Electrical and

Electronics
Measurements

Lecture by:
Dr Ravinder Singh
 1. Learn the units and standards of
fundamental circuits elements and emf.
2. Learn the various types of DC and AC
COURSE bridges.
OUTCOMES 3. Understand the working of potentiometers.
4. Acquire fair knowledge on construction and
(COs): working of various measuring circuit and
instruments.
5. Understand instrument transformers
 1. Electrical Measurements And Measuring
Instruments by Rajendra Prasad, Khanna
Publishers

2. Sawhney A.K, “A course in Electrical and

SUGGESTED electronic Measurement and Instrumentation”,
Dhanpat Rai & Sons, New Delhi.
READINGS:
3. Electrical Measurements and Measuring
TEXTBOOKS: Instruments, E.W Golding, F.C Widdis

4. Electronic Instrumentation – H.S. Kalsi, Mc

Graw Hill
 SI units
Definitions
Accuracy
Unit I Precision
Units & Resolution
Errors Sensitivity
Relative Error
Absolute Error
Types of Errors.
 Measurement
The measurement of a given quantity is essentially an act or the result of comparison between
the quantity (whose magnitude is unknown) and a predefined standard. Since two quantities are
compared, the result is expressed in numerical values. In fact, measurement is the process by
which one can convert physical parameters to meaningful numbers. The measuring process is
one in which the property of an object or system under consideration is compared to an
accepted standard unit, a standard defined for that particular property. The number of
times the unit standard fits into the quantity being measured is the numerical measure. The
numerical measure is meaningless unless followed by a unit used, since it (unit) identifies the
characteristic or property measured.
In order that the results of the measurement are meaningful, there are two basic requirements : -
• the standard used for Comparison purposes must be accurately defined and should be
commonly accepted, and
• the apparatus used and the method adopted must be provable.
SIGNIFICANCE OF MEASUREMENTS
New discoveries are not of any practical utility unless the results are backed by actual
measurements. The measurements, no doubt, confirm the validity of a hypothesis but also
add to its understanding. This results in an unending chain which leads to new discoveries
that require more, new and sophisticated measurement techniques. Hence modern Science
and Technology are associated with sophisticated methods of measurement.
There are two major functions of all branches of engineering:
• Design of equipment and processes, and
• Proper operation and maintenance of equipment and processes.
Both these functions require measurements. This is because proper and economical design,
operation and maintenance require a feedback of information. Measurements play a
significant role in achieving goals and objectives of Engineering because of the feedback
information supplied by them.
METHODS OF
MEASUREMENTS

The methods of
measurements may be
broadly classified into two
categories :
• Direct Methods
• Indirect Methods.
 Direct Methods

In these methods, the unknown quantity (also called the measurand) is directly compared
against standard. The result is expressed as a numerical number and a unit. The standard, in
fact, is a physical embodiment of a unit.
Direct methods are quite common for the measurement of physical quantities like length, mass
and time. Suppose we want to measure the length of a bar. The unit of length is meter. A bar is
so many times long because that many units on our standard have the same length as the bar. A
human being can make direct length comparisons with a preciseness of about These elements
are : 0.25 mm. Therefore, on account of human factors it is not possible to make very accurate
measurements. The direct method for measurement of length can be utilized with a good degree
of accuracy but when it comes to measurement of mass, the problem becomes much more
intricate. It is just not possible for human beings to distinguish between wide margins of mass
Indirect Methods

• Measurement by direct methods are not always

possible, feasible and practicable. These
methods in most of the cases, are inaccurate
because they involve human factors. They are
also less sensitive. Hence direct methods are
not preferred and are rarely used.
• In engineering applications Measurement
Systems are used which require need of
indirect methods for measurement purposes
INSTRUMENTS AND MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS

• Measurements involve the use of instruments as a physical means of

determining quantities or variables.
• The instrument serves as an extension of human faculties and enables the
man to determine the value of unknown quantity or variable which his
unaided human faculties cannot measure, a measuring instrument exists to
provide information about the physical value of some variables being
measured.
• In simple cases, an instrument consists of a single unit which gives an
output reading or signal according to the unknown variable (measurand)
applied to it.
MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS

• In more complex measurement situations, however, a measuring instrument

may consist of several separate elements. These elements may consist of
transducing elements which convert the measurand to an analogous form.
The analogous signal is then processed by some intermediate means and
then fed to the end devices to present the results of the measurement for the
purposes of display and or control.’
• The above-mentioned components might be contained within one or more
boxes, and the boxes holding individual measurement elements might bp
either close together or physically separate. Because of this modular nature
of the elements within it,/it is common to refer the measuring instrument as
a measurement system
MECHANICAL, ELECTRICAL AND
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTS

• The first instruments used by mankind were

mechanical in nature and the principles on which
these instruments worked are even in vogue
today
• The earliest scientific instruments used the same
three essential elements as our modem
instruments do.
• a detector,
• an intermediate transfer device, and
• an indicator, recorder or a storage device.
The history of development of instruments
encompasses three phases of instruments,
viz. :

• mechanical instruments,
• electrical instruments, and
• electronic instruments.
Mechanical Instruments

These instruments are very reliable for static and stable conditions. But they
suffer from a very major disadvantage which is because, they are unable to
respond rapidly to measurements of dynamic and transient conditions. This is
due to the fact that these instruments have moving parts that are rigid, heavy
and bulky and consequently have a large mass. Mass presents inertia problems
and hence these instruments cannot faithfully follow the rapid changes which
are involved in dynamic measurements. Thus, it would be virtually impossible
to measure a 50 Hz voltage by using a mechanical instrument, but it is
relatively easy to measure a slowly varying pressure using these instruments.
Another disadvantage of mechanical instruments is that most of them are a
potential source of noise and cause noise pollution.
Electrical Instruments

• Electrical methods of indicating the output of detectors are more rapid than
mechanical methods. It is unfortunate that an electrical system normally
depends upon a mechanical meter movement as indicating device.
• This mechanical movement has some inertia and therefore these
instruments have a limited time (and hence, frequency) response. For
example, some electrical recorders can give full scale response in 0.2s , the
majority of industrial recorder have responses of 0.5 to 24 s.
• Some galvanometers can follow 50 Hz variations, but even these are too
slow for present day requirements of fast measurement
Electronic Instruments

• These days most of the scientific and industrial measurements - requite very fast
responses.
• The mechanical and electrical instruments and systems cannot cope up with these
requirements.
• The necessity to step up response time and the detection of dynamic changes in
certain parameters, which Require the monitoring time of the order of ms.
• These instruments require use of semi-conductor devices. Since in electronic
devices, the only movement involved is that of electrons, the response time is
extremely small on account of very small inertia of electrons. For example, a
Cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) is capable of following dynamic and transient
changes of the order of a few ns.
• Electronic instruments make it possible to build analog and digital computers without
which the modern developments in science and technology are virtually impossible.
Computers require a very fast time response, and it is only possible with use of electronic
instruments.
• Summarizing, it may be stated that in general electronic instruments have
• a higher sensitivity,
• a faster response,
• a greater flexibility,
• lower weight,
• lower power consumption and
• a higher degree of reliability than their mechanical or purely electrical counterparts
CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENTS

• There are many ways in which instruments can be

classified. Broadly, instruments are classified into
two categories :
• Absolute Instruments, and
• Secondary Instruments.
• Absolute instruments. These
instruments give the magnitude of the
quantity under measurement in terms
of physical constants of the
instrument. The examples of this class
of instruments are Tangent
Galvanometer and Rayleigh's Current
Balance.
• Working with absolute instruments for
routine work is time consuming since
every time a measurement is made, it
takes a lot of time to compute the
magnitude of the quantity under
measurement.
• Therefore, secondary instruments are
most commonly used. Absolute
instruments are seldom used except in
standards institutions while secondary
instruments find usage almost in
every' sphere of measurement. A
voltmeter, a glass thermometer and a
pressure gauge are typical examples of
secondary' instruments.
• Secondary instruments. These instruments are so constructed that the
quantity being measured can only be measured by observing the
output indicated by the instrument. These instruments are calibrated by
comparison with an absolute instrument or another secondary
instrument which has already been calibrated against an absolute
instrument.
DEFLECTION AND NULL TYPE INSTRUMENTS
Instruments can be classified into two major categories
• deflection
• null types
Depending upon the way they present the result of measurements
Deflection type
• The instruments of this type, the deflection of the instrument
provides a basis for determining the quantity under
measurement. The measured quantity produces some
physical effect with deflects or produces a mechanical
displacement of the moving system of the instrument. An
opposing effect is built in the instrument which tries to
oppose the deflection or the mechanical displacement of the
moving system. The opposing effect is closely related to the
deflection or mechanical displacement which can be directly
observed. The opposing effect is so designed that its
magnitude increases with the increase of deflection or
mechanical displacement of the moving system caused by
the quantity under measurement. The balance is achieved
when opposing effect equals to cause producing the
deflection or mechanical movement. The value of the
measured quantity can then be inferred from the deflection or
mechanical displacement at the point of balance.
• For example, in a permanent magnet moving coil (PMMC) ammeter, the
deflection of the moving coil is proportional to the current I, the quantity
under measurement. The torque Td acting on the moving coil is proportional
to current I or Td = GI where G is a constant, which is dependent upon flux
density, number of turns and area of moving coil. The opposing effect is
produced by a spring whose torque Tc is proportional to deflection, ϴ or T =
K ϴ where K is the spring constant whose value depends upon the material
and the dimensions of the spring. Under conditions of balance, Tc =Td or
deflection ϴ =(G/ K)I or current I =(K/ G) ϴ.
• The value of measured quantity, current I, in this case depends upon the
value of deflection 0, and the constants of the meter, G and K. Thus, in order
to make the instrument direct reading i.e., it reads the value of current I
directly in terms of the deflection Q, it .will have to be calibrated to take into
consideration the values of G and K. Thus, we conclude, in a deflection type
instrument, the value of measured quantity depends upon the calibration of
the instrument.
 Null Type
• In a null type of instrument, a zero or null indication leads to determination of the
magnitude of measured quantity. The null condition is dependent upon some
other known conditions
• In contrast to deflection type of instruments, a null type instrument attempts to
maintain the deflection at zero by suitable application of an effect opposing that
generated by the measured quantity. Therefore, for the operation of a null type of
instrument, the following are required :
1. the effect produced by the measured quantity;
2. the opposing effect, whose value is accurately known. This is necessary in order to
determine the numerical value of the measured quantity accurately ;
3. a detector, which detects the null conditions i.e., a device which indicates zero deflection
(balance conditions) when the effect produced by the measured quantity is equal to the
effect produced by the opposing quantity. The detector should be capable of displaying
unbalance i.e., a condition when the effect produced by the measured quantity is not
equal to the opposing effect. Also, the detector should have means (automatic or manual)
for restoring balance.
• Figure 1.2 shows the elementary form of a d.c potentiometer.
It is a null type of instrument wherein an unknown emf, EX ,
is measured. The slide wire of the potentiometer has been
calibrated in terms of emf with the help of a standard emf
source. The null detector is a current galvanometer whose
deflection is proportional to the unbalance emf i.e., the
difference between the emf Eab across portion a b of slide
wire and the unknown emf Ex . As soon as the two are equal,
there is no current through the galvanometer and therefore it
shows zero deflection thereby indicating null conditions.
Therefore, the unknown emf Ex is equal to Eab , which is
directly indicated by the calibrated scale placed alongside the
slide wire.
 Comparison of Deflection and Null
Type Instruments
Comparing the advantages and disadvantages
• The accuracy of null type of instruments is higher than that of deflection type. This is because the opposing
effect is calibrated with the help of standards which have high degree of accuracy. On the other hand, accuracy
of deflection type of instruments is dependent upon their calibration which depends upon the instrument
constants which are normally not known to a high degree of accuracy.
• In the null type of instruments, the measured quantity is balanced out. This means the detector has to cover a
small range around the balance (null) point and therefore can be made highly sensitive. Also the detector need
not be calibrated since it has only to detect the presence and direction of unbalance and not the magnitude of
unbalance. On the other hand, a deflection type of instrument must be larger in size, more rugged, and thus less
sensitive if it is to measure large magnitude of unknown quantity.
• Null type of instruments require many manipulations before null conditions are obtained and hence are
apparently not suitable for dynamic measurements wherein the measured quantity changes .with time. On the
other hand, deflection type of instruments can follow the variations of the measured quantity more rapidly and
hence are more suitable for dynamic measurements on account of their faster response. However, there are
commercially automatic control instruments (such as self balancing potentiometers) that maintain a continuous
null under rapidly changing conditions and thereby eliminate the need for manipulative operations.
Summarizing

• Null type of instruments are more accurate than deflection type instruments.
• Null type instruments can be highly sensitive as compared with deflection type
instruments.
• Deflection type of instruments are more suited for measurements under dynamic
conditions than null type of instruments whose intrinsic response is slower.
ANALOG & DIGITAL MODES OF OPERATION
Secondary instruments work in two modes :
1. Analog mode
2. Digital mode.

• Signals that vary in a continuous fashion and take on an infinite number of values
in any given range are called analog signals. The devices which produce these
signals are called analog devices.
• In contrast, the signals which vary in discrete steps and thus take up only finite
different values in a given range are called digital signals. The devices that
• produce such signals are called digital devices.
 FUNCTIONS OF INSTRUMENTS AND
MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS
There is another way in which instruments or measurement systems may be classified. This
classification is based upon the functions they perform. The three main functions are
explained below :
• Indicating function. Instruments and systems use different kinds of methods for supplying
information concerning the variable quantity under measurement. Most of the time this
information is obtained as a deflection of a pointer of a measuring instrument. In this way,
the instrument performs a function which is commonly known as indicating function. For
example, the deflection pf pointer of a speedometer indicates the speed of the automobile at
that moment. A pressure gauge is used for indicating pressure.
• Recording function. In many cases the instrument makes a written record, usually on
paper, of the value of the quantity under measurement against time or against some other
variable. Thus, the instrument performs a recording function. For example, a
potentiometric type of recorder used for monitoring temperature records the instantaneous
values of temperatures on a strip chart recorder.
• Controlling function. This is one of the most important functions especially in the
field of industrial control processes. In this case, the information is used by the
instrument or the system to control the original measured quantity.
APPLICATIONS OF MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS
The way the instruments and measurement systems are used for different
applications are as under :
1. Monitoring of processes and operations
2. Control of processes and operations
3. Experimental Engineering analysis
Monitoring of processes
and operations.

There are certain applications of measuring

instruments that have essentially a monitoring
function. They simply indicate the value or condition
of parameter under study and their readings do not
serve any control / functions. For example, an
ammeter or a voltmeter indicates the value of current
or voltage being monitored (measured) at a particular
instant. , Similarly, water and electric energy meters
installed in homes keep track of commodity used so
that later on its cost may be computed to be realized
from the user.
• Control of processes and operations.
A very useful application of instruments is in automatic
control systems. There has been a very strong association
between measurement and control.
Example:
In order that process variables like temperature, pressure,
humidity, etc. may be controlled, the prerequisite is that they
can be measured at the desired location in the individual
plants. Same is true of servo-systems, i.e., systems
connected with measurement of position, velocity and
acceleration.
• A block diagram of a simple control system is shown in Fig. 1.4.
Let us assume that the output variable to be controlled is non-
electrical and the control action is through electrical means. The
input is reference which corresponds to the desired value of the
output. The input is compared with the output with the help of a
comparator. The output is a nonelectrical quantity and is
converted into a corresponding electrical form by a transducer
connected in the feedback loop. In case the input and output
differ, there is a resultant error signal. This error signal is
amplified and then fed to an actuator, which produces power to
drive the controlled circuitry
• The corrective action goes on till the output is at the same level
as the input which corresponds to the desired output. At this
stage, there is no error signal and hence there is no input to the
actuator and the control action stops. .
• Examples of this type of application are numerous. A common
one is the typical refrigeration system which employs a
thermostatic control. A temperature measuring device (often a
bimetallic element) senses the room temperature, thus providing
the information necessary for proper functioning of the control
system.
Experimental engineering analysis.
For solution of engineering problems, theoretical and experimental methods are
available. Many applications require application of both the methods. The relative
affability of the method depends upon the nature of the problem. Experimental
engineering analysis has many uses, and some are listed below :
• Testing the validity of theoretical predictions.
• Formulations of generalized empirical relationships in cases where no proper
theoretical backing exists.
• Determination of system parameters, variables and performance indices.
• For development in important spheres of study where there is ample scope of
study.
• Solutions of mathematical relationships with the help of analogies.
TYPES 0F INSTRUMENTATION systems
The advent of microprocessors has completely revolutionized the field of
instrumentation and control. Microprocessor based systems are increasingly being
used for dedicated applications in process instrumentation. The introduction of
microprocessors results a new classification of instrumentation systems and these
are :
• Intelligent Instrumentation systems, and
• Dumb Instrumentation systems.
• Intelligent instrumentation. This term has to come mean the use of an
instrumentation system to evaluate a physical variable employing a digital
computer to perform all or nearly all signal and information processing. In
this system after a measurement has been made of the variable, further
processing whether in digital or analog form is carried out to refine the data,
for the purpose of presentation to an observer or to other computers.

• Dumb instrumentation. In this system once the measurement is made, the

data must be processed by the observer.
INFORMATION AND SIGNAL
PROCESSING
The two terms "Information" and "Signals" are usually considered as
synonymous. However, they have precisely different definitions.
• 1.13
• Information. It is the data or details relating to an object or event.
• Signals. They carry the information about magnitude or time relating
to an object or event i.e., a physical quantity.
 ELEMENTS OF A GENERALIZED
MEASUREMENT SYSTEM
• It is important to have a systematic organization and analysis of measurement systems. An instrument may be
defined as a device or a system which is designed to maintain a functional relationship between prescribed
properties of physical variables and must include ways and means of communication to a human observer. The
functional relationship remains valid only as long as the static calibration of system remain constant.
• On the other hand, the performance of a measurement system can be described in terms of static and dynamic
characteristics

Most of the measurement systems contain three main functional elements. They are :
• Primary sensing element,
• Variable conversion element, and
• Data presentation element.
 Primary Sensing Element
The quantity under measurement makes its first contact with the primary sensing
element of a measurement system. In other words, the measurand is first detected by
primary sensor. This act is then immediately followed by the conversion of
measurand into an analogous electrical signal. This is done by a transducer. A
transducer in general, is defined as a device which converts energy from one form to
another. But in Electrical measurement systems, this definition is limited in scope. A
transducer is defined as a device which converts a physical quantity into an
electrical quantity. The physical quantity to be measured, in the first place is sensed
and detected by an element which gives the output in a different analogous form.
This output is then converted into an electrical signal by a transducer. This is true of
most of the cases but is not true for all. In many cases the physical quantity is
directly converted into an electrical quantity by a transducer. The first stage of a
measurement system is known as a detector transducer Stage
Variable Conversion Element

• The output of the primary sensing element may be electrical signal of any form. It
may be a voltage, a frequency or some other electrical parameter. Sometimes this
output is not suited to the system. For the instrument to perform the desired
function, it may be necessary to convert this output to some other suitable form
while preserving the information content of the original signal. We may cite an
example. Suppose output is.in analog form and the next stage of the system
accepts input signals only in digital form and therefore, an A/D converter will
have to be used for converting signals from analog to digital form for them to be
acceptable for the next stage of the system.
• Many instruments do not need any variable conversion element, while others need
more than one variable conversion element.
Variable Manipulation Element

The function of this element is to manipulate the signal presented to it preserving the
original nature of the signal. Manipulation here means only a change in numerical
value of the signal. For example, an electronic amplifier accepts a small voltage
signal as input and produces an output signal which is also voltage but of greater
magnitude. Thus voltage amplifier acts as a variable manipulation element. It is not
necessary that a variable manipulation element should follow the variable
conversion element as shown in Fig. 1.5. It may precede the variable conversion
element in many cases. In case, the voltage is too high, attenuators are used which
lower the voltage or power for the subsequent stages of the system. Further the
impedance of the attenuator to be matched to the input and output circuits and
further for multi ratio attenuator these impedance ratios are constant irrespective of
the ratio setting.
As discussed earlier, the output of transducer contains information needed for
further processing by the system and the output signal is usually a voltage or some
other form of electrical signal. The two most important properties of voltage are its
magnitude and frequency though polarity may be a consideration in some cases.
Many transducers develop low voltages of the order of mV and some even pV. A
fundamental problem is to prevent this signal being contaminated by unwanted
signals like noise due to an extraneous source which may interfere with the original
output signal. Another problem is that a weak signal may be distorted by processing
equipment. The signal after being sensed cannot be directly transmitted to the next
stage without removing the interfering sources, as otherwise highly distorted results
may be obtained which are far from true. Many a times it becomes necessary to
perform certain operations on the signal before it is transmitted further. These
processes may be linear like amplification, attenuation, integration, differentiation,
addition and subtraction.
• Some nonlinear processes like modulation, detection, sampling, filtering,
chopping and clipping etc. are also performed on the signal to bring it to the
desired form to be accepted by the next stage of measurement system. This
process of conversion is called Signal Conditioning. The term signal conditioning
includes many other functions in addition to variable conversion and variable
manipulation. In fact, the element that follows the primary sensing element in any
instrument or measurement system is called Signal Conditioning Element.
• When the elements of an instrument are actually physically separated, it becomes
necessary to transmit data from one to another. The element that performs this
function is called a Data Transmission Element. For example, space-crafts are
physically separated from the earth where the control stations guiding their
movements are located. Therefore, control signals are sent from these stations to
space-crafts by a complicated telemetry systems using radio signals.
• The signal conditioning and transmission stage is commonly known as
Intermediate Stage
Data Presentation Element
The information about the quantity under measurement has to be conveyed to the
personnel handling the instrument or the system for monitoring, control, or analysis
purposes. The information conveyed must be in a form intelligible to the personnel
or to the intelligent instrumentation system. This function is done by data
presentation element. In case data is to be monitored, visual display devices are
needed. These devices may be analog or digital indicating instruments like
ammeters, voltmeters etc. In case the data is to be recorded, recorders like magnetic
tapes, high speed camera and T.V. equipment, storage type C.R.T., printers, analog
and digital computers or microprocessors may be used. For control and analysis
purpose microprocessors or computers may be used.
The final stage in a measurement system is known
as terminating stage. As an example of a
measurement system, consider the simple
bourdon tube pressure gauge as shown in Fig. 1.6.
This gauge offers a good example of a
measurement system. In this case the bourdon
tube acts as the primary sensing element and a
variable conversion element. It senses the input
quantity (pressure in this case). On account of the
pressure the closed end of the bourdon tube is
displaced. Thus the pressure is converted into a
small displacement. The closed end of the
bourdon tube is connected through mechanical
linkage to a gearing arrangement. The gearing
arrangement amplifies the small displacement and
makes the pointer to rotate through a large angle.
The mechanical linkage thus acts as a data
transmission element while the gearing
arrangement acts as a data manipulation element.
• The final data presentation stage consists of the pointer and dial arrangement, which when calibrated
with known pressure inputs, gives an indication of the pressure signal applied to the bourdon tube. The
schematic diagram of. this measurement system is given in Fig. 1.7.
• When a control device is used for the final measurement stage, it is necessary to apply some feedback
to the input signal to accomplish the control
• objectives. The control stage compares the signal representing the measured variable with a reference
signal of the same form. This reference signal has a value the measured signal should have and is
presented to a controller. If the measured signal agrees with the reference value, the controller does
nothing. However, if there is a difference between the measured value and the reference value, an error
signal is generated. Thus the controller sends a signal to a device which acts to alter the value of the
measured signal. Suppose the measured variable is flow of a liquid, then the control device is a
motorized valve placed in the flow system. In case the measured flow rate is too low than the preset
flow rate, then the controller would cause the valve to open, thereby increasing the flow rate. If on the
other hand, the flow rate were too high, the valves are closed. The operation of closing or opening of
valve will cease when the output flow rate is equal to preset value of flow rate
INPUT-OUTPUT CONFIGURATIONS OF MEASURING
INSTRUMENTS AND MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS

A generalized configuration in instruments

and measurement systems which brings
out a significant input-output relationship
present in them is shown in Fig. 1.8. Input
quantities are classified into three
categories :
• desired inputs
• interfering inputs
• modifying inputs.
Desired Inputs

• Using Interactive board

Interfering Inputs
• Interfering inputs represent quantities to which an instrument or a measurement
system becomes unintentionally sensitive. The instruments or measurement
systems are not desired to respond to interfering inputs but they give an output due
to interfering inputs on account of their principle of working, design and many
other factors like the environments in which they are placed.
Modifying Inputs
• Modifying inputs are defined as inputs which cause a change in input-output relationships for either
desired inputs or interfering inputs or for both.

• The block diagram shown in Fig. 1.8 depicts the concepts described above, the circle with a cross
in it represents the summing point. The two plus signs shown indicate that the output of the
summing point is the sum of the instantaneous values of its two inputs. An instrument or a
measurement system may be subjected to desired, interfering and modifying inputs and therefore
the output is the sum of instantaneous output components resulting from these inputs. An
instrument or a measurement system may have several inputs of each of these three types and thus
have several outputs. Hence, it may be necessary to draw more complex block diagrams than that
shown in Fig. 1.8.
Characteristics
of Instruments The treatment of instrument and measurement
system characteristics can be divided into two
and distinct categories viz. :
Measurement • Static characteristics, and
Systems • Dynamic characteristics
Comparison Some applications involve the However, many measurements
measurement of quantities that are concerned with rapidly
are either constant or vary slowly varying quantities and,
with time. Under these therefore, for such cases we
circumstances it is possible to must examine the dynamic
define a set of criteria that gives relations which exist between
a meaningful description of the output and the input. This
quality of measurement without is normally done with the help
interfering with dynamic of differential equations.
descriptions that involve the use Performance criteria based
of differential equations. These upon dynamic relations
criteria are called Static constitute the Dynamic
Characteristics. Characteristics.
MEASUREMENT OF ERRORS
Relative error
Types of Errors
Gross Error

The errors occur because of mistakes in observed readings or using

instruments and in recording and calculating measurement results. These
errors usually occur because of human mistakes, and these may be of any
magnitude and cannot be subjected to mathematical treatment. One
common gross error is frequently committed during improper use of the
measuring instrument
For another example, a multirange instrument has a different scale for each range. During
measurements, the operator may use a scale which does not correspond to the setting of the
range selector of the instrument. Gross error may also be there because of improper setting of
zero before the measurement and this will affect all the readings taken during measurements.
The gross error cannot be treated mathematically, so great care should be taken during
measurement to avoid this error. Pictorial illustration of different types of gross error is shown
in Figure 1.10.
In general, to avoid gross error, at least two, three or more readings of the measurand quantity should be taken by different
observers. Then if the readings differ by an unacceptably large amount, the situation can be investigated, and the more erroneous
readings eliminated.
Systematic Error
Random Errors
LOADING EFFECTS
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
OPERATING
TORQUES
Controlling Torque/Force
Damping Torque/Force
Measurement of Resistance
Unit 2
Contents
Measurement of Resistance
MEASUREMENT OF MEDIUM RESISTANCES
Wheatstone Bridge for Measuring Resistance
Errors in a Wheatstone Bridge
Kelvin’s Double-Bridge Method for Measuring Low
Resistance
INTRODUCTION to AC Bridges
GENERAL BALANCE EQUATION FOR FOUR-ARM BRIDGE
MEASUREMENT OF SELF-INDUCTANCE
Hay’s Bridge
Anderson’s Bridge
Schering Bridge
Wien’s Bridge
Ohmmeter Method for Measuring
Resistance
Series-type Ohmmeter
Shape of Scale in Series Ohmmeters
Multi-range Series Ohmmeter
Voltmeter–Ammeter Method for Measuring
Resistance
Difficulties in Measurement of High Resistance
 Voltmeter–Ammeter Method for Measuring Low
Resistance

Potentiometer Method for Measuring Low Resistance for

student
Direct Deflection Method for High Resistance Measurement
Loss of Charge Method for High Resistance Measurement

Megohmmeter, or Meggar, for High Resistance

measurement
INTRODUCTION: Potentiometer
 Important characteristics of
potentiometer are the following:
A BASIC dc POTENTIOMETER
CROMPTON’S dc POTENTIOMETER
ohm
APPLICATIONS OF dc POTENTIOMETERS
Measurement of Current by Potentiometer
Measurement of Power by Potentiometer
Measurement of High Voltage by
Potentiometer
Measurement of Resistance by Potentiometer
Calibration of Voltmeter by Potentiometer
Calibration of Wattmeter by Potentiometer
Phantom Loading
 CLASSIFICATION OF AC POTENTIOMETERS
There are two general types of ac potentiometers:
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF ac
• Figure 2.1 Damping torque curve
Unit:5
INTRODUCTION
Nowadays everyone is familiar with analog signals. They are used for the
movement of an electromagnetic meter to measure voltage, current, resistance,
power, etc. Although the bridges and multipliers use electrical components for
these measurements, the instruments described use no amplifiers to increase the
sensitivity of the measurements
As an example, 50 μA through a 200 Ω meter represents ½ microwatt. This
represents the power required for a meter for full-scale deflection and does not
represent the power dissipated in the series resistor, and thus the total power
required by the example meter would be greater than ½ μW and would depend on
the voltage range. This does not sound like much power, but many electronics
circuits cannot tolerate this much power being drained from them. So the
electronics instruments are required for measuring very small current and voltage.
Electronic instruments, mainly electronic voltmeters, used either transistors or
vacuum tubes. The later one is called the Vacuum Tube Voltmeter (VTVM)
and the former one is called the Transistorised Voltmeter (TVM). In almost
every field of electronics, VTVMs have been replaced by TVMs because of
their numerous advantages. In TVM, due to the absence of a heating element,
warm-up time is not required. It is portable due to the light weight of the
transistor. VTVMs cannot measure current due to the very high resistance
whereas due to the low resistance of the TVM, it can measure the current
directly from the circuit. VTVMs also cannot measure high-frequency
signals. The only disadvantage of TVM over VTVM is that the TVM has very
low input impedance. But using FET (Field Effect Transistor) in the input
stage of the voltmeter overcomes this low-impedance problem, because an
FET offers input impedance almost equal to a vacuum tube.
MERITS AND DEMERITS OF DIGITAL INSTRUMENTS
OVER ANALOG ONES
TRUE rms VOLTMETER
DIGITAL VOLTMETERS (DVMS)
STORAGE OSCILLOSCOPE
MEASUREMENT OF FREQUENCY
FUNCTION GENERATORS
The Seven Segment Display