Analog Electronics

1. Introduction
a. What is Analog
i. Analog means continuous and real. The world we live in is analog in
nature, implying that it’s full of infinite possibilities. The number of
smells we can sense, the number of tones we can hear, or the number
of colors we can paint with; everything is infinite. The people working
in the field of analog electronics are basically dealing with analog
devices and circuits.
ii. For example, if we build a circuit and it counts values like 1, 2, 3, 4,
and 5; the values are neither infinite nor continuous. On the other hand,
if the circuit counts like 1.00000, 1.00001, 1.00002, 4.99999, 5.00000,
the amount of information would be infinite.
b. Analog Signals
i. Signals
1. Before proceeding with analog signals, let’s understand the
simple meaning of a signal. In electrical engineering, signals
are basically time-varying quantities (usually voltage or
current). So when we talk about the signal it means we are
talking about a voltage that’s changing over time.
2. Signals are passed among devices in order to obtain or send
information in the form of audio, video or encoded data. The
transmission takes place through wires or via air through radio
frequency waves. For instance, audio signals are transferred
from the computer’s audio card to the speakers, while data
signals between a tablet and a Wi-Fi router pass through the air.

3.
ii. Analog Signals
1. Analog Signals use attributes of the medium to convey the
signal’s information. The signals take any value from a given
range and each signal value denotes different information. Each
 level of the signal signifies a different level of the phenomenon
and any change in the signal is meaningful.
2.
3. Given below is an analog signal graph representing the change
in voltage with the change in time.

4.
Figure 1Analog Signal graph representing time-voltage graph

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c. Analog Circuits
i. Analog circuits can be defined as a complex combination of op amps,
resistors, caps, and other basic electronic components. These circuits
can be as simple as a combination of two resistors to make a voltage
divider or elegantly built with many components. Such circuits can
attenuate, amplify, isolate, modify, distort the signal, or even convert
the original one into a digital signal.

ii.
2. Welcome to Electronics
a. What is Electricity
i. Electricity is a type of Energy which involves the flow of electrons. All
the matters are made up of atoms and the center of it is called Nucleus.
Nucleus has positively charged particles known as Protons and
uncharged particles known as Neutrons. The Nucleus becomes
 surrounded by negatively charged particles known as Electrons.
Electrons revolve in a circular orbit known as a cell. The charge of
electrons and protons becomes equal and opposite in nature. So it
maintains equilibrium within the atom.

When that equilibrium force between protons and electrons is

disturbed by any external force (Electric Field), then atom may gain or
lose electrons. When electrons are lost from an atom, then the free
electrons move toward the Electric field. Hence due to the free
movement of these electrons, electric current flows through the
conductor in opposite to the direction of the flow of electron.

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b. What is Electric Current?

i. The flow of charge particles or the rate of flow of charge in a
conducting medium is called electric current. The charge particles
could be negative (electron) or positive (proton).

Just like a river current, which is the continuous flow of water

molecules, an electric current is the continuous flow of charge
particles. The amount of charge flowing through a certain point in a
conducting medium in a specific time is called electric current.

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c. What is Electronics?
i. Electronics is the branch of science that deals with the study of flow of
electrons and current and their behavior in a semiconductor and
conductive materials. The word electronics is derived from electron
mechanics, which means to study the behavior of an electron under
different conditions of applied electric field.

The so-called electronic circuits allow the conversion and distribution

of electrical energy. So that they use to the processing and control of
information. In general, we can say that an electronic system consists
of sensors(which are also called inputs or transducers) that receive the
physical signals and transform them into the current (voltage)
messages.

This control of electrons is accomplished by devices (electronics

components)that resist, carry, select, steer, switch, store, manipulate,
and exploit the electron.

3. Circuit Simulator
a. Circuit simulator is used to simulate your own circuit to check if the circuit
that you are working on is correct or there is any kind of changes in it. Circuit
simulator is important to create your own circuits and make important changes
in the circuit.
 b.
c. There are many websites available which can be used to simulate a circuit.
Here we are recommending a website that is…..falstad.com. The website is
totally free of cost. you can easily get into this. One can use this website on
any browser, that is google chrome, safari, Firefox, and internet explorer.
d. website link is given below…..
e. https://www.falstad.com/circuit/
f. Simulator
i. In simulator tutorials, we can easily add a component, delete a
component, copy or paste a components. We can easily run or stop a
simulations.
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GLOW.webm
4. Fundamentals:
a. What is Voltage
i. Voltage is the electromotive force or the electric potential energy
difference between two points(often within the context of an electrical
circuit) per unit of charge, expressed in volts(V). Voltage, along with
current and resistance, describes the behaviour of electrons.

Voltage is the pressure from an electrical circuit’s power source that

pushes charged electrons(current) through a conducting loop, enabling
them to do work such as illuminating a light.

In brief, voltage = pressure, and it is measured

in volts (V).
Voltage: An Example of the Concept
The concepts of voltage, charge, current, and resistance can be explained with a bucket of
water and a hose attached to the bottom. The water represents charge (and the movement of
electrons). The flow of water through the hose represents current. The width of the hose
represents resistance; a skinny hose would have less flow than a wider hose. The amount of
pressure created at the end of the hose by the water represents voltage.
The higher the level of water, the greater the pressure forcing water through the system!!

b. Direct Current (DC) vs Alternating Current (AC)

i. ALTERNATING CURRENT
1. Alternating current (AC) is an electric current which
periodically reverses direction and changes its magnitude
continuously with time .

2.
ii. DIRECT CURRENT
 1. Direct current (DC) is one-directional flow of electric charge.
Direct current never change their direction and flow only in
single direction

2.
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c. Measure Voltage, Current and Resistance
i. Measure Voltage and Current
1. The most commonly used piece of equipment for electrical
measurements is the multimeter, which is capable of measuring
current (amps), voltage (volts) and resistance (ohms). There are
two basic type of multimeter – analogue and digital.
ii. Measuring Voltage in a circuit

To measure voltage on an electronic circuit, all you have to do is

touch the leads of the multimeter to any two points in the circuit. Set
the multimeter knob to the voltage .When you do, the multimeter
displays the voltage that exists between those two points.
 Using multimeter to measure the voltage in a circuit!!

iii. Measuring current in a circuit

1. Current is a measure of the rate of flow of electrons through the
circuit. To measure the flow of current, the circuit must be
broken and the meter must be placed in the circuit such that the
current flow goes through it. This is shown below:

2.
 iv. MEASURING
RESISTANCE

1. In order to measure resistance, the component must first be

removed from the circuit. This is to ensure that the other
components in the circuit do not affect the reading. The meter
probes are then connected either side of the component as
shown:
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d. Resistor in series
i. A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that
implements electrical resistance as a circuit element. Resistors reduces
the current flow and lower voltage levels within circuits. Most circuits
often have more than one resistor to limit the flow of charges in a
circuit. The two simplest combinations of resistors are – series and
parallel.

ii.
iii. R = R1 + R2 + R3 + R
 iv. Here, the resistors are connected in series combinations. the current
across each resistor will remains constant.
v. Therefore total current (i) in series circuit = i1 + i2 + i3
vi. if, we talk about voltage, it is divided in each resistor according to the
value of resistors. But adding all of the individual voltage will result
into total voltage in circuit.
vii. V = V1 + V2 + V3
e. Resistor in Parallel
i. A circuit is said to be connected in parallel when the voltage is the
same across the resistors. In such circuits, the current is branched out
and recombines when branches meet at a common point. A resistor or
any other component can be connected or disconnected easily without
affecting other elements in a parallel circuit.

ii.
iii. R= 1/R1+1/R2+1/R3………1/Rn
iv. The sum of reciprocals of resistance of an individual resistor is the
total reciprocal resistance of the system.
f. Omh’s law
i. Ohm’s law is the relationship between voltage, current and resistance
and how they relate to each other. Ohm’s law was developed by a
German physicist named Georg Ohm who undertook many
experiments to develop his theory including measuring current by
touching electrical circuits to see how much it hurt. The higher the
current, the more it hurt.

V=IR
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g. Voltage Divider
i. A voltage divider is a simple circuit which turns a large voltage into
a smaller one. Using just two series resistors and an input voltage, we
can create an output voltage that is a fraction of the input. Voltage
dividers are one of the most fundamental circuit in the electronics.

ii.
 iii.
VOUT= VIN*R1/R1+R2
h. Kirchoff’s law
i. Kirchhoff’s Current Law
1. Kirchhoff’s first law applies to currents at a junction in a
circuit. It states that at a junction in an electrical circuit, the
sum of currents flowing into the junction is equal to the
sum of currents flowing out of the junction.
ii. Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
1. Kirchhoff’s second law, also known as the Kirchhoff’s voltage
law (KVL) states that the sum of all voltages around a closed
loop in any circuit must be equal to zero.
iii. Kirchhoff’s law

If R1 = 2Ω, R2 = 4Ω, R3 = 6Ω, determine the electric current that flows in the circuit
below.
Solution:

Following are the things that you should keep in mind while approaching the problem:

§ You need to choose the direction of the current. In this problem, let us
choose the clockwise direction.
§ When the current flows across the resistor, there is a potential
decrease. Hence, V = IR is signed negative.
§ If the current moves from low to high, then the emf (E) source is
signed positive because of the energy charging at the emf source.
Likewise, if the current moves from high to low voltage (+ to -), then
the source of emf (E) signed negative because of the emptying of
energy at the emf source.

In this solution, the direction of the current is the same as the direction
of clockwise rotation.

– IR1 + E1 – IR2 – IR3 – E2 = 0

Substituting the values in the equation, we get

–2I + 10 – 4I – 6I – 5 = 0

-12I + 5 = 0

I = -5/-12

I = 0.416 A The electric current that flows in the circuit is 0.416 A.

The electric current is signed positive which means that the direction
of the electric current is the same as the direction of clockwise rotation.
If the electric current is negative then the direction of the current would
be in anti-clockwise direction.

i. Voltage Divider Under load

i. A voltage divider or potential divider is a series circuit that is used to
provide more than one reduced voltages from a single source of
voltage.
 ii. When a load resistance RL is connected across the output terminals of
the voltage divider, the voltage divider is said to be loaded

iii.
iv. R eq= 2000*50/2000+50= 48.79Ω

R total= 1000+48.79=1048.79Ω

I= V/Req

I= 12/1048.79

0.011

VL=12*48.79/1048.79

j. Light Emitting Diode

i. A Light Emitting Diode (LED) is a special type of PN junction
diode. The light emitting diode is specially doped and made of a
special type of semiconductor. This diode can emit light when it is in
the forward biased state.
ii.
 iii. Inside the semiconductor substance of the LED, the electrons and holes
are carried inside energy bands. The division of the bands represents
the energy of the photons (light particles) that are transmitted by the
LED. The photon energy describes the wavelength of the emitted light,
which is nothing but its color. Different semiconductor materials with
different band gaps produce different colors of light.
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k. Current limiting resistor with LED
i. A current limiting resistor regulates and reduces the current in a circuit.
This equation and calculator helps determine the value of the resistor
to add to a light-emitting diode (LED) so that it can limit the current
moving through the LED. The calculation also determines how much
power the LED consumes.

ii. The circuit consists of an LED, a voltage supply and a resistor to

regulate the current and voltage.
iii. An LED must have a resistor connected in series to limit the current
through the LED, otherwise it will burn out almost instantly.

The resistor value, R is given by:

R= V/I

R= (Vs-VF)/I
 Where, Vs = source voltage from battery

VF= voltage across LED

5. Electric Power
a. Electric power is the rate at which work is done or energy is transformed into
an electrical circuit. The SI unit of power is the WATT, one joule per second.
i. In other words, Electrical power is the Electrical work done per unit
time.

ii. POWER(P)= VOLTAGE(V)*CURRENT(I)

iii.
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b. Calculating Power

CALCULATING POWER
P= V* I
P=I²R
 I=V/R , 9V/10Ω=0.9A
P=V*I , 9V*0.9A= 8.1W
c. Wattage
i. The watt is the International System of Units’ (SI) standard unit of
power (energy per unit time), the equivalent of one joule per
second. The watt is used to specify the rate at which electrical energy
is dissipated, or the rate at which electromagnetic energy is radiated,
absorbed, or dissipated.

ii.
iii. https://youtu.be/bLvRT1Cwa3M
d. Power Rating of Resistor
i. The power rating of a resistor is one of the more hidden values.
ii. Every resistor has a specific maximum power rating. In order to keep
the resistor from heating up too much, it’s important to make sure the
power across a resistor is kept under it’s maximum rating. The power
rating of a resistor is measured in watts, and it’s usually somewhere
between ⅛W (0.125W) and 1W. Resistors with power ratings of more
than 1W are usually referred to as power resistors, and are used
specifically for their power dissipating abilities.
iii. The power rating of a resistor is the specification given with a resistor
that serves to tell the maximum amount of power that the resistor can
withstand.
 iv.

v. Measuring power across a resistor

vi. Power is usually calculated by multiplying voltage and current (P =
IV). But, by applying Ohm’s law, we can also use the resistance value
in calculating power. If we know the current running through a
resistor, we can calculate the power as:
vii.

viii.
ix. Or, if we know the voltage across a resistor, the power can be
calculated as:
x.

xi.
xii. https://youtu.be/THsw7xx84qA
e. Power ratings of Resistor for LED
i. Resistors are some of the more notorious culprits of power loss. When
you drop some voltage across a resistor, you’re also going to induce
current flow across it. More voltage, means more current, means more
power.
 ii. If you ever find yourself picking out a resistor value. Keep it’s power
rating in mind as well. And, unless your goal is to heat something up
(heating elements are basically really high-power resistors), try to
minimize power loss in a resistor.
iii. Resistor power ratings can come into play when you’re trying to
decide on a value for an LED current-limiting resistor. Say, for
example, you want to light up a 10mm super bright LED at maximum
brightness, using a 9V battery.

iv.
v. That LED has a maximum forward current of 80mA, and a forward
voltage of about 2.2V. So to deliver 80mA to the LED, you’d need an
85Ω resistor to do so.
 vi.
vii. 6.8V dropped on the resistor, and 80mA running through it means
0.544W (6.8V*0.08A) of power lost on it. A half-watt resistor isn’t
going to like that very much! It probably won’t melt, but it’ll get hot.
Play it safe and move up to a 1W resistor (or save power and use a
dedicated LED driver).
6. Alternating Current
a. Alternating Current Waveform

• The time interval between a definite value of two successive cycles is the period.
• The number of cycles or number of periods per second is frequency.
• The maximum value in both directions is the amplitude.
The normal waveform of AC in most of the circuits are sinusoidal in nature in which the
positive half period corresponds with the positive direction of the current and vice-versa. In
addition, a triangular or square wave can also be used to represent the alternating current
waveform.

Audio amplifiers that deal with analogue voice or music signals produce irregular AC waves.
Some electronic oscillators produce square or sawtooth waves as well.

i. https://youtu.be/5kfwIbepods
b. Properties of AC Waveform
i. To completely and correctly describe an AC waveform, three
properties are involved;
ii. 1. Amplitude
iii. 2. Frequency (or Period)
iv. 3. Phase

v. AMPLITUDE
vi. The Amplitude of an AC waveform is the magnitude of the AC
waveform at any particular instant. As this is the highest point, it is
referred to as the peak voltage (or current) .

vii.

viii. FREQUENCY AND PERIOD

ix. Frequency of the AC waveform can thus be defined as the number of
complete cycles (or periods) completed by the waveform per unit of
time. The Unit of frequency is hertz (Hz), which simply represents
the amount of cycles (or period) completed by the waveform in one
seconds.
 x.

xi. F=1/t
xii. PHASE
xiii. The Horizontal part of the sinusoidal waveform used in representing
the Alternating current represents time, and based on time, the events
to the right side of the graph are the later events, while the events to
the left side of the graph are the former events. Since we are
representing the Horizontal axis as time, when two waves of the same
frequency start their cycles at different times, a phase
difference measured in degrees is said to exist between them.
 xiv.

xv.
xvi. Above figure can be used to explain all the concepts of phase. In the
figure above, Waveform “B” starts its cycle 900 late compared to
waveform “Y”, thus waveform “B” is said to lag waveform “Y” by
900 and waveform “Y” can be said to be leading waveform “B” by 900.
c. Root Mean Square Voltage
i. The word RMS stands for Root Mean Square. An RMS voltage is
defined as the square root of the mean square of instantaneous values
of the voltage signal. The RMS is also known as the quadratic mean.
RMS voltage can also be defined for a continuously varying voltage in
 terms of an integral of the squares of the instantaneous values during a
cycle.
ii. The RMS value is most important in the case of an AC signal. Because
the instantaneous value of an AC signal varies continuously with
respect to time. Unlike a DC signal, which is relatively constant.
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d. Calculating RMS Value
i. Suppose an AC current i = ImSinωt is flowing through a circuit and we
are interested in calculating the rms or root mean square value of this
current.

ii.
iii. To calculate rms value, we need to first calculate the average value of
square of AC current / voltage for one time period.
iv. Since the average value of any function f(x) having time period T is
given by

v.
vi. Therefore, the average value of square of f(x),
 vii.
viii. Therefore the formula for rms value is

ix.
x. This formula for rms value calculation is very important and can be
applied for any kind of waveform
e. RMS Value of Standard Sinusoidal Wave

RMS Value of Standard AC Sinusoidal Current

RMS Value of Standard AC Sinusoidal Current

Step-1: Determine the time period T of waveform.

The time period T of the waveform is 2π as evident from its waveform.

Step-2: Use the formula.

For our example, we will put T = 2π and f(x) = ImSinωt in the formula.

RMS Value of sinusoidal AC current is calculated as below.

Thus, rms value of sinusoidal AC current or Voltage is equal to the peak value of current /
voltage dived by √2.

7. Capacitors
 i. Capacitors are the devices that are used to store electrical energy in an
electrical circuit. Capacitors are also used in the electrical circuit for
the filtration of the AC current.
ii. The SI unit of capacitance is the FARAD

iii.
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b. Working Principle of Capacitor
i. Let us consider the parallel plate capacitor. It consists of two parallel
plates separated by a dielectric. When we connect a DC voltage source
across the capacitor, one plate is connected to the positive end and the
other plate to the negative end. When the potential of the battery is
applied across the capacitor, plate I become positive with respect to
plate II.
ii. Across the capacitor, an electric field appears. The positive plate will
collect positive charges from the battery, while the negative plate will
collect negative charges. After a certain stage, the capacitor’s
capacitance with respect to this voltage allows it to hold the maximum
amount of charge. This time span is called the charging time of the
capacitor.
iii. When the battery is removed from the capacitor, the two plates hold a
negative and positive charge for a certain time. Thus, the capacitor acts
as a source of electrical energy. If these plates are connected to a load,
the current flows to the load from Plate I to Plate II until all the charges
are dissipated from both plates. This time span is known as the
discharging time of the capacitor.
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c. Types of Capacitors

The different types of capacitors are following.

1. Electrolytic Capacitor
2. Mica Capacitor
3. Paper Capacitor
4. Film Capacitor
 5. Ceramic Capacitor

ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITOR

Generally, the electrolyte capacitors are used when the large capacitor values are required. The thin metal film layer is used
for one electrode and for the second electrode (cathode) a semi-liquid electrolyte solution which is in jelly or paste is used.

MICA CAPACITOR

The mica capacitors are the low loss capacitors, used at high frequencies and this capacitor is very stable chemically,
electrically, and mechanically, because of its specific crystalline structure binding & it is a typically layered structure.

PAPER CAPACITOR

The construction of paper capacitor is between the two tin foil sheet and they are separated from the paper, or, oiled paper
& thin waxed. The sandwich of the thin foils and papers then rolled into the cylindrical shape and then it is enclosed into the
plastic capsule.
 FILM CAPACITOR

The film capacitors are also capacitors and they use a thin plastic as the dielectric.

CERAMIC CAPACITOR

The ceramic capacitors are the capacitors and use the ceramic material as a dielectric. The ceramics are one of the first
materials to use in the production of capacitors as an insulator.

d. CAPACITORS IN SERIES AND PARALLEL

Same as resistors, capacitors can also be connected in series as well as parallel.

CAPACITORS IN SERIES

When capacitors are connected in series, the total capacitance can be determined by taking
the reciprocal of the capacitance of each capacitor, and adding these together to give the
reciprocal of the total capacitance.

1/CTOTAL= 1/C1+1/C2+1/C3

Example:
For, the above circuit, the total value of the capacitance , we will use this formula,

C total= (C1*C2)/(C1+C2)

here. C1=4.7uf , C2=1uf

C total=(4.7uf*1uf) / (4.7uf+1uf)

C total= 4.7uf / 5.7uf

C total=0.82uf

CAPACITORS IN PARALLEL
When we connect capacitors in parallel, then the total capacitance will be equal to the sum of
all the capacitors capacitance.

C total= C1+C2

C1=4.7uf , C2= 1uf

So, according to the formula, C total= 4.7 uf + 1 uf

C total= 5.7 uf

e. Capacitor in DC Circuit
i. Charging and discharging are the main effects of capacitors. A
capacitor charges when it is connected to a DC voltage source through
a resistor. Initially, when the switch is open, there is no voltage
flowing across the capacitor’s plate. When the switch is closed, the
current jumps to its maximum value, and the capacitor begins to
charge. As the charging process continues, the current decreases, and
the voltage across the capacitor increases until it equals the source
voltage. When the capacitor is fully charges, there is no current.
ii. Capacitor blocks constant DC. A capacitor charges following a
nonlinear curve as shown above.
 iii.

iv.
v. https://youtu.be/f_MZNsEqyQw
f. Capacitor in AC Circuit
i. A purely capacitive AC circuit is one containing an AC voltage supply
and a capacitor . The capacitor is connected directly across the AC
supply voltage. As the supply voltage increases and decreases, the
capacitor charges and discharges with respect to this change. A current
will flow through the circuit, first in one direction, then in the other.
However, no current actually flows through the capacitor. Electrons
build up on the one plate and are drained off from the other plate in
very rapid succession, giving the impression that the current flows
through the insulator separating the plates.
ii. https://youtu.be/mXu806LradM
g. Impedence of a capacitor
i. As opposed to constant voltage circuits, in AC circuits the impedance
of an element is a measure of how much the element opposes current
flow when an AC voltage is applied across it. It is basically a voltage
to current ratio, expressed in the frequency domain. Impedance is a
complex number, which consists of a real and an imaginary part:
 Z= R+jX
where Z is the complex impedance. The real part R represents
resistance, while the imaginary part X represents reactance. Resistance
is always positive, while reactance can be either positive or negative.
Resistance in a circuit dissipates power as heat, while reactance stores
energy in the form of an electric or magnetic field.

Resistance in a circuit dissipates power as heat, while reactance stores

energy in the form of an electric or magnetic field.

h. Capacitive Reactance

The capacitive reactance is the complex impedance of a capacitor

whose value changes with respect to the applied frequency.

in an AC (Alternating Current) circuit in which the applied voltage

signal continuously changes from a positive polarity to a negative
polarity at a rate determined by the frequency of the supply, as in the
case of a sine wave voltage, For example, the capacitor is charged and
discharged continuously at a rate determined by the frequency of
supply.

As the capacitor is charged or discharged, a current flows through it,

which is restricted by the internal impedance of the capacitor. This
internal impedance is commonly known as capacitive reactance and is
given the symbol Xc in ohms.

The formula that is used for the calculation

of the capacitive reactance is the following:
Xc= 1/2πFc
Where,

Xc = Capacitive reactance in ohms, (Ω)

π (pi) = 3.142 (decimal) or as 22 ÷ 7 (fraction)

ƒ = Frequency in hertz, (Hz)

C = Faradays capacitance (F)

i. RC Time Constant
i. All Electrical or Electronic circuits or systems suffer from some form
of “time-delay” between its input and output terminals when either a
signal or voltage, continuous, ( DC ) or alternating ( AC ), is applied to
it.
 This delay is generally known as the circuits time delay or Time
Constant which represents the time response of the circuit when an
input step voltage or signal is applied. The resultant time constant of
any electronic circuit or system will mainly depend upon the reactive
components either capacitive or inductive connected to it.

UNIT OF TIME CONSTANT IS “TAU”

When an increasing DC voltage is applied to a discharged Capacitor

, the capacitor draws what is called a “charging current” and “charges
up”. When this voltage is reduced, the capacitor begins to discharge in
the opposite direction. Because capacitors can store electrical energy
they act in many ways like small batteries, storing or releasing the
energy on their plates as required.

the electrical charge stored on the plates of the capacitor is given as: Q
= CV. This charging (storage) and discharging (release) of a capacitors
energy is never instant but takes a certain amount of time to occur with
the time taken for the capacitor to charge or discharge to within a
certain percentage of its maximum supply value being known as
its Time Constant ( τ ).

TAU= R*C

8. Inductors
i. An Inductor is a passive electrical component consisting of a coil of
wire which is designed to take advantage of the relationship between
magentism and electricity as a result of an electric current passing
through the coil.
ii. SI unit of inductance is “HENRY”
iii. Inductors are used to store the mechanical energy in a electrical circuit.
iv. INDUCTOR RESIST THE CHANGE IN THE CURRENT

v.
 vi.
vii. https://youtu.be/d73e3QiMdSU
b. Types of Inductors
i. There are two types of inductors:

1. FIXED INDUCTORS
2. VARIABLE INDUCTORS

FIXED INDUCTORS
A fixed inductor is a type of inductor which always has the same
inductance. Air-core, iron-core and ferrite-core are some examples of fixed
inductors.
 Air core inductor!!

Iron core inductor!!

 Ferrite core inductor!!

VARIABLE INDUCTORS
Inductance of a variable inductor is varied by increasing or decreasing the number of turns
through movable contract on top of the windings. These inductors use such conductors in
there windings which have no insulation .Hence when the contact on top of the turn is moved,
the number of effective turns will change. The number of turns is directly proportional to the
winding. The inductance varies with the number of turns.
 Variable inductor!!

c. Inductors in Series and Parallel

i. Inductors in Series
1. If the current flowing in all the connected inductors are same
then the connection is series connection. The equivalent
inductance of the inductors in series is equivalent to the sum of
all the individual inductors in series.
2. When inductors are connected in series, the total inductance is
the sum of the individual inductors’ inductances.
 3.
ii. Inductor in Parallel
1. When inductors are connected in parallel, the total inductance
is less than any one of the parallel inductors’ inductances.
2. Thus, the total inductance is less than any one of the individual
inductors’ inductances. The formula for calculating the parallel
total inductance is the same form as for calculating Parallel.

3.
d. Inductor in DC circuit
i. An inductor will resist changes in current.
 ii.
iii. Without the inductor, this would just be a normal LED circuit and the
LED would turn on right away when you flip the switch.
iv. But the inductor is a component that resists changes in current.
v. When the switch is off, there is no current flowing. When you flip the
switch on, current starts flowing. That means there is a change in
current which the inductor will resist.
vi. So instead of the current going from zero to maximum right away, it
will gradually increase up to its maximum current.
vii. Since the current decides the light-intensity of the LED, the inductor
makes the LED fade in instead of turning on instantly.
 viii.
ix. When switch is off!!

x.
xi. when switch is on!!
e. Inductor in AC Current
i. in an alternating current circuit , the flow of current through an
inductor behaves very differently to that of a steady state DC voltage.
Now in an AC circuit, the opposition to the current flowing through the
coils windings not only depends upon the inductance of the coil but
 also the frequency of the applied voltage waveform as it varies from its
positive to negative values.
ii. The actual opposition to the current flowing through a coil in an AC
circuit is determined by the AC Resistance of the coil with this AC
resistance being represented by a complex number. But to distinguish a
DC resistance value from an AC resistance value, which is also known
as Impedance, the term Reactance is used.

iii.
f. Inductive Reactance

In an AC circuit, the opposition to the current flowing through the coils

windings not only depends upon the inductance of the coil but also the
frequency of the applied voltage waveform as it varies from its positive
to negative values.

The actual opposition to the current flowing through a coil in an AC

circuit is determined by the AC Resistance of the coil with this AC
resistance being represented by a complex number. But to distinguish a
DC resistance value from an AC resistance value, which is also known
as Impedance, the term Reactance is used.

Like resistance, reactance is measured in Ohm’s but is given the

symbol “X” to distinguish it from a purely resistive “R” value and as
the component in question is an inductor, the reactance of an inductor
is called Inductive Reactance, ( XL ) and is measured in Ohms. Its
value can be found from the formula.

INDUCTIVE REACTANCE(XL)= 2πFL

Where:

XL = Inductive Reactance in Ohms, (Ω)

π (pi) = a numeric constant of 3.142

ƒ = Frequency in Hertz, (Hz)

 L = Inductance in Henries, (H)

9. Series RLC Circuit

a. Series RLC Circuit
i. In a series RLC circuit, the three elements are connected in series with
each other, which means that they all have the same current.
ii. If any of the components is absent (usually, the inductor or the
capacitor, not the resistor), then in calculations, the corresponding
value for that element can be set to zero or the associated term deleted
from the formulae.

iii.
b. Parallel RLC
i. In parallel RLC Circuit the resistor, inductor and capacitor are
connected in parallel across a voltage supply. The parallel RLC
circuit is exactly opposite to the series RLC circuit. The applied
voltage remains the same across all components and the supply current
gets divided.
 ii.
c. Resonance

In a circuit containing inductor and capacitor, the energy is stored in two

different ways.

1. When a current flows in a inductor, energy is stored in magnetic field.

2. When a capacitor is charged, energy is stored in static electric field.

The magnetic field in the inductor is built by the current, which gets provided
by the discharging capacitor. Similarly, the capacitor is charged by the current
produced by collapsing magnetic field of inductor and this process continues
on and on, causing electrical energy to oscillate between the magnetic field
and the electric field.

In some cases a certain frequency known as the RESONANT

FREQUENCY, the inductive reactance of the circuit becomes equal to
capacitive reactance which causes the electrical energy to oscillate between
the electric field of the capacitor and magnetic field of the inductor.

This forms a harmonic OSCILLATOR for current. In RLC circuit, the

presence of resistor causes these oscillation s to die out over period of time
and it is called as the damping effect of resistor.

RESOSNANCE FREQUENCY
CALCULATION
At resonance,

XL=XC

Hence, 2ΠFL= 1/2πFC

 At resonance frequency, fr: 2πFrL= 1/2πFrC

Hence, Fr= 1/2π√LC

10. Diodes
a. Introduction
i. A two-terminal device that allows electric current to flow in a single
direction is known as a PN junction diode. Diode is made up of two
types of semiconductor. one is P-TYPE and another is N- TYPE.
When the diode is forward biased, it enables the flow of electric
current through it. When a reverse bias is applied across the diode, it
blocks the flow of electric current through it. A PN junction
semiconductor diode is often referred to as a junction diode.
 ii.
iii. DIODE SYMBOL
iv. The polarity of a diode can be determined by its anode, i.e., the
positive lead, and by its cathode, i.e., the negative lead. Diodes, in
general, only allow the flow of current when the positive voltage is
applied to the anode and the diode symbol’s arrow points in the
direction of flow of electric current, i.e., opposite to the direction of
flow of electrons.

v.
vi. https://youtu.be/Fwj_d3uO5g8
b. Types of Diodes

There are different types of diodes:

• GENERIC DIODE
• ZENER DIODE
• SCHOTTKY DIODE
 • LIGHT EMITTING DIODE
• TUNNEL DIODE
• PHOTO DIODE
GERERIC DIODE: these diodes are general purpose P-N junction diode . These diodes
operates in forward bias .

ZENER DIODE: It is a type of PN junction diode usually operated in reverse biased

conditions. A Zener diode is highly used in its reverse breakdown region. It is a heavily
doped PN junction diode. It finds its application in voltage regulation, meter protection,
switching, and clipping

SHOTTKY DIODE: Schottky diode is not like the previous diode PN junction diodes. It is
formed by combining metal with an N type semiconductor. Thus, in a Schottky diode, the
depletion region is not present. These are generally used in computers and laptops.
LIGHT EMMITING DIODE: Light-emitting diode or LED is an electrical device in which
an applied electric field results in incoherent light. LED’s are employed in various circuits in
our daily life, and they are operated in a forward bias mode. LED’s are used in digital
watches, phones, toys, and multimeters.

TUNNEL DIODE: A tunnel diode, also referred to as the Esaki diode, is a densely doped
and highly conductive device. The impurity concentration of a tunnel diode is different
compared to the normal junction diode. It works on the principle of tunneling and shows
negative resistance characteristics.
PHOTO DIODE: It is a diode in which current is generated when a specific region of this
diode is exposed to light. Photodiodes are used in their reverse biased mode. Their uses
include detection, demodulation, switching, and encoding.

c. Operating Regions of Diode

i. Ideally, diodes will block any and all current flowing the reverse
direction, or just act like a short-circuit if current flow is forward.
Unfortunately, actual diode behavior isn’t quite ideal. Diodes do
consume some amount of power when conducting forward current, and
they won’t block out all reverse current. Real-world diodes are a bit
more complicated, and they all have unique characteristics which
define how they actually operate.
ii. CURRENT- VOLTAGE RELATIONSHIP
 iii. The most important diode characteristic is its current-voltage (i-v)
relationship. This defines what the current running through a
component is, given what voltage is measured across it.
iv. The I-V curve of a diode, though, is entirely non – linear.

v.
d. Biasing of Diode
i. A P-N junction diode is formed when one side of a single crystal of
pure semiconductor ( Si or Ge ) is doped with some impure acceptor
impurities and other side is doped with some donor impurity atoms.
 ii.
iii. In simple words, Biasing means to apply voltage to the PN junction
diode. Biasing can be done by two types in PN junction diode. Diode
can only work in forward bias.

iv.
e. Forward Bias
i. When the positive terminal of the voltage source is connected to the P
type of the diode , and the negative terminal of the voltage source is
 connected to the N-type of the diode, then the diode is called to be
connected in forward bias .
ii. Forward bias produce current in the PN junction diode.

iii.
f. Reverse Bias
i. When the negative terminal of the applied voltage source is connected
to the P type of the diode and the positive terminal of the voltage is
connected to the N- type of the diode. Then the diode is called to be
connected in reverse bias.

ii.
g. Identifying the terminal of Diode

1. Rotate the central knob to where the diode symbol is indicated which is
the diode checking mode in the digital multimeter.

1. Keep the red probe (+) and the black probe (-) in either terminal of the
diode.

1. Check the readings on the display.

 • If there’s a voltage value is displayed, then the diode is forward biased
and the terminal where you kept the red probe is the anode and the
terminal where you kept the black probe is the cathode of the diode.

If the display didn’t show any value or it displays “OL”, that means
there’s no current flowing through the diode and it’s in the reverse
biased condition where the red phobe is on the cathode.

i. https://youtu.be/5ZdFkn440jQ
h. Forward Voltage
i. In order to “turn on” and conduct current in the forward direction, a
diode requires a certain amount of positive voltage to be applied across
it. The typical voltage required to turn the diode on is called the
FORWARD VOLTAGE (VF). It might also be called either the cut in
voltage or on voltage
ii. A specific diode’s VF depends on what semiconductor material it’s
made out of. Typically, a silicon diode will have a VF around 0.6-1V.
A germanium-based diode might be lower, around 0.3V. The type of
diode also has some importance in defining the forward voltage drop;
light-emitting diodes can have a much larger VF, while Schottky
diodes are designed specifically to have a much lower-than-usual
forward voltage.

iii.
i. Breakdown Voltage
i. If a large enough negative voltage is applied to the diode, it will give in
and allow current to flow in the reverse direction. This large negative
voltage is called the breakdown voltage. Some diodes are actually
designed to operate in the breakdown region, but for most normal
diodes it’s not very healthy for them to be subjected to large negative
voltages.
ii. For normal diodes this breakdown voltage is around 50V to 100V, or
even more negative.
 iii.
11. Zener Diode
a. What is Zenor Diode
i. Zener diodes are silicon semiconductor devices that can allow the
passage of current in both forward and reverse directions. Unlike p-n
junction diodes, they are designed in such a way to handle the reverse
breakdown voltage without damaging themselves.
ii. But ordinary PN junction diode connected in reverse biased condition
is not used as Zener diode practically. A Zener diode is a specially
designed, highly doped PN junction diode.
 iii.
iv. SYMBOL OF ZENER DIODE

v.
b. Working Principle
i. If the reverse bias voltage is less than the breakdown voltage, or if the
Zener diode is forward biased, it acts as an ordinary diode. That is, in
forward bias it allows current, and in reverse bias it blocks current.
After this voltage has surpassed the breakdown point (in reverse bias),
the diode falls in the Zener region, where it conducts without getting
damaged. Current in this region is called avalanche current. For a
Zener diode, it is also called Zener current.
ii. As soon as the voltage decreases, the diode retains its non-conducting
condition and gets back to its normal properties. This specific property
of being operational in the reverse bias and with avalanche current is
 given to the Zener diode by a rich doping of the semiconductor
material.
iii. Moreover, by controlling the amount of doping, the thickness of the
depletion region in the PN junction and the breakdown voltage can be
set to any value.
12. Rectifier

In electronics, Rectifier circuit is the most used circuit because almost every
electronic appliance operates on DC (Direct Current) but the availability of the DC
Sources are limited such as electrical outlets in our homes provide AC (Alternating
current).

The rectifier is the perfect candidate for this job in industries & Home to convert AC
into DC. Even our cell phone chargers use rectifiers to convert the AC from our home
outlets to DC. Different types of Rectifiers are used for specific applications.

There are three types of rectifier :

• HALF WAVE RECTIFIER

• FULL WAVE RECTIFIER
• BRIDGE WAVE RECTIFIER

i. https://youtu.be/5cbQNfO0Mwg
b. Half wave Rectifier
i. A rectifier circuit that only rectifies the positive half cycle or negative
half cycle of the input sinusoidal signal is known as a half-wave
rectifier
 ii.
c. Centre tap full wave rectifier
i. A full wave rectifier is defined as a type of rectifier that converts both
halves of each cycle of an alternating wave (AC signal) into a pulsating
DC signal. Full-wave rectifiers are used to convert AC voltage to DC
voltage, requiring multiple diodes to construct. Full wave rectification
is the process of converting an AC signal to a DC signal.

ii.
iii. In a full-wave rectifier, one diode (D1) rectifies the positive part of
the AC input just like a half-wave rectifier. The output of this diode is
identical to the output of a half wave rectifier.
iv. However, a second diode (D2) is also used in order to rectify the
negative part of the input AC waveform. The output of D2 is identical
to the output of D1 but its’ pulses occur while the output of D1 is zero.
This results in double the number of output pulses produced by a half-
wave rectifier.
d. Bridge Rectifier
i. Another type of circuit that produces the same output waveform as the
full wave rectifier circuit above, is that of the Full Wave Bridge
Rectifier. This type of single phase rectifier uses four individual
rectifying diodes connected in a closed loop “bridge” configuration to
produce the desired output.
 ii. The main advantage of this bridge circuit is that it does not require a
special centre tapped transformer, thereby reducing its size and cost.
The single secondary winding is connected to one side of the diode
bridge network and the load to the other side as shown below.

iii.
iv. The four diodes labelled D1 to D4 are arranged in “series pairs” with
only two diodes conducting current during each half cycle. During the
positive half cycle of the supply, diodes D1 and D2 conduct in series
while diodes D3 and D4 are reverse biased and the current flows
through the load as shown below.
v. DURING POSITIVE CYCLE
vi. The four diodes labelled D1 to D4 are arranged in “series pairs” with
only two diodes conducting current during each half cycle. During the
positive half cycle of the supply, diodes D1 and D2 conduct in series
while diodes D3 and D4 are reverse biased and the current flows
through the load
vii. DURING NEGATIVE CYCLE
viii. During the negative half cycle of the supply,
diodes D3 and D4 conduct in series, but diodes D1 and D2 switch
“OFF” as they are now reverse biased. The current flowing through the
load is the same direction as before.
13. Transformer
i. A transformer is a passive device that converts the voltage level either
from high to low or low to high. The transformer that converts the high
voltage power to low voltage power is called a step-down transformer
and the one that converts low to high voltage is called a step-up
transformer.
ii. A transformer works on the mutual induction principle, also known as
Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction, which states that the
magnitude of voltage is directly proportional to the rate of change of
magnetic flux.
 iii. MUTUAL INDUCTION
iv. It means that a current gets induced in a coil when it comes in
proximity of a current-carrying coil having varying magnetic flux. This
induced current is directly proportional to the rate of change in current.

v. FARADAY’S LAW
vi. According to the Faraday’s Law, any change in the magnetic field near
the coil or conductor leads to the production of an electromotive force
(EMF) that is induced inside the coil due to a change in magnetic flux.
b. Construction of Transformer

A transformer consists of the following main parts:

CORE
The coils that are winded up on a certain material collectively form a transformer core. These
cores are made of very high permeable material that is able to carry the flux. The core of a
transformer acts as a path or channel for the easy flow of magnetic flux. These cores are
constructed using ferromagnetic materials that have high permeability such as iron.

WINDING
The voltage transformers are winded with wires called coils. Here, we use wires with less
resistance and good conductivity, which is required to get good efficiency from the
transformer. Generally, copper is used in transformer winding as it has good electrical
conductivity and very low resistance in comparison to others. It is also not expensive like
gold, silver and platinum

c. Working Principle of Transformer

i. A transformer works on the principle of mutual induction. So, when
there is a change in the current of one coil, an electric current is also
induced in the other coil in its proximity.
ii. Every transformer consists of two coils or winding: primary and
secondary. The primary winding is connected to the AC power source
and the secondary to the load. When AC current is provided to the
primary winding of the coil, a magnetic flux gets generated. Through
the transformer core, the magnetic field completes its path. As the
secondary winding comes in contact with this magnetic flux, an EMF
is induced on it. The strength of the generated EMF depends on the
number of turns in winding of the secondary coil.
iii. N1>N2
iv. where, N1 = Number of turns in the 1st coil
v. N2 = Number of turns in the 2nd coil
vi. The relation between voltage and number of turns in a coil is:
vii. Vp/Vs=Np/Ns
viii. where, Vp = Voltage in primary coil
ix. Vs = Voltage in secondary coil
 x. Np = Number of turns in primary coil
xi. Ns = Number of turns in secondary coil
d. Step up Transformer
i. A step-up transformer is a type of transformer that converts the low
voltage(LV) and high current from the primary side of the transformer
to the high voltage (HV) and low current value on the secondary side
of the transformer.
ii. output (secondary) voltage is greater than its input (primary) voltage is
called a step-up transformer. The step-up transformer decreases the
output current for keeping the input and output power of the system
equal.
iii. A small step-up transformer can be used in electronic and electrical
devices where the voltage boosting is required. But nowadays in
modern electronic devices, Power electronics circuits are more
frequently used because of smaller weight and dimension.

iv.
e. Step Down Transformer
i. A step-down transformer is a type of transformer that converts the high
voltage (HV) and low current from the primary side of the transformer
to the low voltage (LV) and high current value on the secondary side
of the transformer.

ii.
iii. As the name indicates, the step down transformer is used for
converting higher voltage power into lower voltage power.
 iv. These transformer has a large number of turns in the primary winding
and a smaller number of turns in secondary winding
14. Voltage Multiplier & Voltage Doubler and tripler
a. Voltage Multiplier
i. We saw that the DC output voltage being controlled by the rectifier is
at a value below that of the mains input voltage. The Voltage
Multiplier, however, is a special type of diode rectifier circuit which
can potentially produce an output voltage many times greater than that
of the applied input voltage.
ii. Voltage multipliers are similar in many ways to rectifiers in that they
convert AC-to-DC voltages for use in many electrical and electronic
circuit applications such as in microwave ovens, strong electric field
coils for cathode-ray tubes, electrostatic and high voltage test
equipment, etc , where it is necessary to have a very high DC voltage
generated from a relatively low AC supply.
iii. https://youtu.be/DI8Yt1AQrH8
b. Voltage Doubler

A voltage doubler circuit outputs a DC voltage that is double the peak

value of the AC input voltage, without using a transformer.

A voltage doubler is an electronic circuit that produces an output voltage that

is double the input voltage. It is a voltage multiplier with a voltage
multiplication factor equal to 2. The circuit is formed by an oscillating AC
input voltage, two capacitors, and two diodes. The input voltage is AC, and
the output is DC voltage with twice the peak value of the input AC voltage.

In some applications, heavy and expensive step up transformer can be replaced

by voltage doublers.

TYPES OF VOLTAGE DOUBLER:

• HALF WAVE VOLTAGE DOUBLER

• FULL WAVE VOLTAGE DOUBLER

15. Filters
a. What is Filter?

A filter is a circuit capable of passing (or amplifying) certain frequencies

while attenuating other frequencies. Thus, a filter can extract important
frequencies from signals that also contain undesirable or irrelevant
frequencies.

In the field of electronics, there are many practical applications for filters.
Examples include:

i. RADIO COMMUNICATION : Filters enable radio receivers to only

“see” the desired signal while rejecting all other signals (assuming that
the other signals have different frequency content).
 ii. DC POWER SUPPLY: Filters are used to eliminate undesired high
frequencies (i.e., noise) that are present on AC input lines.
Additionally, filters are used on a power supply’s output to reduce
ripple.
iii. AUDIO ELECTRONICS : A crossover network is a network of
filters used to channel low-frequency audio to woofers, mid-range
frequencies to midrange speakers, and high-frequency sounds to
tweeters.
iv. ANALOG TO DIGITAL COMMUNICATION : Filters are placed
in front of an ADC input to minimize aliasing.
v. https://youtu.be/BtsbBKegcSw
b. Types of Analog Filters:

FILTERS ARE MAINLY CLASSIFIED INTO TWO TYPES:

• ACTIVE FILTERS
• PASSIVE FILTERS

ACTIVE FILTERS
Filter Circuit which consists of active components like Transistors and Op-
amps in addition to Resistors and Capacitors is called as ACTIVE FILTER .

PASSIVE FILTERS
Filter circuit which consists of passive components such as Resistors,
Capacitors and Inductors is called as Passive Filter. The operating frequency
range of the filter banks on the components used to build the circuit. Hence the
filter can be further categorized based on the operating frequency of a
particular circuit. They are:

• Low Pass Filter

• High Pass Filter
• Band Pass Filter
• Band Stop Filter
• All Pass Filter
c. Low Pass Filter
i. It is a type of Filter which attenuates all the frequencies above the cut-
off frequencies. It provides a constant output (gain) from zero to cut-
off frequency.
ii. “Low Pass Filter”- that means passing what is low, that is also means
blocking what is high. It is act as same as the traditional water filter
which we have in our home/office which block impurities and only
pass the clean water.
 iii. Low pass filters are made using resistor and capacitor combination
(RC) for filtering out up to 100Khz but for the rest 100khz-300khz
Resistor, Capacitor and Inductor is used (RLC).

iv.
d. High Pass Filter
i. It is a type of Filter which attenuates all the frequencies below the cut-
off frequencies. It provides a constant output (gain) above the cut-off
frequency.
ii. So, as the name suggests, it is a filter that will block Low frequencies,
but pass the high frequency above the predetermined value, which
will be calculated by the formula.
iii. The basic High Pass Filter is built by a series connection of capacitor
and resistor. While the input signal is applied to the capacitor, the
output is drawn across the resistor.

iv. How High Pass filter works?

v. At low frequencies the reactance of the capacitor will be very large that
it will act like an open circuit and block the input signal below the cut-
off frequency point (fc). But when the cut-off frequency point reached
the reactance of the capacitor will start to reduce and allow the signal
to pass directly. We will see this in detail in the frequency response
curve.

vi.
e. Band Pass Filter
 i. A band pass filter (also known as a BPF or pass band filter) is defined
as a device that allows frequencies within a specific frequency range
and rejects (attenuates) frequencies outside that range.
ii. The band pass filter is a combination of low pass and high pass filters.
Therefore, the circuit diagram contains the circuit of high pass and low
pass filters.

iii.
iv. The first half of the circuit diagram is a passive RC high pass filter.
This filter will allow the signals which have frequencies higher than
the lower cutoff frequency (fc-low). And attenuate the signals which
have frequencies lower than (fc-low).

v. F clow= 1/2πR1C1
vi. The second half of the circuit diagram is a passive RC low pass filter.
This filter will allow the signals which have frequencies lower than the
higher cutoff frequency (fc-high). And it will attenuate the signals
which have frequencies higher than (fc-high).

vii. F chigh=1/2πR2C2
viii. The band or region of frequency in which the band pass filter allows
the signal to pass that is known as Bandwidth. The bandwidth is a
difference between the higher and lower value of cutoff frequency.
 ix. BANDWIDTH= F chigh+ F clow

x.
16. Transistors
a. Introduction
i. Transistor is a three terminal device that is used to amplify or switch
electrical signals and power.
ii. The development of electronics industry as we see today started with
the invention of a transistor. Like a p-n junction diode, a transistor is
also made up of the combination of the p-type and n-type
semiconductor layers.

iii.
iv. https://youtu.be/IcrBqCFLHIY
b. Types of Transistors
 BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR
A bipolar junction transistor is a three-terminal semiconductor device that consists of two p-n
junctions which are able to amplify or magnify a signal. It is a current controlled device. The
three terminals of the BJT are the base, the collector, and the emitter.

There are two types of bipolar junction transistors:

• PNP TRANSISTOR
• NPN TRANSISTOR

SYMBOLS OF BJT!!

i. https://youtu.be/Bine_PbyFSQ
c. PNP Transistor
i. A PNP Transistor is a type of Bipolar Junction Transistor which is
composed of three layers where ‘N’ doped layer is sandwiched
between two ‘P’ doped layers. In PNP Transistors the electrons are
minority charge carriers and holes are majority charge carriers. The
current flow is due to the movement of holes. It has two
PNJUNCTION.
 ii.

iii. CONSTRUCTION OF A PNP TRANSISTOR

iv. The structure of a PNP transistor is depicted in the diagram below. The
emitter and base junctions are forward biased, while the collector and
base junctions are reverse biased. The forward biased emitter attracts
electrons to the battery, causing current to flow from the emitter to the
collector.

v.
vi. Doped semiconductors are found in three sections of a transistor. On
one side, there is an emitter, and on the other, there is a collector. The
base refers to the area in the middle. The transistor’s three components
are described in detail below.

vii. EMITTER
viii. The emitter’s job is to provide charge carriers to the receiver. When
compared to the base, the emitter is always forward biased in order to
supply a large number of charge carriers.

ix. BASE
x. The base of a transistor is the section in the middle that forms the two
PN-junctions between the emitter and the collector. The base-emitter
junction is forward biased, allowing the emitter circuit to have low
resistance. Due to the reverse bias of the base-collector junction, the
collector circuit has a high resistance.
 xi. COLLECTOR
xii. The collector is the section on the opposite side of the emitter that
collects the charges. When it comes to collecting, the collector is
always biased in the opposite direction.
d. Working of PNP Transistor
i. Because the emitter and base junctions are forward biased, the emitter
pushes the holes in the base region. The emitter current is made up of
these holes. These electrons combined with the electrons when they
moved into the N-type semiconductor material or base. The transistor’s
base is thin and does not have much doping. As a result, only a few
holes combine with electrons, and the rest of the holes are moved to
the collector space charge layer. As a result, the base current develops.

ii.
iii. Reverse bias is used to connect the collector-base region. The collector
collects or attracts the holes that collect around the depletion region
when they were exposed to negative polarity. The collector current
develops as a result of this. The collector current IC allows the entire
emitter current to pass through.
e. NPN Transistor
i. An NPN transistor is the most commonly used bipolar junction
transistor and is constructed by sandwiching a P- type semiconductor
between two N-type semiconductor. An NPN transistor has three
terminals– a collector, emitter and base. The NPN transistor behaves
like two PN junction diode connected back to back.
ii.
iii. These back to back PN junction diodes are known as the collector-base
junction and base-emitter junction.
iv.
 v.

vi. CONSTRUCTION of NPN TRANSISTOR

vii. The NPN transistor has two diodes connected back to back. The diode
on the left side is called an emitter-base diode, and the diodes on the
left side are called collector-base diode. These names are given as per
the name of the terminals.

viii.
ix. The NPN transistor has two diodes connected back to back. The diode
on the left side is called an emitter-base diode, and the diodes on the
left side are called collector-base diode. These names are given as per
the name of the terminals.
x. The NPN transistor has three terminals, namely emitter, collector and
base. The middle section of the NPN transistor is lightly doped, and it
is the most important factor of the working of the transistor. The
emitter is moderately doped, and the collector is heavily doped.
f. Working of NPN Transistor
i. The circuit diagram of the NPN transistor is shown in the figure below.
The forward biased is applied across the emitter-base junction, and the
reversed biased is applied across the collector-base junction. The
 forward biased voltage VEB is small as compared to the reverse bias
voltage VCB.
ii.

iii.
iv. The emitter of the NPN transistor is heavily doped. When the forward
bias is applied across the emitter, the majority charge carriers move
towards the base. This causes the emitter current IE. The electrons enter
into the P-type material and combine with the holes.
v. The base of the NPN transistor is lightly doped. Due to which only a
few electrons are combined and remaining constitutes the base current
IB. This base current enters into the collector region. The reversed bias
potential of the collector region applies the high attractive force on the
electrons reaching collector junction. Thus attract or collect the
electrons at the collector.
g. Operating Mode of Transistor
i. Switching and Amplification are the two areas of applications of
Transistors and Transistor as a Switch is the basis for many digital
circuits.
ii. Depending on the biasing conditions like forward or reverse,
transistors have three major modes of operation namely cutoff, active
and saturation regions.

iii. ACTIVE MODE

iv. In this mode, the transistor is generally used as a current amplifier. In
active mode, two junctions are differently biased that means emitter-
base junction is forward biased whereas collector-base junction is
reverse biased. In this mode, current flows between emitter and
collector and the amount of current flow is proportional to the base
current.
v. CUTOFF MODE
vi. In this mode, both collector base junction and emitter base junction are
reverse biased. As both the PN Junctions are reverse biased, there is
almost no current flow except small leakage currents (usually in the
order of few nano amps or pico amps). BJT in this mode is switched
OFF and is essentially an open circuit.
 vii.

viii. SATURATION MODE

ix. In this mode of operation, both the emitter-base and collector-base
junctions are forward biased. Current flows freely from collector to
emitter with almost zero resistance. In this mode, the transistor is fully
switched ON and is essentially a close circuit.
x. Saturation Region is also primarily used in switching and digital logic
circuits.

xi.
h. NPN Transistor as Switch
i. Based on the voltage applied at the base terminal of a transistor
switching operation is performed. When a sufficient voltage (VIN > 0.7
V) is applied between the base and emitter, collector to emitter voltage
is approximately equal to 0. Therefore, the transistor acts as a short
circuit. The collector current VCC / RC flows through the transistor.
ii. Similarly, when no voltage or zero voltage is applied at the input,
transistor operates in cutoff region and acts as an open circuit. In this
type of switching connection, load (here an LED is used as a load) is
connected to the switching output with a reference point. Thus, when
the transistor is switched ON, current will flow from source to ground
through the load.
 iii.
i. PNP Transistor as Switch
i. PNP transistor works same as NPN for a switching operation, but the
current flows from the base. This type of switching is used for negative
ground configurations. For the PNP transistor, the base terminal is
always negatively biased with respect to the emitter.
ii. In this switching, base current flows when the base voltage is more
negative. Simply, a low voltage or more negative voltage makes the
transistor to short circuit otherwise, it will be open circuit.
iii. In this connection, load is connected to the transistor switching output
with a reference point. When the transistor is turned ON, current flows
from the source through transistor to the load and finally to the ground.

iv.
j. Other circuits using BJT
i. Astable Multivibrator
1. An Astable Multivibrator or a Free Running Multivibrator is
the multivibrator which has no stable states. Its output oscillates
continuously between its two unstable states without the aid of
external triggering. The time period of each states are
determined by Resistor Capacitor ( RC ) time constant.

2.
3. In the above diagram we can find two transistors which is
wired as a switch. When a transistor is ON, its collector and
emitter act as a short circuit. But when it is OFF they acts as
open circuit. So in the above circuit when a transistor is in OFF
state its collector will have the voltage Vcc and when it is ON
its collector will be grounded. When one transistor is ON the
other will be OFF. The OFF time of transistor is determined by
RC time constant.
4. When the circuit is switched on, one of the transistor will be
more conducting than the other due to imbalance in the circuit
or difference in the parameters of the transistor. Gradually the
more conducting transistor will be driven to Saturation and the
less conducting transistor will be driven to Cutoff.
ii. Working of Astable Multivibrator

• When the circuit is switched on one transistor will driven to

saturation (ON) and other will driven to cutoff (OFF).
Consider Q1 is ON and Q2 is OFF.
• During this time Capacitor C2 is charging to Vcc through
resistor R.
• Q2 is OFF due to the -ive voltage from the discharging
capacitor C1 which is charged during the previous cycle. So
the OFF time of Q2 is determined by R1C1 time constant.

• After a time period determined by R1C1 time constant the

capacitor C1 discharges completely and starts charging in
reverse direction through R1.
• When the Capacitor C1 charges to a voltage sufficient
provide base emitter voltage of 0.7V to the transistor Q2, it
turns ON and capacitor C2 starts discharging.

• The negative voltage from the capacitor C2 turns off the

transistor Q1 and the capacitor C1 starts charging from Vcc
through resistor R and base emitter of transistor Q2. Thus
the transistor Q2 remains in ON state.
• As in the previous state, when the capacitor C2 discharges
completely it starts charging towards opposite direction
through R2.
 • When the voltage across the capacitor C2 is sufficient to
turn ON transistor Q1, Q1 will turn ON and capacitor C1
starts discharging.
• This process continuous and produces rectangular waves at
the collector of each transistors.
• Note : Charging time is very less compared to discharging
time.

1. https://youtu.be/6J2tid_Frr4
iii. Bistable Multivibrator
1. A type of multivibrator whose output consists of 2 stable
states is known as Bistable Multivibrator. The circuit switches
from one stable state to the other when an appropriate trigger
pulse is applied.
2. It is also known as flip-flop multivibrator because due to
applied trigger pulses, multivibrator flip from one stable state.
And by applying the next trigger pulse it flops back to its initial
stable state.

3.
iv. Schmit Trigger
1. The Schmitt Trigger is a logic input type that provides
hysteresis or two different threshold voltage levels for rising
 and falling edge. This is useful because it can avoid the errors
when we have noisy input signals from which we want to get
square wave signals.
2.

3.
4. This in a digital circuit can lead to many problems due to
erroneous pulses, so a Schmitt trigger can be used to correct it.

5.
6. As it can be seen, having a double threshold has eliminated the
erroneous pulses caused by noise, leaving a square wave.
7. https://youtu.be/Nrp8OgQLAlw
17. Voltage Regualtor
a. A voltage regulator is used to regulate voltage levels. When a steady, reliable
voltage is needed, then the voltage regulator is the preferred device. It
generates a fixed output voltage that remains constant for any changes in an
input voltage or load conditions. It acts as a buffer for protecting components
from damages.

b.
c. There are mainly two types of voltage regulators: Linear voltage regulators
and switching voltage regulators; these are used in wider applications. The
linear voltage regulator is the easiest type of voltage regulator. It is available
in two types, which are compact and used in low power, low voltage systems.
d. Working of Voltage Regulator
i. A voltage regulator circuit is used to make as well as maintain a
permanent output voltage even when the input voltage otherwise load
conditions are changed.
ii. The voltage regulator gets the voltage from a power supply and it can
be maintained in a range that is well-suited with the remaining
electrical components. Most commonly these regulators are used for
converting DC/DC power, AC/AC otherwise AC/DC.

iii.
e. Types of Voltage Regulators
 LINEAR VOLTAGE REGULATORS
The Linear regulator acts as a voltage divider. The resistance of the voltage
regulator varies with load resulting in constant output voltage. Linear voltage
regulators are the original type of regulators use to regulate the power
supplies.

SERIES VOLTAGE REGULATOR

A series voltage regulator uses a variable element placed in series with the
load. By changing the resistance of that series element, the voltage dropped
across it can be changed. And, the voltage across the load remains constant.

SHUNT VOLTAGE REGULATORS

A shunt voltage regulator works by providing a path from the supply voltage
to the ground through a variable resistance.

18. 7805 Voltage Regulators

a. Introduction
i. When there are fluctuations in the circuit, then the fixed output cannot
be given by all voltage sources. To deal with this, a system is designed
to maintain a constant voltage level automatically is Voltage
Regulator.
ii. The 7805 voltage regulator is a three-terminal voltage regulator IC. In
various applications, a 7805 voltage regulator with a fixed output
voltage is used. The availability of this is through various packages
like SOT-223, TO-263, TO-220, and TO-3. Among this, TO-220 is the
most used one. There are many important features in the 7805 IC.

iii.
b. 7805 Pin configuration

i.

ii. PIN 1: INPUT

iii. This is an input pin and the voltage range should be between 7V to
35V. an unregulated voltage is applied to this input pin for regulation.
The pin will receive its maximum efficiency at 7.2V input

iv. PIN 2: GROUND

v. Pin2 is the ground pin, it means the ground is connected to this pin.
Input and output are common to it.

vi. PIN 3: OUTPUT

vii. Pin3 is the output pin, where the regulated output is taken by this pin.
It is about 5V(4.8V to 5.2V)
Here Energy is exhausted in the form of heat In IC 7805 voltage
regulator. The heat released is the input and output voltage difference.
If the difference is less in between input voltage and output voltage,
the heat generation will be low and if the difference between the input
and output voltages are high, the more heat is generated. due to this
heat malfunction occurs even without a heat sink.
c. 7805 Regular circuit

i.
ii. When the distance between the power supply filter and the regulator is
high, then the 0.33uF capacitor is needed to place it near the input. The
0.1uF capacitor placed is not a mandatory one, its optional, it is used
for the transient response.
iii. Vin is the input voltage, here it is shown as the source from battery.
7805IC receives input from the battery of an unregulated DC. Vout is
the output voltage. the output is received from the 7805 IC. the output
received there is the regulated 5V.
 d. 7805 Regulator Working
i. The following image shows the circuit diagram of producing a
regulated 5V from AC Mains supply using 7805 voltage regulator.

ii.
iii. The AC power supply from mains first gets converted into and
unregulated DC and then into a constant regulated DC with the help of
this circuit. The circuit is made up of transformer, bridge rectifier made
up from diodes, linear voltage regulator 7805 and capacitors.
iv. If you observe, the working of the circuit can be divided into two
parts. In the first part, the AC Mains is converted into unregulated
DC and in the second part, this unregulated DC is converted into
regulated 5V DC. So, let us start discussing the working with this
in mind.
v. Initially, a 230V to 12V Step down transformer is taken and its
primary is connected to mains supply. The secondary of the
transformer is connected to Bridge rectifier (either a dedicated IC or a
combination of 4 1N4007 Diodes can be used).
vi. A 1A fuse is placed between the transformer and the bridge rectifier.
This will limit the current drawn by the circuit to 1A. The rectified DC
from the bridge rectifier is smoothened out with the help of 1000μF
Capacitor.
vii. So, the output across the 1000μF Capacitor is unregulated 12V DC.
This is given as an input to the 7805 Voltage Regulator IC. 7805 IC
then converts this to a regulated 5V DC and the output can be obtained
at its output terminals.
19. Linear Power Supply Design
a. Linear Power Supply Introduction
i. Linear regulators were the power supplies of choice for converting
alternating current (AC) into a steady direct current (DC) for electronic
devices.

ii.
iii. In a linear power supply, the mains AC voltage is converted to a lower
voltage directly by a step-down transformer. This transformer has to
handle a large power since it works at the AC mains frequency
 50/60Hz. Therefore, this transformer is bulky and large, making the
power supply heavy and large.
iv. Stepped-down voltage is then rectified and filtered to get the DC
voltage required for the output.
b. Circuit Explanation

The main component that allows a linear regulator to function is a steel or iron
transformer. This transformer provides two functions:

• It acts as a barrier to separate high voltage AC input from low voltage

DC input, which also filters out any noise getting into the output
voltage.
• It reduces AC input from 115V/230V to approximately 30V which can
then be converted to a steady DC voltage.

AC voltage is first lowered by the transformer and then rectified by several

diodes. It’s then smoothed into a low DC voltage by a pair of large electrolytic
capacitors. This low DC voltage is then regulated as a steady output voltage
with the use of a transistor or integrated circuit.

20. Switch Mode Power Supply

a. Introduction

SMPS
Switch Mode or Switching Mode Power Supply or simply SMPS is a type of
Power Supply Unit (PSU) that uses some kind of switching devices to transfer
electrical energy from source to load. Usually the source is either AC or DC
and the load is DC.

The most common application of an SMPS is the power supply unit of a

computer. Switching Mode Power Supply (SMPS) has become a standard type
of power supply unit for electronic devices because of their high efficiency,
low cost and high power density.

i. https://youtu.be/QkOtr14riFI
b. Purpose of SMPS
i. Majority of Electronic DC Loads like Microprocessors,
Microcontrollers, LEDs, Transistors, ICs, Motors etc. are supplied with
standard power sources like batteries for example. Unfortunately, the
 prime problem with batteries is the voltage is either too high or too
low. Hence, an SMPS will provide a regulated DC output.
ii. Coming to the major factor of why we need SMPS, the efficiency of a
good SMPS design can be as high as 90% or even more. In contrast,
the efficiency of a Linear Regulated Power Supply is dependent on the
voltage drop at the pass transistor.
iii.
iv. For example, assume we have a 3V Lithium Cell that must be stepped
down to a 1.8V load drawing a current of 100mA. The power wasted
in the transistor as heat is 0.12W and hence the efficiency of the power
supply is 40%.
c. Design and Working
i. The working & design of SMPS is divided into various sections and
stages.

ii.

iii. INPUT STAGE

iv. The AC input supply of frequency (50-60) Hz feds directly to
the rectifier and filter circuit. Its output contains many variations and
the capacitance value of the capacitor should be higher enough to
handle the input fluctuations. Finally, the unregulated dc is given to
the central switching section of SMPS in order to regulate it. This
section does not contain any transformer for the step down in input
voltage supply.

v. SWITCHING SELECTION
vi. It consists of fast switching devices like a Power transistor or
a MOSFET, which switches ON and OFF according to the variations
in the voltage. The output obtained is given to the primary of
the transformer which is present in this section.
vii.
viii. The transformer used here is a much smaller, lighter, and highly
effective one that steps down voltage. These are much efficient
compared to other step-down methods. Hence, the power conversion
ratio is higher.

ix. OUTPUT STAGE

x. The output that is derived from the switching section is again rectified
and filtered. It uses a rectification and filter circuit to get the desired
 DC voltage. The obtained regulated output voltage is then given to
the control circuit.

xi. CONTROL UNIT

xii. This unit is all about feedback, which has many sections contain in it.
Lets see the brief information about this section.

xiii.
xiv. The inner control unit consists of an oscillator, amplifier, sensor, etc.
The sensor senses the output signal and feedback to the control unit.
All the signals are isolated from each other so that, any sudden spikes
should not affect the circuitry. The reference voltage is given as one
input along with the signal to the error amplifier. The amplifier is
a comparator that compares the signal with the required signal level.
xv.
xvi. The next stage is Controlling the chopping frequency. The final
voltage level is controlled by comparing the inputs given to the error
amplifier, whose output helps to decide whether to increase or to
decrease the chopping frequency. The oscillator produces a standard
PWM wave with a fixed frequency.
d. Non Isolated Types of SMPS

TYPES OF SMPS

NON ISOLATED
Non-isolated converters are mostly used when the change in the voltage is
comparatively small. The non-isolated SMPS are the ones whose input and
output circuitry are not isolated from each other. The major disadvantage is
that it cannot provide protection from high electrical voltages and it poses
more noise. They are of 3 types.
 BUCK
In a typical non-isolated step-down (buck) converter the output voltage VOUT
depends on the input voltage VIN and the switching duty cycle of the power
switch.

BOOST
It is used to boost voltage and it uses the same number of passive components
but arranged to step up the input voltage so that the output is higher than that
of the input.

BUCK BOOST
This converter allows the input voltage to be either stepped-up or stepped-
down, depending on the duty cycle. The output voltage is given by the relation

VOUT = -VIN *D/ (1-D)

e. Isolated types of SMPS

ISOLATED SMPS
Isolated SMPS are the ones where there is isolation maintained between the
input and output circuitry. The supplies make use of a transformer to separate
the switching from the output. The secondary winding of the transformer acts
as the energy storing element.

THERE ARE TWO TYPES OF ISOLATED SMPS

1.FLY BACK CONVERTER

2.FORWARD CONVERTER

FLY CONVERTER
The working of this converter is similar to the buck-boost converter of the
non-isolating category. The only difference is that it uses a transformer to
store energy instead of an inductor in the circuit.

FORWARD CONVERTER
The working of this converter makes use of the transformer to send the energy,
between the input and output in a single step

f. Applications of SMPS
 APPLICATIONS OF SMPS
• It is used in servers, power stations, and personal computers.
• It is used in vehicles for charging batteries.
• It is used in factories and industries for power.
• It is used in the railway system, security system.
• It is also used in mobile and also as lighting.

ADVANTAGES OF SMPS
• Smaller in size and light-weighted.
• Better power efficiency of around 60 to 70 percent.
• Strong anti-interference.
• Wide range of output.
• Produces less heat.

DISADVANTAGES OF SMPS
• The SMPS design & working is more complex.
• Has higher output ripple and its regulation is not satisfactory.
• Mostly limited to the step-down regulator.
• Has high-frequency electrical noise.
• Leads to harmonic distortion.

21. Convertors

a. BUCK CONVERTER OR (STEP DOWN CONVERTER)

i. Buck Converter is a type of SMPS circuit and DC to DC Converter,
where the output voltage is less than input voltage. Hence, a Buck
Converter is also known as a Step – down Converter.
ii. It is one of the simplest SMPS power converter techniques and is often
used in RAM, CPU, USB etc. The input DC in buck converter can be a
rectified AC or a battery. A simple buck converter using two switches
(one transistor and one diode) and an energy storing element (inductor)
is shown in the image below.
 iii.
b. Buck convertor operations
i. A simple Buck Converter or Step down Converter is shown in the
above image and it consists of a switching transistor, diode, inductor
and capacitor. The combination of Inductor , Diode and Capacitor is
called as Flywheel Circuit.

ii.
iii. When the pulse input to the Gate terminal of the MOSFET is HIGH,
the Transistor is turned ON. As a result, the transistor will supply
current to the load. During this time, the Diode D is reverse biased and
will not be a part of the circuit during this period.
iv. Initially, the inductor resists the change in current and hence, the
current to the load will increase gradually with expanding magnetic
field. Also, the charge on the capacitor is built up gradually up to the
supply voltage. The next image is for the condition where the pulse
becomes LOW i.e. the Transistor is OFF.
 v.

c. BOOST CONVERTER(STEP UP CONVERTER)

i. A Boost Converter, as the name suggests, is type of switched mode
power supply, which boosts or increases the output voltage with
respect to the input voltage. Boost Converters are also known as Step –
up Converters as the output voltage is higher than the input voltage.
ii. One of the best known application for Boost Converters is in electric
cars. The supply from electric cars batteries won’t be sufficient for its
working as they require voltages that are much higher (typically in
region of 500V) than those supplied by the batteries. Another
important application of Boost Converters is Laptop Chargers in Cars.

iii.
d. Boost Convertor Operations
i. This simple Boost Converter consists of a Switching Transistor (BJT
or MOSFETS can be used), an energy storing element i.e. inductor,
another switch (Diode or another Transistor), capacitor and a high
frequency square wave oscillator with controllable duty cycle.
ii. The input to this Boost converter is unregulated DC, which can be
given from rectified AC, batteries, Solar, DC Generators, etc. We will
see the working operating of this Boost Converter. First we will see for
period when the Transistor is ON for the first time. The following
image shows this condition.
 iii.
iv. When the pulse is HIGH for the first time, the transistor is turned ON
and it closes a part of the circuit consisting of Inductor, Transistor and
input supply. Current flows from the input through the inductor and
transistor.
v. The inductor, initially resists the change in current but the magnetic
field will increase gradually allowing inductor to store energy. The
impedance of the rest of the circuit i.e. Diode, Capacitor and Load is
much higher and hence, there will be no flow of current in that part of
the circuit.
e. Flyback Convertor
i. Flyback Converter is a type of Switch Mode Power Supply typically
used in low power applications. Flyback Converter is an Isolated Type
SMPS where the input and output are isolated with a transformer. The
following is the circuit of a simple Flyback Converter.

ii.
iii. The main components of a Flyback Converter are a Switching
Transistor, Oscillator Circuit, Transformer, switch (like a Diode) and a
Capacitor. The Transformer is different from a normal transformer and
is called a Flyback Transformer. In this transformer, the Primary and
Secondary do not conduct simultaneously.
22. Operational Amplifier
a. Introduction
i. Operational Amplifiers, also known as Op-amps, are basically a
voltage amplifying device designed to be used with components like
capacitors and resistors, between its in/out terminals. They are
 essentially a core part of analog devices. Feedback components like
these are used to determine the operation of the amplifier. The
amplifier can perform many different operations (resistive, capacitive,
or both), giving it the name Operational Amplifier.

ii.
iii. The operational amplifier is called so because it has its origins in
analog computers, and was mainly used to perform mathematical
operations.
iv. Depending on its feedback circuit and biasing, an op-amp can be made
to add, subtract, multiply, divide, negate, and interestingly even
perform calculus operations like differentiation and integration.
v. https://youtu.be/kiiA6WTCQn0
b. Opamp Symbol
 i. If an input signal is applied to either of the input terminals to the other
input terminal connected to ground, the operation is called “single-
ended”.
ii. In single-ended operation a single input applied, drives both the
transistors due to the common-emitter connection. The output obtained
is thus driven by both the collectors.
iii. If two input signals are applied to the two input terminals the operation
is referred to as “double-ended”.
iv. In double-ended operation the difference of the inputs applied to the
two input terminals drives the transistors and the output obtained is
driven by both the collectors.
v. If the same input is applied to both inputs, the operation is called
“common mode”. In common-mode operation the common input
signal at both the input terminals results in opposite signals at each
collector.
vi. These signals get cancelled, resulting in an output signal zero.
Practically, the opposite signals do not completely cancel each other
and a small signal is resulted in the output.
c. Opamp Circuit Diagram

i.
ii. The basic circuit of an operational amplifier is as shown in the figure
above. An op-amp has a differential amplifier input stage and emitter
follower output stage.
iii. Transistors Q1 and Q2 forms a differential amplifier, where the
difference input voltage is applied to the base terminals of Q1 and Q2.
Transistor Q3 operates as an emitter follower and provides low output
impedance.
iv. The output of the basic op-amp circuit VOUT is given as,
v. VOUT = VCC –VRC – VBE3
vi. VOUT = VCC – IC2RC – VBE
vii. Where, VRC is the voltage across the resistor RC and VBE3 is the base-
emitter voltage of transistor Q3.
viii. Assume that the transistors Q1 and Q2 are matched transistors i.e., they
have equal VBE levels and equal current gains. If both transistors base
 terminals are connected to ground, the emitter currents IE1 and IE2 are
equal and both IE1 and IE2 flow through the common resistor RE. The
emitter current is given by the relation,
ix. IE1 + IE2 = VRE / RE
x. If both Q1 and Q2 bases connected to ground,
xi. 0 – VBE –VRE +VEE = 0
xii. i.e. VRE = VEE – VBE
xiii. Therefore, IE1 + IE2 = (VEE – VBE) / RE
xiv. When a positive voltage is applied to the non-inverting input terminal,
the base of Q1 is pulled up by the input voltage and its emitter terminal
follows the input signal. Since Q1 and Q2 emitters are connected
together, the emitter of Q2 also gets pulled up by the positive input at
the non-inverting terminal.
xv. The base of Q2 is grounded, so the positive voltage at its emitter
causes a reduction in its base-emitter voltage VBE2 . The reduction in
VBE2 causes the emitter current IE2 to decrease and consequently
IC2 also reduced.
xvi. It can be noted that a positive input at pin #3 gives a positive output,
hence the name non-inverting input terminal.
d. Differential Amplifier using Transistor

All op-amps consist of a differential amplifier at their input stage. If two

different voltage signals are applied to the two input terminals of the op-amp,
the resulting output signal is proportional to the “difference” between the two
signals.

Thus the differential amplifiers amplify the difference between two voltages
measured with respect to a common reference.

The two transistors Q1 and Q2 have identical characteristics. The two input
signals Vi1 and Vi2 are applied to the base terminals of Q1 and Q2
respectively. Note that the differential amplifier has two output terminals
VO1 and VO2 .
 Ideally, the output voltage is zero when both the inputs are equal. When Vi1 is
greater than Vi2, the output terminal VO1 will be positive and VO2 will be
negative. When Vi2 is greater than Vi1, the output terminal VO2 will be
positive with respect to VO1.

The output VO is given by,

VO = AD (Vi1 – Vi2)

Where AD is the differential gain.

A differential amplifier can be configured in four different ways:

i. Dual input balanced output differential amplifier.

ii. Dual input unbalanced output differential amplifier.
iii. Single input balanced output differential amplifier.
iv. Single input unbalanced output differential amplifier.
e. Equivalent Circuit of Ideal OPAMP

i.
ii. The equivalent circuit of an ideal op-amp is shown above. The input
voltage VDIFF is the difference voltage (V1-V2). Zin is the input
impedance and Zout is the output impedance.
iii. The gain parameter A is called the open loop gain. If an op-amp does
not have any feedback from the output to either of the inputs, it is said
to be operating in open-loop configuration.
iv. An ideal op-amp exhibits infinite open loop gain, infinite input
impedance, zero output impedance, infinite voltage swing, infinite
bandwidth, infinite slew rate and zero input offset voltage.
23. OPAMP Characteristics
a. Input Impedence

An ideal op-amp has infinite input impedance to prevent any flow of

current from the supply into the op-amp circuit. But when the op-amp
is used in linear applications, some form of negative feedback is
provided externally. Due to this negative feedback, the input
impedance becomes

Zin = (1 + AOL β) Zi

Where, Zin is the input impedance without feedback

AOL is the open-loop gain

β is the feedback factor (1 for voltage follower)

The impedance of the signal sources connected to the input of an op-

amp must be very much smaller than the amplifier input impedance to
avoid signal loss.

i. Output Impedence

An ideal op-amp has zero output impedance. This means that the
output voltage is independent of output current. Thus an ideal op-amp
can act as a perfect internal voltage source with zero internal
resistance, so that maximum current can be driven to the load.

Practically, the output impedance of the op-amp is affected by the

negative feedback and is given by,

Zout = Zo / (1 + AOL β)

Where,

Zo is the output impedance of op-amp without feedback

AOL is the open-loop gain

β is the feedback factor

Load impedances connected at the output of the op-amp must be much

larger than the circuit output impedance, to avoid any significant loss
of output as a voltage drop across Zout.

b. Common Mode Rejection Ratio

CMRR is defined as the ability of an op-amp to reject the

common mode input signal. CMRR is an important measure of
 an op-amp. An ideal op-amp will have infinite CMRR. In
practical circuits, CMRR is given by

CMRR = 20 log10 (AD/|AC|) dB

Where, AD is the differential gain and AC is the common mode

gain of the op-amp.

Offset Voltage (ViO)

The input offset voltage defines the differential DC voltage

required between the input terminals to make the output zero
volts with respect to ground. An Ideal op-amp will have zero
offset voltage, whereas practical op-amps show some small
offset.

Slew Rate

Slew rate is defined as the maximum change of output voltage

per unit time and is expressed as volts per second.

An ideal op-amp will have an infinite slew rate. In practical op-

amps, the slew rate is inherently limited by the small internal
drive currents of the op-amp and also by the internal
capacitance designed to compensate for high frequency
oscillations.

c. Open Loop Gain

Open-loop gain of an op-amp is defined as the gain of the op-amp

when there is no feedback from the output to either of its inputs. For an
ideal op-amp, the gain will be infinite theoretically, but practical value
range from 20,000 to 200,000.

BANDWIDTH

An ideal op-amp can amplify any frequency signal from DC to highest

AC frequencies, thus it has an infinite frequency response. Therefore,
the bandwidth of an ideal op-amp should be infinite.

In practical circuits, the bandwidth of the op-amp is limited by the

gain-bandwidth product (GB).

d. OPAMP Frequency Response

1. The open loop gain AOL is not constant for all frequencies. Real
op-amps have a frequency-dependent open-loop gain. The
frequency response curve of a practical op-amp is as shown
below.
 2.
3. From the above curve, we can note that the product of gain and
frequency is constant at any point along the curve. This
constant is known as the Gain-Bandwidth product (GB). Also,
the gain of the amplifier at any point along the curve is
determined by unity-gain (0 dB) frequency.
e. OPAMP Bandwidth

The bandwidth of the operational amplifier is defined as the

frequency range over which the voltage gain of the amplifier is
above -3dB (maximum is 0dB) of its maximum output value.
 In the above figure, the -3dB of the AV(max) is shown as
37dB. The 37dB line intersects with the curve at just over 10
kHz frequencies. This frequency can be more accurately
calculated if the GB product of the amplifier is known.

It can be noted that the open-loop gain decreases as the

frequency of the input signal increases. Frequency is plotted in
logarithmic scale and the gain decreases linearly as frequency
increases in a logarithmic way.

The rate of fall of the gain in op amp is known to be 20 dB per

decade.

24. MOSFET

The MOSFET (Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor) transistor

is a semiconductor device that is widely used for switching purposes and for
the amplification of electronic signals in electronic devices. A MOSFET is
either a core or integrated circuit where it is designed and fabricated in a single
chip because the device is available in very small sizes. The introduction of
the MOSFET device has brought a change in the domain of switching in
electronics.
 MOSFETS ARE CURRENT CONTROLLED DEVICE AND HAS
THREE TERMINALS:

GATE

SOURCE

DRAIN

A Mosfet can function in two ways:

Depletion Mode

Enhancement Mode

i. https://youtu.be/p34w6ISouZY
b. MOSFET Construction

i. The p-type semiconductor forms the base of the MOSFET.

ii. The two types of the base are highly doped with an n-type impurity
which is marked as n+ in the diagram.
iii. From the heavily doped regions of the base, the terminals source and
drain originate.
 iv. The layer of the substrate is coated with a layer of silicon dioxide for
insulation.
v. A thin insulated metallic plate is kept on top of the silicon dioxide and
it acts as a capacitor.
vi. The gate terminal is brought out from the thin metallic plate.
vii. A DC circuit is then formed by connecting a voltage source between
these two n-type regions.
c. Classification of MOSFET
i. The classification of MOSFET based on the construction and the
material used is given below in the flowchart.

ii.
iii. MOSFETs are of two classes: Enhancement mode and depletion mode.
Each class is available as n-channel or p-channel.

iv. DEPLETION MODE

v. When there is no voltage across the gate terminal, the channel shows
maximum conductance. When the voltage across the gate terminal is
either positive or negative, then the channel conductivity decreases.

vi. ENHANCEMENT MODE

vii. When there is no voltage across the gate terminal, then the device does
not conduct. When there is the maximum voltage across the gate
terminal, then the device shows enhanced conductivity.
viii. The N-channel MOSFETs are abbreviated as NMOS and are
symbolically represented as shown in the figure below:
d. N and P Channel MOSFET
i. The N-channel MOSFETs are abbreviated as NMOS and are
symbolically represented as shown in the figure below:
 ii.
iii. The N-Channel MOSFET has an N- channel region located in between
the source and drain terminals. It is a four-terminal device having the
terminals as gate, drain, source, body. In this type of Field Effect
Transistor, the drain and source are heavily doped n+ region and the
substrate or body are of P-type.
iv. Similarly, the P-channel MOSFETs are abbreviated as PMOS and are
symbolically represented as follows:

v.
vi. The P- channel MOSFET has a P- Channel region located in between
the source and drain terminals. It is a four-terminal device having the
terminals as gate, drain, source, and body. The drain and source are
heavily doped p+ region and the body or substrate is of n-type. The
flow of current is in the direction of positively charged holes.
e. Operating Regions of MOSFET
i. A MOSFET is seen to exhibit three operating regions. Here, we will
discuss those regions.
 ii. CUT OFF REGION
iii. The cut-off region is a region in which there will be no conduction and
as a result, the MOSFET will be OFF. In this condition, MOSFET
behaves like an open switch.

iv. OHMIC REGION

v. The ohmic region is a region where the current (IDS)increases with an
increase in the value of VDS. When MOSFETs are made to operate in
this region, they are used as amplifiers.

vi. SATURATION REGION

vii. In the saturation region, the MOSFETs have their IDS constant in spite
of an increase in VDS and occurs once VDS exceeds the value of pinch-
off voltageVP. Under this condition, the device will act like a closed
switch through which a saturated value of IDS flows. As a result, this
operating region is chosen whenever MOSFETs are required to
perform switching operations.
f. MOSFET as Switch
i. MOSFETs are commonly used as switches. The circuit below shows
the configuration of MOSFET when it is used as a switch.

ii.
iii. In the circuit arrangement, an Enhancement-mode N-channel
MOSFET is used to switch a simple lamp “ON” and “OFF.” The input
fate voltage Vgs is adjusted to an appropriate positive voltage to switch
“ON” the device and the voltage level is set to a negative value or zero
to turn it “OFF.”
 iv. The switching characteristics for both N-channel and P-channel type
MOSFET are summarized in the table below:

v.
25. RF Modulation
a. Radio Modulation
i. A radio signal by itself is like a mail truck without letters. A radio
signal alone, without superimposed information, is called a carrier
wave. The general meaning of the verb “to modulate” is “to modify, to
regulate, to vary,”
ii. In short, modulation means to superimpose a heavy signal over a weak
signal . So, the the weak signal can transmit a long distance.
iii. There are three types of modulation
iv. Amplitude Modulation (AM)
v. Analog AM consists of multiplying a continuously varying sinusoidal
carrier by an offset version of a continuously varying information (aka
baseband) signal. By “offset version” I mean that the amplitude of the
baseband signal is always greater than or equal to zero.
vi. Thus, the amplitude modulation process is the process where the
carrier signal is superimposed to the original signal in order to
modulate the original signal for long data transmission

vii. FREQUENCY MODULATION

viii. Frequency modulation is a technique or a process of encoding
information on a particular signal (analogue or digital) by varying the
carrier wave frequency in accordance with the frequency of the
modulating signal.

ix. PHASE MODULATION

x. Phase modulation is another type of angle modulation in which the
phase of the carrier wave is changed according to the amplitude
(magnitude) of the message (modulating) signal.
xi. https://youtu.be/00ZbuhPruJw
b. Amplitude Modulation
i. To understand this better, Let’s assume that we have a 10 MHz carrier
and a 1 MHz baseband waveform:
 ii.

iii.
iv. If we multiply these two signals, we get the following (incorrect)
waveform:

v.
vi. https://youtu.be/fGf_ng7qljI
c. Frequency Modulation
 i. Much like amplitude frequency modulation also has a similar
approach where a carrier signal is modulated by the input signal.

ii.

iii.

iv.
v. If we observe the graph, we will notice that the frequency of a carrier
increases when the amplitude of the input signal is increased. Here, the
carrier frequency is maximum when the input signal is at its
highest. Meanwhile, the frequency of a carrier decreases if the
amplitude of the modulating signal goes down.
d. Phase Modulation
i. Phase modulation is another type of angle modulation in which the
phase of the carrier wave is changed according to the amplitude
(magnitude) of the message (modulating) signal.
ii. Let us proceed further to understand how a carrier signal gets
phase modulated.
iii.
iv. Here, it is clear from the above figure that when the amplitude of the
sinusoidal signal starts to increase and reaches the maximum value,
then the phase lead of the carrier signal gets increased.