved 2009-06-06. [7] http:/ / www. nucleonica. net/ unc. aspx [8] Abbreviations: EC: Electron capture IT: Isomeric transition [9] Bold for stable isotopes, bold italics for nearly-stable isotopes (half-life longer than the age of the universe) [10] Has medical uses [11] Fission product [12] Theoretically capable of spontaneous fission [13] Can be used to date certain early events in Solar System history and some use for dating groundwater [14] Cosmogenic nuclide, also found as nuclear contamination [15] Produced as a decay product of 135Te in nuclear reactors, in turn decays to 135Xe, which, if allowed to build up, can shut down reactors due to the iodine pit phenomenon

22

Notes
Values marked # are not purely derived from experimental data, but at least partly from systematic trends. Spins with weak assignment arguments are enclosed in parentheses. Uncertainties are given in concise form in parentheses after the corresponding last digits. Uncertainty values denote one standard deviation, except isotopic composition and standard atomic mass from IUPAC which use expanded uncertainties.

References
Isotope masses from: G. Audi, A. H. Wapstra, C. Thibault, J. Blachot and O. Bersillon (2003). "The NUBASE evaluation of nuclear and decay properties" (http://www.nndc.bnl.gov/amdc/nubase/Nubase2003.pdf). Nuclear Physics A 729: 3128. Bibcode2003NuPhA.729....3A. doi:10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.001. Isotopic compositions and standard atomic masses from: J. R. de Laeter, J. K. Bhlke, P. De Bivre, H. Hidaka, H. S. Peiser, K. J. R. Rosman and P. D. P. Taylor (2003). "Atomic weights of the elements. Review 2000 (IUPAC Technical Report)" (http://www.iupac.org/ publications/pac/75/6/0683/pdf/). Pure and Applied Chemistry 75 (6): 683800. doi:10.1351/pac200375060683. M. E. Wieser (2006). "Atomic weights of the elements 2005 (IUPAC Technical Report)" (http://iupac.org/ publications/pac/78/11/2051/pdf/). Pure and Applied Chemistry 78 (11): 20512066. doi:10.1351/pac200678112051. Lay summary (http://old.iupac.org/news/archives/2005/ atomic-weights_revised05.html). Half-life, spin, and isomer data selected from the following sources. See editing notes on this article's talk page. G. Audi, A. H. Wapstra, C. Thibault, J. Blachot and O. Bersillon (2003). "The NUBASE evaluation of nuclear and decay properties" (http://www.nndc.bnl.gov/amdc/nubase/Nubase2003.pdf). Nuclear Physics A 729: 3128. Bibcode2003NuPhA.729....3A. doi:10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.001. National Nuclear Data Center. "NuDat 2.1 database" (http://www.nndc.bnl.gov/nudat2/). Brookhaven National Laboratory. Retrieved September 2005. N. E. Holden (2004). "Table of the Isotopes". In D. R. Lide. CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (85th ed.). CRC Press. Section 11. ISBN978-0849304859.

Isotopes of iodine

23

External links
Iodine isotopes data from The Berkeley Laboratory Isotopes Project's (http://ie.lbl.gov/education/parent/ I_iso.htm) Iodine-128, Iodine-130, Iodine-132 data from 'Wolframalpha' (http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/ ?i=iodine-128) \

24

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