1

Carbon Sequestration Potential of Agroforestry in Temperate Region

By
Mbachu Ikechukwu (Mat No----2732520)
Nwachukwu Nnayelugo (Mat No--- 2723826)

Table of Contents
Abstract......................................................................................................................................1
Introduction................................................................................................................................2
Material and methods.................................................................................................................3
Discussion..................................................................................................................................8
Case studies................................................................................................................................9
Conclusion................................................................................................................................19
References................................................................................................................................22

Abstract
In the past few decades, the problem how to combat climate change has assumed greater
significance. Agroforestry practices has been found to be one of the best means to sequester
carbon which otherwise would have be emitted into the atmosphere thereby aggravating the
problem of climate change.
Carbon storage capacity varies from one region to another. The temperate region is known to
have great potential to store carbon and thus reduce the level of carbon in the atmosphere.
This paper seeks to examine the potential of the forest of temperate region to sequester
carbon. This will be done with the aid of the case studies of the forest of British Columbia in
Canada and the forest of Ireland.
Investigations reveal that these two regions has enormous capacity to sequester carbon,
however the full potential has not being realised. Thus more research needs to be carried out
on the carbon sequestration capacity of these forests.

Keywords: carbon sequestration, agroforestry, temperate region, aforestation, reforestation

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Introduction
Carbon sequestration can be defined as the capture and secure storage of carbon that would
otherwise be emitted to or remain in the atmosphere. The idea is to keep carbon emissions
produced by human activities from reaching the atmosphere by capturing and diverting them
to secure storage and to remove carbon from the atmosphere by various means and to store it.
(FAO, 2000)
In general, carbon sequestration in ecosystems occurs when carbon (C) entering the system
through gross primary production (photosynthesis) is greater than the C leaving the system
through plant and heterotrophic respiration, lateral transfers, leaching and harvest.
The planting and preservation of forests has long been acknowledged to be an effective and
environmentally friendly (indeed, enhancing) means for slowing CO2-induced global
warming.
This prescription for moderating potential climate change is based on two well-established
and very straightforward facts: (1) the carbon trees use to construct their tissues comes from
the air, and (2) its extraction from the atmosphere slows the rate of rise of the air’s CO2
content. (Weiske, 2007)
Estimates show that there is approximately 10 23 grams of carbon on earth. The majority of
this carbon is held within sedimentary rocks. There is about 40×10 18 grams of Carbon in the
active pools near the Earth's surface. There are 750 Gt of Carbon in the atmosphere, the
majority of which is in the form of carbon dioxide (CO2). (Butcher, et.al, 2007)
A slightly smaller amount (560t) is contained in the living biomass of the terrestrial
biosphere. The soils of the earth are estimated to contain between 1,400 and 1,700 Gt of
Carbon. The C in terrestrial ecosystems is in a reduced organic form. Organic C (representing
40-50% of organic material) exists in many different forms, and has turn-over times of less
than a year to over 1,000 years (Butcher, et.al, 2007). Most terrestrial C is stored in the
vegetation and soils of forests. 99.9% of the C present in the world's biota is represented by
vegetation; animals are a negligible C reservoir (Houghton and Skole, 1990).
Objectives
This study focuses on examining the potentials of agroforestry as a means of carbon
sequestration in the temperate region, using Carbon Sequestration in British Columbia’s
Forests and the forest of Ireland as case studies.
Material and methods
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The data used in this paper will come from mainly secondary sources. These data will be
derived from the works of other scholars, reviews, articles and from the internet.
Due to the fact that temperate forest covers an enormous land space, it will cumbersome to
study or analyse the whole region. It is therefore essential to use case studies for simplicity
sake’s. In this case, the forest of British Columbia and the forest of Ireland will be used as
case studies.
Background
Agroforestry is a promising land use practice to maintain or increase agricultural productivity
while preserving or improving fertility. Broadly defined, agroforestry is a land use system
that involves deliberate retention, introduction, or mixture of trees or other woody perennials
in crop/animal production fields to benefit from the resultant ecological and economic
interactions (Schroeder, 1993)
Examples of agroforestry systems include alley cropping, multilayer tree gardens,
interplanting of trees on crop land, live hedges, and shelterbelts. A typical agroforestry
system allows synergistic interactions between woody and non-woody components to
increase, sustain, and diversify total land output
Important interactions are improved nutrient cycling and retention, moderation of
microclimate, and diversification of product outputs.
From the perspective of climate change and the global carbon cycle, agroforestry is attractive
for at least 2 reasons. The first is that the tree component fixes and stores carbon from the
atmosphere. Because trees are perennial plants they can function as active carbon sinks for
periods of many years; trees continue to store carbon until they are cut or die.
A second interest in agroforestry is its apparent potential to reduce the need to clear new
forest land for agriculture by providing an alternative to shifting cultivation. Current
estimates are that 1 to 2 Gt of carbon are released to the atmosphere annually due to
deforestation. (Schroeder, 1993)
The adoption of Agroforestry is attractive on account that it intervenes the carbon emission
cycle at many points. First, it sequesters carbon in vegetation and possibly in the soils
depending on the pre-conversion soil carbon. Further, the more extensive use of land for
agricultural production reduces the need for extent of slash and burn and/or shifting
cultivation which leads to deforestation. Thirdly, the wood products produced under
agroforestry serve as substitute for similar products unsustainably harvested from natural
forest.
The forestry sector has more extensive activities, including forest conservation and
protection, efficiency improvement and also substitution of fossil fuels and other products
carbon intensive in the area of emission reduction and substitution.
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Forestry sequesters carbon through increased vegetation cover, increased carbon storage in
soils and conversion of biomass to long-term products.
In general, the forestry mitigation potential varies across regions depending on the suitability
of their land for forestation, the level of current of future carbon dioxide emitting activities
potential for substitution in carbon intensive services amongst other options. (Makundi, et.al,
2004)
It is estimated that as much as 90% of the world’s terrestrial Carbon is stored in forests.
(Butcher, et.al, 2007) These forests account for 3.6 billion hectares, or 28% or the land area.
If the definition of forests incorporates lands such as forest fallows, and shrubland, then this
number climbs to 5.3 billion hectares, or 40% of the world’s land area (Butcher, et.al, 2007)
In addition, forests stores the largest fraction of terrestrial ecosystem carbon (C) stocks,
recently estimated at 1,640 Pg C (Sabine et al., 2004), equivalent to about 220% of
atmospheric C. (Black et.al, 2008)
The total carbon pool in forest ecosystems was estimated to be about 1150 GT of which 49%
is in the boreal forest, 37% is in the tropic forest and 14% in the temperate forest. (Malhi,
et.al, 1999)
The potential for forestry practices to mitigate climate change is substantial. IPCC (1996)
estimated that forestry practices could sequester between 12-15% of all fossil fuel C
emissions in the period of time between 1995 and 2050. This estimate was based on the
preservation of 138 Mha of land slated for deforestation, regeneration of natural forests on
217 Mha in the tropics, and the implementation of a global forestation program consisting of
agroforestry and plantation practices on 345 Mha of suitable lands. The result of these
aggressive forestry efforts would yield storage of between 60 and 87 Gt of C over a 55- year
period
Net Carbon sequestration capacity of individual forest ecosystems varies a great deal. Future
climate change may significantly influence forest C stocks through its impact on climate
variables (e.g., precipitation), severity and frequency of disturbance events (e.g., fires and
insect infestations), and forest succession. Understanding how variation in annual C storage is
controlled at the ecosystem scale is central to any approach that employs forest C
sequestration to mitigate anthropogenic CO2 emissions (Black et.al, 2008)
Foresters are aware that C sequestration in trees and soils represents only an intermediate
solution, because sequestration potential is limited both in time and amount. However, it is
nevertheless appealing to consider that the biosphere might immediately absorb CO2 at low
costs perhaps as a by-product of regular forest management.
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In general, the following key questions should be asked while studying C sequestration in
forests.
Can forests function as an effective C sink to mitigate atmospheric C?
What are the effects of C storage on the function of forest ecosystems and biodiversity?
Is C sequestration in forest economically viable and environmentally sound?
Temperate Forests
Temperate forests do not form a uniform belt around the globe, but exist in large blocks of
discontinuous forest cover on five continents surrounded by extensive areas of prairie, steppe
and desert. Temperate forests typically occur in the mid-latitudes—generally to about 50°
north and south of the Equator (a little farther north in Europe, because of the continental
warming from the Gulf Stream).
North America currently contains 60% of the present area of temperate forest, Russia and
Europe about 12% each, with the remainder scattered throughout the rest of Asia, Australia,
New Zealand and South America. (Heath, et.al, 1993) Virtually all temperate forests have
been exploited and directly impacted by human beings, with the exception of those in major
mountain systems. The forests share the landscape with agricultural land, pastures and urban
areas, and seldom cover more than 40% of the land area in any one of the forest regions.
Japan and some of the United States and Canada are exceptions with 50 to 70% of the area in
forest (Heath et.al, 1993)
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Figure 1: Map of the world showing temperate region

Source: biomee.wikispaces.com/Temperate+Rainforest
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There are a large variety of temperate forests, including hardwood types (e.g., oak hickory
and maple-beech-birch), softwood types (e.g., southern pine, Douglas-fir, and lodgepole
pine), and a few mixed types (e.g., oak-pine). However, within each forest type and overall,
temperate forests have much lower tree species diversity than tropical forests.
Temperate forests generally contain less carbon than tropical forests, averaging nearly 70
tons per acre. More than one-third of the carbon is stored in the vegetation, and nearly two-
thirds in the soil. The higher proportion (but lower level) in the temperate forest soils
(compared to tropical forest soils) is because of slower decomposition rates. Many of these
forests are managed to produce commercial wood products, and the management practices
used in temperate forests can thus have a significant impact on carbon sequestration. (Gorte,
2009)
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Figure 2: Major forest types in percentage

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Discussion
In contrast to the story in the tropics, the area of forests in temperate zones is fairly stable.
Carbon stocks are increasing in most temperate regions as forests continue to age, although
perturbations around natural cycles can cause large emissions. (Sohngen, 2009) Current
estimates from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change suggest that northern forests
presently may sequester 3.2 billion tons CO2 per year currently (Sohngen, 2009) Growth in
northern forests may offset much of the loss in tropical zones. Efforts to increase these carbon
stocks by changing management, increasing forest area, or shifting species, could also help
reduce net emissions of green house gases and could benefit society
Inversion studies using atmospheric-transport models indicate that land in the temperate and
boreal latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere was a sink for 0.6–2.7 Pg C/yr during the mid
1980s-mid 1990s (Goodale et.al, 2002). Temporal patterns of global net C flux are now
relatively well understood, but spatial patterns are more poorly resolved, with considerable
variation among studies.(Goodale, et.al,2002) National forest inventories can be used to
provide complementary, ground-based estimates of large-scale C balance that can help
identify the location of C sources and sinks. Forest inventories are specifically designed to
supply statistically sound measurements of timber stocks and growth across large,
heterogeneous regions
In comparison to tropical and subtropical regions, the conditions for sustainable Management
of temperate forests are favourable. All efforts must be made to practice sustainable
management over the entire region. Existing forest biomass in temperate zones of Europe and
North America is not endangered by deforestation but may be by degradation. In highly
industrialized regions forests are stressed by anthropogenic air pollution, leading to forest
dieback.
This problem can only be solved by measures outside the forestry sector through reduction of
emissions. (Heath et.al, 1993)
Case studies
Case study 1: Carbon Sequestration in British Columbia’s Forests
British Columbia is the westernmost of Canada's provinces. It is bordered by the Pacific
Ocean on the west, by the U.S. state of Alaska on the northwest, and to the north by
the Yukon and the Northwest Territories, on the east by the province of Alberta, and on the
south by the U.S. states of Washington, Idaho, and Montana.
British Columbia's land area is 944,735 square kilometres (364,800 sq mi). British
Columbia's rugged coastline stretches for more than 27,000 kilometres (17,000 mi), and
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includes deep, mountainous fjords and about six thousand islands, most of which are
uninhabited
Seventy-five percent of the province is mountainous (more than 1,000 metres
(3,300 ft) above sea level); 60% is forested; and only about 5% is arable.
The western part of Vancouver Island and the rest of the coast is covered by temperate
rainforest. This region, which includes parts of the West Coast of the United States, is one of
a mere handful of such temperate rain forest ecosystems in the world (notable others being
in Turkey, Georgia, Chile, New Zealand, Tasmania, and the Russian Far East). The
province's mainland away from the coastal regions is not as moderated by the Pacific Ocean
and ranges from desert and semi-arid plateau to the range and canyon districts of the interior
plateau. A few southern interior valleys have short cold winters with infrequent heavy snow,
while those in the Cariboo, the northern part of the Central Interior, are colder because of
their altitude and latitude, but without the intensity or duration experienced at similar
latitudes elsewhere in Canada.
Canada has more than 400 million hectares of forest which forms an enormous carbon sink,
absorbing up to 20 times the amount of CO2 emitted from fossil fuels each year in the
country. BC’s 62 million ha of highly diverse forests provide a wide range of social, cultural,
economic and biological values and services. While lodgepole pine and spruce species
dominate the BC interior with the former recently severely affected by the mountain pine
beetle (MPB) infestation, the coastal temperate rainforest holds more biomass per unit area
than any other ecosystem on the planet. (Black et.al, 2008) About 95% of BC’s land base is
publicly owned and the managed forests on this land have been extensively studied with
respect to timber supply and hence C stocks. (Black et.al, 2008)
British Columbia is blessed with an abundance of forests that store tremendous amounts of
carbon. The longer these trees live, the more CO2 they pull out of the atmosphere and store,
thus offsetting greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.
However, there is growing awareness that some this forests no longer do a very good job of
storing carbon. Studies suggest that in much of the interior of the province forests have
switched from carbon sinks to GHG emissions sources. (Black et.al, 2008)
One billion or more pine trees stand or lie dead following the epic beetle attack that began in
the 1990s and is only now coming to an end. As the dead trees decay, GHGs will be released
back into the atmosphere. To even aggravate the situation, many such forests may be at
increased risk of catching fire due to these same warmer and drier conditions and the
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abundance of beetle-killed trees. Such fires result in uncontrolled, large pulses of GHG
emissions into the atmosphere, which then increases the risk of future fires, and so on.
Coupled to this, is the rather high amount of CO2 that is removed from the forest by
harvesting. It is estimated that one million of forest is harvested for timber. (Parfitt, 2010)
In view of this, it is necessary to identify how car carbon/sink source dynamic changes as
forest communities regenerate following disturbance. If carbon storage is a priority, then the
length of time between when forests are logged and logged again must be considered. (Black
et.al, 2008)
British Columbia’s old-growth forests play a crucial role in the storage of carbon. Some of
the highest per-hectare forest carbon stores found anywhere in Canadian forests occur in BC.
While some scientists maintain that older forests may store only marginally more carbon each
year or be close to carbon-neutral in terms of additional carbon stores, others argue that older
forests generally “continue to accumulate carbon.”
Nevertheless, there is general scientific acceptance that the total carbon stored in older forests
makes them vitally important to overall global carbon budgets.
On average, BC’s forests store 311 tonnes of carbon per hectare, while some coastal forests,
with their older and larger trees, store between 600 and 1,300 tonnes per hectare. (Parfitt,
2010)
Accumulated over the course of many decades or centuries, the combined carbon stored in
BC’s forests amounts to 88 times Canada’s, and nearly 1,000 times the province annual
greenhouse gas emission (Parfitt, 2010)
Carbon stocks in BC’s conifer-dominated forests are highest in the oldest stands, and have
been, and are currently being, affected by disturbance and harvesting. Mean total ecosystem
C stocks in mature stands in the Pacific Northwest (PNW) vary from 750 Mg ha-1 to 1130
Mg ha-1 with 30-50% being stored in the soil (Black et.al, 2008). In interior BC, they vary
from 324 Mg C ha–1 to 423 Mg C ha–1 in old growth stands and are ~200 Mg ha-1 in
second-growth stands (Fredeen et al., 2005).
The lodge pole which is BC most common interior tree species is currently under attack by
mountain pine beetles throughout its range
With one billion or more pine trees in BC killed as a result of the mountain pine beetles
worsened by warmer temperatures, many scientists believe a significant line has been
crossed. Forests that were once sinks are now major sources.
Using sophisticated computer models that project what will happen to carbon stocks as trees
in pine forests live and die, a group of federal and provincial forest scientists reported in 2008
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that the widespread tree mortality caused by an epic mountain pine beetle infestation had
turned BC’s interior pine forests to a large net carbon source both during and immediately
after the insect attack.
But the early results of an ongoing study that measures actual inflows and outflows of CO2
from forests filled with dead pine trees suggests things may not be near so dire.
At first glance, a forest attacked by pine beetles appears to be a sea of dead trees. And indeed,
that is the case, at least for the older, most visible trees. As predicted, the beetle attack that
began in the late 1990s and stretched through the first decade of the new millennium killed,
on average, four out of every five older pine trees, with the death toll on some sites exceeding
nine in ten (Parfitt, 2010)
But on second glance, many such forests turn out to have lots of living trees. They’re only
smaller, and growing beneath the crowns of their dead counterparts. Studies by scientists at
the University of British Columbia, of two such forest stands in studied in northern BC were
found to be net carbon sinks, despite the fact that at one site 80 per cent of the older pine trees
were dead while at the other 95 per cent were killed. The study concluded that the large
number of living trees and shrubs below the dead trees stored increasing amounts of carbon.
Parfitt, 2010)
This was because more light reached the forest floor as the older dead trees lost their needles
and branches. This so-called “canopy mortality” boosted the photosynthesis of the remaining
healthy trees, allowing them to store more carbon.

Influences on the forest of British Columbia

Exchange of C between forests and the atmosphere is being influenced by human-caused and
natural disturbances. Understanding and quantifying the impacts of disturbances are
prerequisites to selecting forest management options aimed at enhancing C sinks and
reducing C sources while maintaining other ecological, social, and economic benefits of the
forest.
Climate change directly affects forest growth, structure and species composition, and thus C
stocks. Changes in productivity as a result of climate change will affect rotation age, wood
quality, wood volume, and size of logs. Global changes that includes rising atmospheric CO2,
and ozone, increasing atmospheric N deposition, and changes in precipitation may affect
annual forest C storage both as primary drivers and through interaction with each other
Warming especially in the high altitude ecosystem can result in increased ecosystem C
uptake; on the other hand, an increase in C uptake during early spring can be cancelled out
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with decreased uptake during hotter and drier summers. A global synthesis of northern
ecosystem has shown that 90% of the increased CO 2 uptake as a result of spring warming
(~0.73 Pg CO2 °C-1) is offset by increased losses due to autumn warming (Black et.al, 2008)
In BC’s coastal forest, hotter summers gave rise to faster decomposition of soil organic
matter leading to reduced NEP. On the other hand, hotter and drier summers caused
reductions in ecosystem respiration that exceeded the reduction in C uptake, thereby
increasing NEP
Another climatic phenomenon that affects carbon sequestration in British Columbia forest is
draught. Effects of drought on forests include mortality, potential reduction in resilience and
alteration in major biotic feedbacks. Drought-conditions further interact with disturbances
such as insect attacks or fire
The climate of the British Columbia is in flux and according to the latest report of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2007) the change is projected to
continue at an even faster rate (www.PacificClimate.org). Changes in temperature and
precipitation during the past several decades in the Pacific North West have exceeded global
averages with summers becoming drier and winters wetter. Northern and southern BC will be
warming even more and becoming somewhat wetter. Summertime water-deficit has resulted
in decreased productivity of coastal Douglas-fir forests. While forest-productivity losses are
expected to occur in the drier and warmer regions, modest increases are expected in the north.
However, while a longer growing season due to climate change will enhance photosynthesis
in the spring, respiration will likely be increased in the warmer autumn. The balance of these
effects has not been determined for northern BC forests. (Black et.al, 2008)

Natural Disturbance
Exchange of C between forests and the atmosphere is influenced by natural disturbances. The
quantification and understanding of the impacts of disturbances is very essential to selecting
forest management options aimed at enhancing C sinks and reducing C sources, while
maintaining other ecological, social, and economic benefits of the forest.
A recent FLUXNET synthesis found that disturbance was the primary mechanism that
changes ecosystems from C sinks to sources. Simulations using CBM-CFS3 have shown that
future disturbances by fires and large insect outbreaks will likely convert the managed forests
of Canada from a sink to a source during the first Kyoto Protocol commitment period, 2008–
2012 (Black et.al, 2008)
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Where forests regenerate after disturbances, periods with above-average emissions are often
followed by periods of above-average C uptake. For some years after a disturbance, the net C
balance of a stand is negative (C stocks are declining) as C release from decomposition
exceeds C uptake by new tree growth. Eventually, the stand-level C balance will become
positive as trees remove more C from the atmosphere than is released from decay.
The current age distribution of forests in BC is skewed towards old trees, which for drier
interior forests results in increased sensitivity to disturbance by fires and pests.
Climate change will likely increase the frequency and severity of storms in coastal BC,
thereby increasing wind-throw damage. Also, drier areas of the Southern Interior may
experience regeneration problems due to increased summer droughts.
Future forest C storage capacity will also partly depend on ecological changes that result
from ongoing forest disturbance and succession.
Fire has always played an integral role in the structure and function of forest ecosystems,
especially in seasonally dry forests in the BC Interior. Although fires destroy part of the
stored C, they shift the wood biomass from live C pools to dead C pools, some as highly
recalcitrant charcoal. Fires can also open seed cones for some species often allowing the
emergence of naturally regenerated trees. Each year, wildfires burn thousands of hectares of
forestland in BC with the mean annual area burnt over the last decade being 75,000 ha and
about 13,000 ha burnt in the in 2008 (www.bcwildfire.ca).
Forest fires cause a loss of C stocks that varies with fire severity but historically (1959-1999)
have been estimated to be 0.5 Tg y-1 as direct C emissions for BC forests, mostly in the drier
interior (Black et.al, 2008)
Another phenomenon that plays a great role in the forest of BC is insect infestation. Amongst
the effects of insect infestations are defoliation, partial or total tree mortality, reductions in
forest CO2 uptake in photosynthesis, and increases in emissions from the decay of biomass.
Periodic insect and disease infestations have always been part of the natural cycles of growth,
self-thinning, death, and rejuvenation of forest stands in BC, especially in the interior. BC is
currently experiencing the largest recorded MPB outbreak in North America. (Black et.al,
2008)
This epidemic has resulted in widespread mortality of lodgepole pine, the BC interior’s most
abundant tree species. Climate change, mainly warmer winters, has contributed to the
unprecedented extent and severity of this outbreak. Insect outbreaks such as this represent an
important mechanism by which climate change may undermine the ability of northern forests
to take up and store atmospheric CO2. (Black et.al, 2008)
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Using CBM-CFS3 for simulating future net biome production (NBP), have estimated that the
MPB outbreak will result in a cumulative loss of 270 Pg C (or 0.36 t C m-2 ha-1 on average
over 374,000 km2 of forest) during 2000–2020. EC flux research in MPB-affected stands in
northern BC is now providing empirical evidence that such models may need to be refined to
adequately account for the compensatory growth of sub-canopy, understory and nonattacked
trees and species, shrubs and ground vegetation post-attack (Black et.al, 2008)

Human influences
When large areas of these forests are logged or burnt, they switch from being significant
storehouses of carbon to sources. Pest attacks or diseases that kill large numbers of trees
complicate matters further by increasing the stock of dead trees that release CO2 and
increasing the probability of such forest being burnt.
Virtually all of southern Vancouver Island’s original Douglas fir forests were long ago
logged. Second-growth and third-growth fir forests are now the order of the day, with many
slated for logging at 40 years of age. On such short rotations, however, it is possible that
these sites may be close to perpetual sources of CO2 emissions. But if rotations are to be
extended, what would be a “optimal” rotation? While older managed forests have generally
accumulated and stored more carbon than their younger counterparts, lengthening rotation
ages and delaying logging has consequences. The number of humans on the planet continues
to grow. Until such time as the global population stabilizes and declines, demand for new
housing will remain. As previously noted, wood is a desirable building material. It not only
requires less energy to produce, but comes from a renewable resource. If a consequence of
longer rotations is that builders use more non-wood construction materials, then there may be
a net increase in GHG emissions
Case Study 2: the forest of Ireland
Ireland is an island of approximately 8.44 million hectares of which 7.03 million hectares is
in the Republic of Ireland and 1.41 million hectares is in Northern Ireland. The island is
situated in north Western Europe (51.50N to 55.50N and 5.50W to 100W) and no part of it
lies more than 113 kilometres from the sea. As a result, the climate is distinctly maritime in
nature. The North Atlantic drift brings with it ever changing frontal systems and depressions,
giving Ireland mild, damp winters and cool, cloudy summers.
Rainfall may vary from 3,000 millimetres in mountainous parts along the west coast to 750
millimetres in the Dublin region on the east coast. The absence of extremes in temperature is
favourable to the growth of a wide range of agricultural and forest species
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An excess of precipitation over evapotranspiration over large areas of the country has
resulted in a tendency towards podzolisation where drainage is free, while gleying and peat
formation are common where drainage is impeded. The predominant soil types are podzols,
brown earths, gleys and peats. (Doyle & Nieuwenhuis circa 2003)
Until about 9,000 years ago, the country was covered in mixed forest dominated by
broadleaves, mainly oak, with pine and birch on higher ground and on poorer soil. The early
inhabitants cleared small local areas, but over time forest clearance increased as a result of
pressure from population increases, settlements, pasture, tillage, and later colonisation and
commercial exploitation. It is estimated that only 12% of Ireland was covered in forest by
the 1600s, and the exploitation intensified as the use of wood became increasingly important
(Doyle & Nieuwenhuis circa 2003)
By 1900, tree cover was reduced to only 1%, composed of semi-natural woodland and
broadleaf plantations established in the 19th century. The remainder of the landscape was
extensively managed agricultural land with some peatland, wetland, semi-natural grassland,
and an extensive hedgerow network. Due to the massive deforestation of the forest of Ireland,
the indigenous species has been by and large replaced with foreign exotic near monoculture
conifer plantations
At the start of the 20th century only 1% of Ireland was under forest. Recent afforestation
policies have significantly increased the land area under forestry and forest cover is now
9.7% of national territory. While Ireland has one of the lowest levels of forest cover in the
EU, where the average is 30%, the recent planting rate is among the highest in Europe.
Currently, Over 10% of Ireland is under forest, supporting a vibrant and export oriented
forest products sector. Ireland possesses the climate and soils to grow forests at a faster rate
than most of the developed world (Dhubháin; et.al, 2009)
Tree Species
There are basically two classes of forest species in Ireland; natives’ species and commercial
species.
Native Species
Ireland's native woodlands comprise mixed broadleaves such as oak (Quercus petraea
Mattuschka) and Quercus robur L.), elm (Ulmus procera Salis.), ash (Fraxinus excelsior L.),
alder (Alnus glutinosa (L.) Gaertn.), hazel (Corylus avellana L.) and birch (Betula pendula
Roth). The existing broadleaf woodlands include the remnants of the indigenous forest (about
5,200 ha of which is protected in national parks and nature reserves) and old woodland and
scrub. (Doyle & Nieuwenhuis circa 2003)
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Commercial Species
The main species used for commercial forestry are 'exotic' or non-native conifers, which
grow particularly well here. The main species used are Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis (Bong.)
Carr.), Lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta Dougl. var. latifolia Wats.) and Douglas fir
(Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco) from the northwest coast of North America and
Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) from northern Europe
Sitka spruce is the most attractive commercial species because it grows particularly well in
Ireland, having a growth rate well in excess of the EU average, and because it is suitable for
most sites. The afforestation programme has therefore concentrated almost exclusively on
this species, to the extent that it currently accounts for about 60% of the productive forest
estate and 65% of current annual afforestation. (Doyle & Nieuwenhuis circa 2003)
Ireland is fortunate in having relatively few forest pests and diseases, a low risk of forest fires
and little evidence of damage from air pollution. Ireland as an island and by reason of its
isolated geographic location is uniquely protected from exotic forest disease and dangerous
pests. However all forests, especially those in which one species predominates, are at risk
from insect and fungal attack. Indigenous pests and diseases such as Fomes annosum can be
controlled through timely intervention during forest operations.
The importance of protecting the forest resource is recognised, and Ireland participates in EU
forest health surveys and has developed a forest health contingency plan which includes
regular surveying of the forest estate and nurseries and the application of strict plant and
timber import controls. The various EU Directives on plant health and forest condition are
being implemented.
Estimates of the carbon storage potential of forests indicate that forestry has a potentially
important role to play in terms of mitigating emissions. It has been estimated that the average
rate of carbon storage in Irish forests of pure Sitka spruce is in the region of 3.36 tonnes per
ha per year. This estimate means that, if planting targets were achieved, carbon sequestration
by new forests in Ireland would offset approximately 43% of Ireland’s projected surplus
greenhouse gas emissions in 2012 ((Doyle & Nieuwenhuis circa 2003)
The total carbon reservoir or store in Irish forests currently exceeds one billion tonnes of
carbon dioxide, most of which is in the soil. Annual removal of carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere by Ireland’s forests exceeds 6 million tonnes per annum. Kyoto forests (those
established since 1990) will sequester 11 million tonnes of carbon dioxide over the 5-year
period to the end of 2012. Pre-1990 forests also sequester carbon, and contribute to climate
18

change mitigation, but are not currently part of Ireland’s forest carbon accounting regime.
(Dhubháin; et.al, 2009)
Forests currently occupy just 10% of the land cover of Ireland, they are relatively young and
productive, and research indicates that a doubling of forest cover is well within technical
reach. So, in the future, there is significant scope for adding to the forest reservoir and
enhancing the mitigation effort by forestry sinks. (Hendrick & black 2009)
Looking at the Irish forest estate as a whole, over 90% of the total amount of carbon is stored
in the soil and litter pools. One of the main reasons for the high level of soil carbon is that
many Irish forests have been established on peat soils, which have very high levels of carbon
to begin with. However, the Irish situation is not unique - similar levels of soil carbon are
found in many forests at the higher northern latitudes, where it builds up slowly over
hundreds of years from leaf and needle decomposition.
(Bryne & Perks, 2000)
Forests in Ireland are generally worked on rotation periods (between planting and harvest) of
40-50 years. When the forest is felled at the end of, say, 50 years most of the carbon is
removed in the harvest. If, at the national level, there is an even age structure of forests
following on (more or less the same area of forest in each age class from 1-50 years), then the
overall level of carbon stored, and being stored, will not diminish (provided all felled areas
are regenerated to the same carbon stock). If there is less forest following on, then it will be
unable to fully replenish the carbon removed in harvest. (Hendrick & black 2009)
The strategic plan for the Irish forestry sector provides a great opportunity for carbon
sequestration in Irish forests. With current annual afforestation targets of 20,000ha per annum
(20% of which is with broadleaved species), Irish forest crops can contribute significantly to
the mitigation of climate change through their ability to store carbon. The species profile in
the Irish forest sector allows for carbon sequestration in both the long and short terms.
Relatively fast growing coniferous species store carbon rapidly over the short term while
slower growing broadleaf species, although they sequester carbon at a lower rate, act as long
term carbon stores.
The ability to estimate the amount of carbon sequestered in Irish forests is at an early stage of
development. However, given that the forest estate is relatively young, with a large increase
in new forests over the last decade there is considerable potential for the use of forest C
sequestration
The number of years before a forest reaches CO2 equilibrium depends very largely upon
species selection and forest management. Short term carbon storage can be maximised by
19

planting fast growing species such as Sitka spruce and poplar on unplanted sites and
managing them using advanced silvicultural techniques. Long term carbon storage on the
other hand is optimised by planting slower growing species such as oak and beech on long
rotations and by setting aside large areas of land where trees would be allowed to grow to
maximum size and thereafter remain in place. Because the current Irish forest estate is young
it will continue to be a net carbon sink for the next two to three decades at least.

Conclusion
This paper will be concluded by looking at ways through which carbon sequestration
potential can be increased in the temperate area. There are basically two major methods of
carbon sequestration namely afforestation and reforestation.
Afforestation
Afforestation has been the most widely recognised and studied option for mitigation using
forest to date. Afforestation refers to taking agricultural land and converting it into forests.
Because agricultural land stores very little carbon in aboveground biomass, converting the
land to trees and allowing those trees to grow, will remove carbon fron the atmosphere.ve
carbon from the atmosphere. A forest that is growing can remove 5-11 tons CO2 per hectare
per year, depending on location and productivity. (Sohngen, 2009) A large proportion of the
world’s crop and grazing lands are rain-fed, indicating that they also can support trees. As a
result, there are many opportunities to sequester carbon by converting this agricultural land
into forests. Of course, converting land from agriculture to forests comes with a cost.
Afforestation requires implementation and management costs, as well opportunity costs.
Afforestation depends on the availability of agricultural land, which is related to the surplus
of agricultural production especially in Europe and North America.
In Europe the total potential for conversion of farmland into forest land is estimated to be
approximately 44 Mha. For the U.S., a biological potential of approximately 100 is estimated.
(Heath et.al,1993)
The main reason why afforestation is so widely acknowledged as having large potential
throughout the world relates to the rather substantial value of the carbon embodied in forests.
Consider a southern upland hardwood forest in the United States, which may typically be
harvested at age 50. A stand like this may contain 257 tons CO 2 per hectare in aboveground
carbon (Sohngen et al., 2009). If there is no value to carbon sequestration, under current
timber prices, such a stand would have a typical return of $30-$40 per hectare per year. If,
however, carbon prices are $14 per ton CO2, then annual returns (inclusive of timber
20

harvests) would be $75-$80 per hectare per year, and if they rise to $28 per ton CO2, then
annual returns increase to $130-$140 per hectare per year. The increase in returns to planting
forests when the embodied carbon is valued is substantial, for higher carbon prices, it quickly
makes forest competitive with some crop and grazing land. (Sohngen et al., 2009).
Reforestation
Reforestation is the restocking of existing forests and woodlands which have been depleted.
Reforestation can be used to improve the quality of human life by soaking up pollution and
dust from the air, rebuild natural habitats and ecosystems, mitigate global warming since
forests facilitate biosequestration of atmospheric carbon dioxide, and harvest for resources,
particularly timber.
Reforestation is an important technique for climate change mitigation. During forest growth,
atmospheric carbon is taken up by plants and incorporated into their biomass and the soils
and it resides on the ecosystem for a period of time. In this manner, reforestation is a means
for carbon sequestration.
Based upon several different types of empirical data, a number of researchers have concluded
that current rates of carbon sequestration are robust and that future rates will increase with
increasing atmospheric CO2 concentrations. In the study of Fan et al. (1998) based on
atmospheric measurements, for example, the broad-leaved forested region of North America
between 15 and 51°N latitude was calculated to possess a current carbon sink that can
annually remove all the CO2 emitted into the air from fossil fuel combustion in both Canada
and the United States. On another large scale, Phillips et al. (1998) used data derived from
tree basal area to show that average forest biomass in the tropics has increased substantially
over the past 40 years and that growth in the Neotropics alone (south and central South
America, the Mexican lowlands, the Carribean islands, and southern Florida) can account for
40 percent of the missing carbon of the entire globe. And in looking to the future, White et al.
(2000) have calculated that coniferous and mixed forests north of 50°N latitude will likely
expand their northern and southern boundaries by about 50 percent due to the combined
effects of increasing atmospheric CO2, rising temperature, and nitrogen deposition.
The latter of these factors, nitrogen deposition, is an important variable. As indicated in the
study of White et al., it can play an interactive role with increasing atmospheric CO2 to
increase plant growth and carbon sequestration. However, the magnitude of that role is still
being debated. Nadelhoffer et al. (1999), for example, concluded that nitrogen deposition
from human activities is “unlikely to be a major contributor” to the large CO2 sink that exists
21

in northern temperate forests. Houghton et al. (1998), however, feel that nitrogen deposition
holds equal weight with CO2 fertilization in the production of terrestrial carbon sinks;
Further, as growth conditions change with climate change, the potential range of species will
change. Therefore, it will be necessary to consider planting other more adaptive species
following disturbance. Research is required on how different tree species (e.g., nitrogen
fixers) can affect the magnitude and permanence of soil C stocks. Since variable retention
harvesting is increasingly being used by foresters, its effects on the rate of growth of planted
or naturally regenerating trees and long-term soil C stocks need to be investigated. (Sohngen
et al,2009).

Nwachukwu Nnayelugo Ikechukwu Mbachu

22

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