Math reviewer for midterm

Basic Statistical Concepts

Statistics - collection and interpretation of data, measure and analyze data/variability
Types of Statistics :
Descriptive statistics - totality of method and analysis of specific group
Inferential/inductive statistics - sample analysis to general population
Population - all members of the group you want to draw conclusion, interested
Parameter - numerical index of population
Sample - portion of population
Statistic - numerical index of sample
Sources of data:
Primary data - data from original sources
Secondary data -previously recorded data3
Variable - characteristic of interest about an object under investigation that take different
outcomes
Two major characteristics of objects/people:
Constant - characteristic of object that does not vary (e.g. boiling point of water 100c)
Variable - characteristics that can take of different values in quantity or quality (e.g. hair color)
Type of data/variable:
Qualitative/categorical variable -variable analyze as distinct categories, (gender,eye color)
Quantitative/numerical variable - variable analyze as numerical and can be ordered/rank
(height)
Classification of Variable:
Experimental classification - a researcher may classify variable according to function they serve
in experiment
 Independent/explanatory variable -variables controlled by experimenter/researchers and
expected to have effect on behavior
 Dependent/outcome variable - some measure of behavior of subject influenced by
independent variable.
Mathematical classification - variables classified in terms of mathematical value they may take
 Continuous variable - measurable data, can assume infinite numbers (temperature)
 Discrete variable - countable data, finite numbers (number of calls)

Level of datameasurement:
Nominal level of measurement - purely classification and identification (number of
students,platenom )
 Mutually exclusive - individual or object is included in 1 category only
 Exhaustive - each individual must appear in a category.
Ordinal level of measurement - use in ranking,strong but weak because no meaningful
numerical can be made (hotel rates)
Interval level of measurement - classify order and differentiate between classes in terms of
degree, discrete or continuous (temperature), zero does not mean an absence of character
Ratio level of measurement - same as interval but zero has true value , discrete or variable
(weight)

Sampling - process of selecting individuals

Types of sampling : random/probability sampling and Non-random/non-probability sampling
Random/probability sampling - everyone has equal chance to be selected
 Simple random sampling - selecting sample size via random number/lottery
 Systematic sampling -selecting kth element until desired number is attained
 Stratified sampling - subdividing population into subgroups/strata and drawing members
from it
 Cluster sampling - selecting clusters from a population which is very large
Non-random/non-probability sampling - sample is selected deliberately, little to zero attention
to randomization
 Convenience sampling - selecting individuals who are available for the study
 Purposive sampling - judgment by researcher’s belief based on prior info
 Quota sampling - collecting information from an assigned numbers
 Snowball sampling -one or more member of population is located and use to lead to other
members
 Voluntary sampling - self-select because they have strong interest
 Judgement sampling - based on personal judgement of researcher based on an opinion of
expert
Methods of collecting data:
Direct/interview method - face-to-face encounter but time consuming and expensive
Indirect/questionnaire method - mail or hand-carried questionnaire
Registration method - gathering info governed by law (birth cert)
Observation method - based on behavior but limitation is observation is made only at time of
event
Experiment method - the cause and effect used by scientific researchers

Methods of presenting data:

Textual method - by narrative and paragraph form
Tabular method - data in table arranged in rows and columns
Graphical method - visual or pictorial form

Measure of Central tendency (organization and interpretation)

Measures of central tendency - yields information about the center/majority of the group.
(organization and interpretation)
1. Arithmetic mean/ Mean - the average, sum of all values in data set divided by the number of
values that are summed denoted by x bar.
 Weighted mean - set of values computed by multiplying each value with its corresponding
weight and taking the sum and divide it by total number of weight.
2. Median - the middlemost value , affected by number of items in data set not by value (upper
halves or lower halves)
3. Mode - most frequently occurring value, its okay if there is no mode
1 mode - unimodal
2 mode - bimodal
3 mode - trimodal
4 mode - multimodal
All measure of tendency is average but mean is strongest. Real life example of mode is displaying
shoes with common size

Measures of dispersion or Variability

Measure of dispersion or Variability - describe how spread the individual values are from the
average
1. Range - simplest but most unreliable (approximate) method . the difference between highest
and lowest value in distribution. Easily affected by extreme values
2. Variance - the average of the squared deviation of the values about the arithmetic mean,
develop as alternative to overcome zero-sum property
3. Standard deviation - square root of the variance, most reliable measure of variability

Measures of relative position

Measures of relative position - used to locate the relative position of value in the data set
1. Percentiles - measures of relative position that divide the distribution into 100 parts. Use to
compare individual test score with same norm. NOt same as percentage
2. Deciles -a quantitative method of splitting up a set of ranked data into 10 equally large
subsections
3. Quartiles - positional measure that divide the distribution into four parts (1st, 2nd, 3rd quartile)
Standard score - number of standard deviation that a value is above or below the mean.