Department of Computer Science and Engineering

Bangamata Sheikh Fojilatunnesa Mujib Science & Technology

University

Assignment on: Basic Electronics

Course name: Basic Electronics
Course Code: CSE 2131

Submitted by: Submitted to:

Nusrat Jahan Md. Humaun Kabir
ID: 21211103, Session:2020-21 Chairman and Assistant Professor
Dept. of Computer Science &Engineering Dept. of Computer Science &Engineering
Bangamata Sheikh Fojilatunnesa Mujib Bangamata Sheikh Fojilatunnesa Mujib
Science & Technology University, Science & Technology University,
Jamalpur Jamalpur

Date of submission:
 TRANSISTOR

Definition:
A transistor is a miniature semiconductor that regulates or controls current or voltage
flow in addition amplifying and generating these electrical signals and acting as a
switch/gate for them. Typically, transistors consist of three layers, or terminals, of a
semiconductor material, each of which can carry a current.
Properties of a Transistor

 There are two types of transistors: NPN (negative-positive-negative) and PNP

(positive-negative-positive). It has the ability to control the current flowing
through the circuit.
 NPN (negative-positive-negative) transistors are the majority used transistors.
 Transistors also work as a switch and an amplifier. They can work on low-
voltage supply and provide greater safety. Further, it provides high efficiency.
 Transistors perform the function of a vacuum triode and it uses semiconductor
junctions in place of heating electrodes.
 Transistors can change the intensity of current via one channel and control the
flow of current through the other channel. This is the reason why it is called
the current controlling device.

Parts of a Transistor with symbol

A typical transistor is composed of three layers of semiconductor materials or, more

specifically, terminals which help to make a connection to an external circuit and carry
the current. A voltage or current that is applied to any one pair of the terminals of a
transistor controls the current through the other pair of terminals. There are three
terminals for a transistor. They are listed below:

 Base: This is used to activate the transistor.

 Collector: It is the positive lead of the transistor.
 Emitter: It is the negative lead of the transistor.
Well, the very basic working principle of a transistor is based on controlling the flow of
current through one channel by varying the intensity of a smaller current that is flowing
through a second channel.

 Transistor as a Switch
 Transistor as an Amplifier

Types of Transistors

There are many types of transistors and each transistor specializes in its application. But,
the main classification of transistors is as follows:

There are mainly two types of transistors, based on how they are used in a circuit.

Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

The three terminals of BJT are the base, emitter and collector. A very small current
flowing between the base and emitter can control a larger flow of current between the
collector and emitter terminal.

Furthermore, there are two types of BJT, and they include:

 P-N-P Transistor: It is a type of BJT where one n-type material is introduced or placed

between two p-type materials. In such a configuration, the device will control the flow
of current. PNP transistor consists of 2 crystal diodes which are connected in series. The
right side and left side of the diodes are known as the collector-base diode and emitter-
base diode, respectively.
  N-P-N Transistor: In this transistor, we will find one p-type material that is present
between two n-type materials. N-P-N transistor is basically used to amplify weak signals
to strong signals. In an NPN transistor, the electrons move from the emitter to the
collector region, resulting in the formation of current in the transistor. This transistor is
widely used in the circuit.

Field Effect Transistor (FET)

For FET, the three terminals are Gate, Source and Drain. The voltage at the gate terminal
can control a current between the source and the drain. FET is a unipolar transistor in
which N-channel FET or P-channel FET are used for conduction. The main applications
of FETs are in low noise amplifiers, buffer amplifiers and analogue switches.

Applications of Transistor

Semi-conducting materials make the working of transistor possible. Most of you must be
familiar with electrically conductive and non-conductive materials. Metals are typically
considered to be conductive. Things like plastics, wood, ceramics, and glass are
insulators, or non-conductive. A team of scientists discovered how to test certain types of
crystals and utilize them as electronic control devices by exploiting their semi-conductive
properties.
Heat-operated switch

 A thermistor is one of the most important components in the circuit of a heat-

operated switch. It is a kind of resistor that responds to the surrounding
temperature. Its resistance decreases when the temperature is high and vice versa.
 The thermistor resistance drops and a higher share of the supply voltage are
dropped across R when the heat is applied to the thermistor. The base current rises
followed by an increase in collector current. As a result, the bulb glows and siren
sounds.
 These particular circuits are mainly used in the fire alarm system.

Integrated Circuits

 Integrated circuits consist of resistors, transistors, diodes, and capacitors

combined with a silicon wafer-thin chip, known as the microchip.
 Integrated circuits consume less electrical energy, occupy a small space that
reduces the circuit’s size, and can be built at a low cost.

Working Principle of Transistor

Let us look at the working of transistors. We know that BJT consists of three terminals
(Emitter, Base and Collector). It is a current-driven device where two P-N junctions exist
within a BJT.

One P-N junction exists between the emitter and base region, and the second junction
exists between the collector and base region. A very small amount of current flow
through the emitter to the base can control a reasonably large amount of current flow
through the device from the emitter to the collector.

In the usual operation of BJT, the base-emitter junction is forward-biased, and the base-
collector junction is reverse-biased. When a current flows through the base-emitter
junction, the current will flow in the collector circuit.

In order to explain the working of the transistor, let us take an example of an NPN
transistor. The same principles are used for the PNP transistor, except that the current
carriers are holes, and the voltages are reversed.

Characteristics of a CE Junction Transistor

In Common Emitter (CE) configuration, the emitter is the common terminal. Hence, the
input is between the base and the emitter while the output is between the collector and the
emitter. Two terms that you must remember:

 Input characteristic – the variation of the base current (IB) with the base-emitter voltage
(VBE)
  Output characteristic – the variation of the collector current (I C) with the collector-
emitter voltage (VCE)

It is observed that the output characteristics are controlled by the input characteristics.
Hence, the collector current changes with the base current. Let’s study them with the help
of a circuit diagram shown below:

The input characteristic

Also, a curve is plotted between the base current (IB) and the base-emitter voltage (VBE)
to study the input characteristics of the junction transistor in CE configuration. The
collector-emitter voltage (VCE) is kept at a fixed value to study the relation between IB
and VBE.

Since we intend to study the input characteristics when the transistor is in an active state,
VCE is maintained at a large value. The value chosen is large enough to ensure reverse
biasing of the base-collector junction. For a Silicon transistor, VCE = 0.6-0.7 V. Also,

VCE = VCB + VBE

Hence, VCE has to be maintained at a value much larger than 0.7 V. The approximate
range of voltage is between 3 and 20 V. An increase in the value of VCE appears as an
increase in the value of VCB. Hence, we get almost identical curves for various values of
VCE. Also, determining one input characteristic is sufficient to understand curve as shown
below:

Browse more Topics under Semiconductor Electronics Materials Device And

Simple Circuits

 Classification of Metals, Conductors and Semiconductors

 Intrinsic Semiconductor
 Extrinsic Semiconductor
 p-n Junction
 Special Purpose p-n Junction Diode
 Semiconductor Diode
 Digital Electronics and Logic Gates
  Junction Transistor – Structure and Action
 Junction Transistor as a Device
 Junction Transistor as a Feedback Amplifier and Transistor Oscillator
 Application of Junction Diode as a Rectifier

The Output Characteristics

To study the output characteristics, let’s plot a curve is between the Collector current (IC)
and the collector-emitter voltage (VCE). Also, keep the base current (IB) at a steady value.

Now, if the base-emitter current (VBE) is increased by a small amount, you can observe an
increase in hole current from the emitter and electron current from the base regions.
Hence, IB and IC increase proportionally. Or, if IB increases, IC increases too. So, keeping
IB constant and plotting IC against VCE, you can make the following observations:

For every value of IB, the plot of IC versus VCE displays one output characteristic.

Transistor use as a amplifier

Transistors can act as amplifiers while they are functioning in the active region or when it
is correctly biased. The need for a transistor as an amplifier arises when we want to
increase or amplify the input signal. A transistor can take in a very small weak signal
through the base junction and release the amplified signal through the collector.

Transistor amplifiers are used frequently in RF (radio frequency), OFC (optic fibre
communication), audio amplification, etc. In this lesson, we will discuss how a transistor
works as an amplifier.
Common-Emitter Configuration

For a transistor to work as an amplifier, we usually use the common-emitter

configuration. The figure below shows how the transistor is set up when it is connected to
a circuit as an amplifier.

In the figure given above, the input is connected in forward-biased, and the output is
connected in reverse-biased. The input signal is applied on the base-emitter junction, and
the output is taken through the load in the emitter-collector junction. There is also an
application of DC voltage in the input circuit for amplification. Besides, a small change
in signal voltage results in the change of emitter current, which is mainly due to the low
resistance in the input circuit.

The output is taken across the load connected to the output side. The load can be in any
combination of R, L or C. The load resistance is of high value, which causes a large
voltage drop. Overall, the weak signal is thus amplified in the collector circuit.

However, to work as an amplifier, the transistor has to work in the active region of the
output voltage versus the input voltage curve, as seen in the figure below.

In the above graph, we have AB as the cut-off region, BC as the active region, and from
C, we have a line parallel to X-axis, which is the saturation region.

Operational Amplifier
Definition: Operational amplifiers (Op-amp) are analog circuit blocks that take
differential voltage inputs and produce single-ended voltage outputs, the input stage of an
operational amplifier is usually a differential amplifier. An operational amplifier is an
integrated circuit that can amplify weak electric signals. An operational amplifier has two
input pins and one output pin. Its basic role is to amplify and output the voltage
difference between the two input pins.
Symbol of operational amplifier

Characteristic of OP Amplifier

1. Open Loop gain

Open loop gain is the gain of the Op Amp without a positive or negative feedback. An
ideal OP Amp should have an infinite open loop gain but typically it range between
20,000 and 2, 00000.

2. Input impedance

It is the ratio of the input voltage to input current. It should be infinite without any
leakage of current from the supply to the inputs. But there will be a few Pico ampere
current leakages in most Op Amps.

3. Output impedance

The ideal Op Amp should have zero output impedance without any internal resistance. So
that it can supply full current to the load connected to the output.

 4. Band width

The ideal Op Amp should have an infinite frequency response so that it can amplify any
frequency from DC signals to the highest AC frequencies. But most Op Amps have
limited bandwidth.

5. Offset

The output of the Op Amp should be zero when the voltage difference between the inputs
is zero. But in most Op Amps, the output will not be zero when off but there will be a
minute voltage from it.

Applications of Op-Amps
 Op-amps have become an integral part of almost every electronic circuit which uses
linear integrated circuits.
 Op-amps are used in analog signal processing and analog filtering.
 They are used to perform mathematical operations such as addition, subtraction,
multiplication, integration, differentiation, etc.
 They are used in the fields of process control, communications, computers, power and
signal sources, displays and measuring systems.
 They are used in linear applications like voltage follower, differential amplifier,
inverting
amplifier, non-inverting amplifier, etc. and non-linear applications like precision
rectifiers, comparators, clampers, Schmitt trigger circuit, etc.

IC 741 Operational Amplifier (Op-amp)

The operation amplifier (Op-amp) is basically voltage amplifier with extremely high
voltage gain.

Pin Diagram

Pin diagram of IC 741

Symbol of IC 741

Symbol of ic 741

The Op–amp IC 741 has two input terminal, one output terminal and two supply voltage
terminal. We can apply the input voltage which is to be amplified to any one of this input
pin connecting other pin to ground. The input terminal marked with negative sign is
called as inverting terminal (I) and input terminal marked with positive (+) sign is called
non-inverting terminal (NI).

g terminal (NI).
Inverting terminal figure (1)

Non-Inverting terminal figure (2)

In figure (1) input and output signal with 180 phase shift when the input signal is applied
to inverting terminal.
In figure (2) input and output signal with 0 phase shift when the input signal is applied to
non-inverting terminal.

LED (Light Emitting Diode)

Definition: A Light Emitting Diode (LED) is a semiconductor device, which can emit
light when an electric current passes through it. To do this, holes from p-type
semiconductors recombine with electrons from n-type semiconductors to produce light.
LED Symbol

The LED symbol is the standard symbol for a diode, with the addition of two small
arrows denoting the emission of light.
Working Principle of LED

When the diode is forward biased, the minority electrons are sent from p → n while the
minority holes are sent from n → p. At the junction boundary, the concentration of
minority carriers increases. The excess minority carriers at the junction recombine with
the majority charges carriers.

The energy is released in the form of photons on recombination. In standard diodes, the
energy is released in the form of heat. But in light-emitting diodes, the energy is released
in the form of photons. We call this phenomenon electroluminescence.
Electroluminescence is an optical phenomenon, and electrical phenomenon where a
material emits light in response to an electric current passed through it. As the forward
voltage increases, the intensity of the light increases and reaches a maximum.

Application of LED

LEDs find applications in various fields, including optical communication, alarm and security
systems, remote-controlled operations, robotics, etc.

Applications of LED :

1. Picture phones and digital watches

2. Camera flashes and automotive heat lamps
3. Aviation lighting
4. Digital computers and calculators
5. Traffic signals and Burglar alarms systems
6. Microprocessors and multiplexers
7. Optical Communication 
8. Indicator lamps in electric equipment 
 9. LED television 
10. Vehicle head lamps, domestic and decorative illumination, street lighting. 

Photo-Diode
Definition: A photodiode is a PN-junction diode that consumes light energy to
produce an electric current. They are also called a photo-detector, a light
detector, and a photo-sensor. Photodiodes are designed to work in reverse bias
condition. Typical photodiode materials are Silicon, Germanium and Indium
gallium arsenide.

Symbol of Photodiode
The following image shows the symbol of the photodiode:

The symbol of the photodiode is similar to that of an LED, but here the arrow points
inwards.

Working of Photodiode
The working principle of a photodiode is, when a photon of ample energy strikes the
diode, it makes a couple of an electron-hole. This mechanism is also called the inner
photoelectric effect. If the absorption arises in the depletion region junction, then the
carriers are removed from the junction by the inbuilt electric field of the depletion region.

Therefore, holes in the region move toward the anode, and electrons move toward the
cathode, and a photocurrent will be generated. The entire current through the diode is the
sum of the absence of light and the photocurrent. So the absent current must be reduced
to maximize the sensitivity of the device.

Applications of Photodiode
 Photodiodes are used in simple day-to-day applications. The reason for their
prominent use is their linear response of photodiode to light illumination.
 Photodiodes with the help of optocouplers provide electric isolation. When two
isolated circuits are illuminated by light, optocouplers are used to couple the
circuit optically. Optocouplers are faster compared to conventional devices.
 Photodiodes are used in safety electronics such as fire and smoke detectors.
 Photodiodes are used in numerous medical applications. They are used in
instruments that analyze samples, detectors for computed tomography and also
used in blood gas monitors.
 Photodiodes are used in solar cell panels.
 Photodiodes are used in logic circuits.
 Photodiodes are used in the detection circuits.
 Photodiodes are used in character recognition circuits.
 Photodiodes are used for the exact measurement of the intensity of light in science
and industry.
 Photodiodes are faster and more complex than normal PN junction diodes and
hence are frequently used for lighting regulation and optical communication.

Solar Cell
Definition: Solar cell, also called photovoltaic cell, any device that directly converts
the energy of light into electrical energy through the photovoltaic effect.

Symbol of a Photovoltaic cell.

Working principle of solar cell
A solar cell is made of two types of semiconductors, called p-type and n-type silicon. The
p-type silicon is produced by adding atoms—such as boron or gallium. Boron has one
less electron than is required to form the bonds with the surrounding silicon atoms, an
electron vacancy or “hole” is created.

The n-type silicon is made by including atoms that have one more electron in their outer
level than does silicon, such as phosphorus. Phosphorus has five electrons in its outer
energy level, not four. It bonds with its silicon neighbor atoms, but one electron is not
involved in bonding.

A solar cell consists of a layer of p-type silicon placed next to a layer of n-type silicon. In
the n-type layer, there is an excess of electrons, and in the p-type layer, there is an excess
of positively charged. Near the junction of the two layers, the electrons on one side of the
junction move into the holes on the other side of the junction (p-type layer). This creates
an area around the junction, called the depletion zone, in which the electrons fill the holes

When all the holes are filled with electrons in the depletion zone, the p-type side of the
depletion zone now contains negatively charged ions, and the n-type side of the depletion
zone now contains positively charged ions.

When sunlight strikes a solar cell, electrons in the silicon are ejected, which results in the
formation of “holes”—the vacancies left behind by the escaping electrons. If this happens
in the electric field, the field will move electrons to the n-type layer and holes to the p-
type layer. If you connect the n-type and p-type layers with a metallic wire, the electrons
will travel from the n-type layer to the p-type layer by crossing the depletion zone and
then go through the external wire back of the n-type layer, creating a flow of electricity.

Application of solar cell

 Its mostly use in the field of toys, watches, etc.
 They also use in the field of electric fence.
 Its also use in the field of Remote lighting systems area.
 This may be use in the field of portable power supplies
 They mostly use in the field of satellites.
 They also use in the field of water treatment & pumping.
 Its may be use in the field of emergency power.