Lens Care

Your lens is the most important part of the camera or enlarger. It is I important to prevent damage
to its glass surfaces. On a camera you can help to do this with some form of lens cap, or a clear glass
UV filter. Avoid carrying a camera over your shoulder or in a bag containing other loose items
without some lens protection. A small speck; on the glass is relatively unimportant - it just minutely
reduces; illumination, but a greasy finger mark, scratches, or a layer of dust will scatter and diffuse
light, so your images have less contrast and detail. Loose dust and debris is best puffed away with a
blower brush or gently guided to the rim of the lens. Grease or marks left by spots of rain may have
to be removed with a soft tissue moistened in lens cleaning fluid. A scratched lens will probably have
to be sent for re-polishing. Don’t become too obsessive about polishing lenses. You will do far more
harm than good if you start to mark permanently the surface of the glass or top coating. Prevention
is much better than cure.

The Lens

the camera’s lens forms the image that is projected onto the surface of the film. Lenses can be either
built into the camera body as permanent fixtures or attached separately. Cameras with
interchangeable lenses are more versatile and more expensive than those without them. A lens can
vary from a simple pinhole (which is technically not a lens, though it does form an image) to a
complicated assembly of a dozen or more simple lenses nested in combination. The advantages of a
lens over a pinhole are that the image projected on the film is sharper and the exposures are
shortened because the lens allows light to pass through a considerably larger opening. The image
produced by a lens can be larger or smaller than the original subject. The magnification produced by
a lens depends upon its focal length (a measure of magnifying power) and the distance between the
lens and the subject. Most cameras have a focusing knob or otherwise enable the lens to be
adjusted to bring objects into sharp focus on the surface of the film. In addition to forming an image,
lenses are also used to control the amount of light that strikes the film. A roughly circular diaphragm,
incorporated within the lens barrel and operated by a lens collar, masks off part of the outer circle of
the lens, reducing its effective diameter. The diaphragm determines what fraction of the maximum
lens diameter is used to allow light to pass through the lens. The f-stop, or simply stop (both terms
are used), is a measure of the degree to which a lens transmits light. Various diaphragm settings
corresponding to discrete apertures (f-stops) are etched onto the controlling lens collar. You will see
them written as f/ number - for example, f/2.8. On a lens barrel, the f/ is omitted for reasons of
space and only the numbers appear, adjacent to the appropriate set points on the lens. The Shutter
The shutter is a mechanical device that acts as a gate to control the passage of light from the lens to
the film. A leaf shutter consists of a nest of thin metal blades, shaped to approximate a circle and
located in the lens barrel. It is activated when tension is applied to a spring. When the exposure
button is pressed, the shutter opens for a set period of time, allowing light to strike and expose the
film, and then it snaps shut to prevent further exposure. Leaf shutters are used extensively in lenses
for medium- and large-format cameras. Image Formed on Film Figure: Image formation by a simple
lens. Light from a subject point falling on any part of the lens surface is focused at a single point
behind the lens, and the total image is the accumulation of all such points. The lens “gathers” light
over its entire surface and focuses it to produce a bright, sharp image.
What is camera

A camera is an optical instrument that records images that can be stored directly, transmitted to
another location, or both. These images may be still photographs or moving images such as videos or
movies. The term camera comes from the word camera obscura (Latin for "dark chamber"), an early
mechanism for projecting images. The modern camera evolved from the camera obscura. Basic parts
of SLR Camera If we understand the part and the term of our camera, we will be much easier to use
our camera, both to create landscape picture, portraits, wedding, indoor photo, or when we capture
musical performances, birthday party, documentation for family or office. Even for those of you who
are serious about selling stock photos online on the Internet. 1. DSLR is a digital single lens reflex,
which is a camera with a digital system (using the processor, chip, memory, and technological
sophistication in capturing the image) which uses a single lens mounted on the camera body. Reflex
mirror inside the camera will go up when you press the shutter button and at the time the image
sensor in the camera will record an image. 2. Eyepiece = holder to our eyes when look into the
viewfinder. 3. Viewfinder (viewfinder) = viewfinders pentaprism method (pentagon shape) is placed
over the optical path through the lens onto the image sensor plate. Incoming light then reflected
upward by mirror (mirror reflection) and about pentaprism. Pentaprism then reflect light several
times through the viewfinder (viewfinder). When the shutter button is released, the glass opens the
way for the light so that light can directly on the image sensor. 4. Image sensors (sensors capture
images) = a sensor that is used to process and capture an image contained within a camera. Size
there are a variety of sensors, i.e. APS-C sized 15x23mm, 19x29mm APS-H size, and FULL-FRAME
24x36mm (equal to the large size of the movie). 5. Flash = flash is usually used to help us in taking
pictures in the dark. 6. Hotshoe (flash external holder) = a holder for an external flash that is usually
located in the middle of the camera body. 7. Lens (lens) = a lens mount that is embedded in the
camera body (lens body can be removed and replaced) that serves to light up focus capable
captured by the image sensor. On the outside of the lens usually there are three rings, namely ring
focal length (for variable type lenses), aperture ring and focus ring. There are 5 characters that lens,
wide (wide), macro (enlarge), telephoto (zoom), tilt & shift and fish eye. And there are 2 types of lens
fix (can not be changed such as, 50mm) and zoom (range like, 17-85mm). Lens will also have
features is (image stabilizer) to reduce vibration from hand and USM (ultrasonic motor) to accelerate
and quiet in the search focusing. * IS USM code DSLR canon camera types? These features in any
other DSLR camera lens are also available, but the code name of the other but with the same
functionality. 8. Lens hood = an extra on the lens to reduce excess light, the impact of flares and a
protective front surface of the lens, and also as an addition to the display lens to look more
frightening. * Remember: the use of hood that does not comply with a series of lenses will cause
vignetting (vignetting = black spots on the sides of the tip of the picture) 9. LCD monitor (LCD display)
= to see the image and monitor modes that we use to take pictures. 10. Focus points = if you look
into the viewfinder, then you will see a small dots scattered (the number of points depending on the
type and model of camera), at which point the focus is to help you find focus images would be taken.
A single-lens reflex (SLR) camera is a camera that typically uses a mirror & prism system (hence
"reflex", from the mirror's reflection) that permits the photographer to view through the lens and
hence see exactly what will be captured, as opposed to viewfinder cameras where the image could
be significantly different from what will be captured. Prior to the development of SLR, all cameras
with viewfinders had two optical light paths: one path through the lens to the film, and another path
positioned above (TLR or twin-lens reflex) or to the side (rangefinder). Because the viewfinder and
the film lens cannot share the same optical path, the viewing lens is aimed to intersect with the film
lens at a fixed point somewhere in front of the camera. This is not problematic for pictures taken at a
middle or longer distance, but parallax causes framing errors in close-up shots. Moreover, focusing
the lens of a fast reflex camera when it is opened to wider apertures (such as in low light or while
using low-speed film) is not easy. Most SLR cameras permit upright and laterally correct viewing
through use of a roof pentaprism situated in the optical path between the reflex mirror and
viewfinder. Light, which comes both horizontally and vertically inverted after passing through the
lens, is reflected upwards by the reflex mirror, into the pentaprism where it is reflected several times
to correct the inversions caused by the lens, and align the image with the viewfinder. When the
shutter is released, the mirror moves out of the light path and the light shines directly onto the film
(or in the case of a DSLR, the CCD or CMOS imaging sensor). The Canon Pellix film camera was an
exception to the moving mirror system, wherein the mirror was a fixed beamsplitting pellicle. Focus
can be adjusted manually by the photographer or automatically by an autofocus system. The
viewfinder can include a matte focusing screen located just above the mirror system to diffuse the
light. This permits accurate viewing, composing and focusing, especially useful with interchangeable
lenses. Up until the 1990s, SLR was the most advanced photographic preview system available, but
the recent development and refinement of digital imaging technology with an on-camera live LCD
preview screen has overshadowed SLR's popularity. Nearly all inexpensive compact digital cameras
now include an LCD preview screen allowing the photographer to see what the CCD is capturing.
However, SLR is still popular in high-end and professional cameras because they are system cameras
with interchangeable parts, allowing customization. They also have far less shutter lag, allowing
photographs to be timed more precisely. Also the pixel resolution, contrast ratio, refresh rate, and
color gamut of an LCD preview screen cannot compete with the clarity and shadow detail of a direct-
viewed optical SLR viewfinder. Optical components Cross-section view of SLR system: 1: Front-mount
lens (four-element Tessar design) 2: Reflex mirror at 45-degree angle 3: Focal plane shutter 4: Film or
sensor 5: Focusing screen 6: Condenser lens 7: Optical glass pentaprism (or pentamirror) 8: Eyepiece
(can have diopter correction ability) A cross-section (or 'side-view') of the optical components of a
typical SLR camera shows how the light passes through the lens assembly (1) is reflected by the
mirror (2) placed at a 45-degree angle, and is projected on the matte focusing screen (3) opens, and
the image is projected onto the film or sensor (4) in exactly the same manner as on the focusing
screen. (5). Via a condensing lens (6) and internal reflections in the roof pentaprism (7) the image
appears in the eyepiece (8). When an image is taken, the mirror moves upwards from its resting
position in the direction of the arrow, the focal plane shutter This feature distinguishes SLRs from
other cameras as the photographer sees the image composed exactly as it will be captured on the
film or sensor (see Advantages below). Shutter mechanisms Focal-plane shutters Almost all
contemporary SLRs use a focal-plane shutter located in front of the film plane, which prevents the
light from reaching the film even if the lens is removed, except when the shutter is actually released
during the exposure. There are various designs for focal plane shutters. Early focal-plane shutters
designed from the 1930s onwards usually consisted of two curtains that travelled horizontally across
the film gate: an opening shutter curtain followed by a closing shutter curtain. During fast shutter
speeds, the focal-plane shutter would form a 'slit' whereby the second shutter curtain was closely
following the first opening shutter curtain to produce a narrow, vertical opening, with the shutter slit
moving horizontally. The slit would get narrower as shutter speeds were increased. Rotary focal-
plane shutter One unusual design, the Olympus Pen half-frame 35 mm SLR system, manufactured by
Olympus in Japan, used a rotary focalplane shutter mechanism that was extremely simple and
elegant in design. This shutter used titanium foil but consisted of one piece of metal with a fixed
opening, which allowed electronic flash synchronisation up to and including its maximum speed of
1/500 of a second – rivalling the capabilities of leaf-shutter systems Another 35 mm camera system
that used a rotary shutter was the Robot Royal cameras, most of which were rangefinder 35 mm
cameras. Some of these cameras were full-frame; some were half-frame, and at least one Robot
camera produced an unusual square-sized image on the 35 mm frame. The Mercury II, produced in
1946, also used a rotary shutter. This was a half-frame 35mm camera. Leaf shutters Another shutter
system is the leaf shutter, whereby the shutter is constructed of diaphragm-like blades and can be
situated either between the lens or behind the lens. If the shutter is part of a lens assembly some
other mechanism is required to ensure that no light reaches the film between exposures. Because
leaf shutters synchronized electronic flash at all shutter speeds especially at fast shutter speeds of
1/500 of a second or faster, cameras using leaf shutters were more desirable to studio
photographers who used sophisticated studio electronic flash systems. Parts Since the technology
became widespread in the 1970s, SLRs have become the main photographic instrument used by
dedicated amateur photographers and professionals. Some photographers of static subjects (such as
architecture, landscape, and some commercial subjects), however, prefer view cameras because of
the capability to control perspective. Perspective correction lenses are available in the 35 mm and
medium formats to correct this distortion with film cameras, and it can also be corrected after the
fact with photo software when using digital cameras. The photographer can also extend the bellows
to its full length, tilt the front standard and perform photomacrography (commonly known as 'macro
photography'), producing a sharp image with depth-of-field without stopping down the lens
diaphgram. Camera Formats Large format- refers to any imaging format of 4×5 inches (102×127 mm)
or larger. Large format is larger than "medium format", the 6×6 cm (2¼×2¼ inch) or 6×9 cm (2¼×3½
inch) size of Hasselblad, Rollei, Kowa, Pentax etc cameras (using 120 and 220 roll film), and much
larger than the 24×36 mm (~ 1.0 x 1.5 inch) frame of 35 mm format. The main advantage of large
format, film or digital, is higher resolution. A 4×5 inch image has about 16 times the area, and thus
16× the total resolution, of a 35 mm frame. In early photography, large format was all there was, and
before enlargers were common, it was normal to just make 1:1 contact prints from a 4×5, 5×7, or
8×10 inch negative. The most common large format is 4×5 inches, which was the size of common
cameras used in the 1930s-1950's, like the Speed Graphic, Crown Graphic, Graphlex, and many
others. Above 8×10 inches, the formats are often referred to as Ultra Large Format (ULF) and may be
11×14, 16×20, 20×24 inches, or as large as film, plates, sensors, or cameras are available; many large
formats, 24×24, 36x36, 48x48 inches etc., are horizontal cameras designed to make big negatives for
contact printing onto press printing plates. The Polaroid 20×24 camera is one of the largest format
instant cameras currently in common usage, and can be hired from Polaroid agents in various
countries.[1] Many well-known photographers have used the 235 pounds (107 kg), wheeled-chassis
Polaroid. Medium format - has traditionally referred to a film format in still photography and the
related cameras and equipment that use that film. Generally, the term applies to film and digital
cameras that record images on media larger than 24 by 36 mm (full-frame) (used in 35 mm
photography), but smaller than 4 by 5 inches (which is considered to be large-format photography).
In digital photography, medium format refers either to cameras adapted from medium format film
photography uses, or to cameras making use of sensors larger than that of a 35 mm film frame.
Often, medium format film cameras can be fitted with digital camera backs, converting them to
digital cameras, but some of these digital backs, especially early models, use sensors smaller than a
35 mm film frame. As of 2006, medium format digital photography sensors were available in sizes of
up to 36 by 48 mm, with 39 million pixels for use with commonly available professional medium
format cameras. Sensors used in special applications such as spy satellites can be even larger, but
are not necessarily described as medium format equipment. 35 mm film 35 mm film print frames. At
far left and far right, outside the perforations, is the SDDS soundtrack as an image of a digital signal.
Between the perforations is the Dolby Digital soundtrack (note the tiny Dolby "Double D" logo in the
center of each area between the perforations). Just inside the perforations, on the left side of the
image, is the analog optical soundtrack, with two channels encoded using Dolby SR noise reduction
that can be dematrixed into four channels using Dolby Stereo aka Dolby Analog. The consumer
equivalent of this cinema audio decoding system is known as Dolby ProLogic. The optical timecode
used to synchronize a DTS soundtrack, which sits between the optical soundtrack and the image, is
not pictured. Finally, the image here is an anamorphic image used to create a 2.39:1 aspect ratio
when projected through an anamorphic lens. Note the thin frame lines of anamorphic prints. 35 mm
film is the film gauge most commonly used for chemical still photography (see 135 film) and motion
pictures. The name of the gauge refers to the width of the photographic film, which consists of strips
35 millimeters (about 1 3/8 inches) in width. The standard negative pull down for movies ("single-
frame" format) is four perforations per frame along both edges, which results in 16 frames per foot
of film. For still photography, the standard frame has eight perforations on each side. To print an 80-
minute feature film on 35 mm film stock can cost US$1,500 to $2,500. A variety of largely
proprietary gauges were devised for the numerous camera and projection systems being developed
independently in the late 19th century and early 20th century, ranging from 13 mm to 75 mm (0.51–
2.95 in),[5] as well as a variety of film feeding systems. This resulted in cameras, projectors and other
equipment having to be calibrated to each gauge. The 35 mm width was first used in 1892 by
William Dickson and Thomas Edison, using film stock supplied by George Eastman. The 35 mm width
with 4 perforations per frame became accepted as the international standard gauge in 1909,[6] and
has remained by far the dominant film gauge for image origination and projection despite challenges
from smaller and larger gauges, and from novel formats, because its size allowed for a relatively
good tradeoff between the cost of the film stock and the quality of the images captured. The
ubiquity of 35 mm movie projectors in commercial movie theaters makes it the only motion picture
format, film or video, that can be played in almost any cinema in the world. Common Components
Cameras can be divided into several major types. Although most cameras operate in roughly the
same way, there are a few notable differences. It helps to know what type of camera you are using,
and what its strengths and weaknesses are. Firstly, let's look at what cameras have in common.
Except for some specialist types of camera, all cameras have the following basic components: 1.
Body: A light-tight compartment to house the recording medium (film or CCD). 2. Lens: A transparent
element to focus light rays onto the recording medium. 3. Aperture: A method of controlling how
much light reaches the recording medium. 4. Shutter: A method of controlling how long the
recording medium is exposed to the incoming light. 5. Viewfinder: A way to see the image that is to
be captured. 6. Transport: In film cameras, a method of moving the film and holding it in the correct
position. Types of Camera 1. RANGEFINDER CAMERA:- is a camera fitted with a rangefinder: a range-
finding focusing mechanism allowing the photographer to measure the subject distance and take
photographs that are in sharp focus. Most varieties of rangefinder show two images of the same
subject, one of which moves when a calibrated wheel is turned; when the two images coincide and
fuse into one, the distance can be read off the wheel. Older, non-coupled rangefinder cameras
display the focusing distance and require the photographer to transfer the value to the lens focus
ring; cameras without built-in rangefinders could have an external rangefinder fitted into the
accessory shoe. Earlier cameras of this type had separate viewfinder and rangefinder windows; later
the rangefinder was incorporated into the viewfinder. More modern designs have rangefinders
coupled to the focusing mechanism, so that the lens is focused correctly when the rangefinder
images fuse; compare with the focusing screen in non-autofocus SLRs. 2. POLOROID :- The instant
camera is a type of camera that generates a developed film image. The most popular types to use
self-developing film were formerly made by Polaroid Corporation. The invention of modern instant
cameras is generally credited to American scientist Edwin Land, who unveiled the first commercial
instant camera, the Land Camera, in 1948, a year after unveiling instant film in New York City. The
earliest instant camera, which consisted of a camera and portable darkroom in a single
compartment, was invented in 1923 by Samuel Shlafrock. In February 2008, Polaroid announced it
would discontinue production of film, shut down three factories and lay off 450 workers. Sales of
chemical film by all makers have dropped by at least 25% per year in the first decade of the 21st
century. Fujifilm is now the only remaining supplier of instant film in the United States. However, in
October 2009, Polaroid announced it would bring back its classic instant film cameras, after
announcing the year before that production was to be stopped. 3. SLR (SINGLE LENS REFLEX): The
viewfinder sees the same image as the main lens, i.e. what you see is what you get. SLRs also allow
you to change lenses for different purposes. This is a hugely popular type of camera, pretty much the
standard for enthusiasts and professionals. 4. VIEWFINDER (OR RANGE FINDER): In this type of
camera the viewfinder is separate to the lens. This is common in cheap cameras, although some
professional cameras also use this configuration. The main problem with a separate viewfinder is
that the image you see may not be quite the same as the image that gets recorded. This limitation is
overcome in professional cameras by using viewfinders that compensate for the different positions.
Viewfinder cameras do have some advantages; for example, lower noise and higher light levels to
the viewfinder. 5. TWIN LENS REFLEX(TLR): The camera has two lenses — one for the photograph
and one for the viewfinder. This type of camera has certain advantages in some professional
situations. 6. VIEW CAMERA: A flexible bellows joins two standards — one with the lens and the
other with the viewfinder or film. This allows for unusual types of composition; for example,
distorting the shape of the image by skewing the film plane. 7. PINHOLE CAMERA: A very simple
camera without a lens. 8. SIMPLE USE CAMERAS:- Simple Use Cameras are the simplest cameras.
They contain a roll of color film encased in a recyclable cardboard box. They have a single shutter
speed and a fixed-focus lens. These cameras can be bought with a variety of features, including built-
in flash and water resistance. The whole camera has to be taken to the photo finisher so the film can
be processed. The camera is recycled. These cameras cost around $15 and should not be used for
serious photography. They are convenient for vacations and times when you find that the other
camera has been forgotten. 9. COMPACT LENS-SHUTTER CAMERAS Compact Lens-Shutter Cameras
come in three varieties: single focal length, dual focal length, and zoom. Some have fixed focus,
meaning that the focus is fixed at a point that produces sharp images starting from about 5 ft. away
and continuing to infinity. Other cameras offer infrared auto focusing. Some models offer features
like red-eye reduction flash and several automatic shooting modes. More serious photographers
usually prefer to have more control over the pictures they take. 10. UNDERWATER CAMERA:- It is a
type of camera which is used for underwater photography. 11. Digital Camera:- (or digicam) is a
camera that takes video or still photographs by recording images on an electronic image sensor.
Most cameras sold today are digital,[1] and digital cameras are incorporated into many devices
ranging from PDAs and mobile phones (called camera phones) to vehicles. Digital and film cameras
share an optical system, typically using a lens with a variable diaphragm to focus light onto an image
pickup device. The diaphragm and shutter admit the correct amount of light to the imager, just as
with film but the image pickup device is electronic rather than chemical. However, unlike film
cameras, digital cameras can display images on a screen immediately after being recorded, and store
and delete images from memory. Many digital cameras can also record moving video with sound.
Some digital cameras can crop and stitch pictures and perform other elementary image editing.
Different kinds of camera lenses, including wide angle, telephoto and specialty A camera lens (also
known as photographic lens or photographic objective) is an optical lens or assembly of lenses used
in conjunction with a camera body and mechanism to make images of objects either on
photographic film or on other media capable of storing an image chemically or electronically. While
in principle a simple convex lens will suffice, in practice a compound lens made up of a number of
optical lens elements is required to correct (as much as possible) the many optical aberrations that
arise. Some aberrations will be present in any lens system. It is the job of the lens designer to
balance these out and produce a design that is suitable for photographic use and possibly mass
production. There is no major difference in principle between a lens used for a still camera, a video
camera, a telescope, a microscope, or other apparatus, but the detailed design and construction are
different. A lens may be permanently fixed to a camera, or it may be interchangeable with lenses of
different focal lengths, apertures, and other properties. Types of Camera Lenses Understanding
Various Lenses and Their Functions Camera lenses come in either fixed (prime) focal lengths, or
zooms, which cover a range of focal lengths. The different focal lengths are grouped into categories
for different types of lenses. This article looks at the different types of camera lenses and their
functions. 1. Wide Angle Lenses Traditionally, a super wide-angle lens is classified as anything under
20mm. Wide-angle is 21-35mm. With the advent of digita

1. Wide Angle Lenses

Traditionally, a super wide-angle lens is classified as anything under 20mm. Wide-angle is 21-
35mm. With the advent of digital cameras, and the APS-C format, camera manufacturers
have also started producing specific lenses for this format. Wide-angle lenses for crop frame
DSLRs range from 10-24mm, with a few going down to a super wide 8mm. Wide-angle lenses
are most commonly used for photographing landscapes and architecture, although they are
often also used for photographing large groups of people. The Tokina AT-X 116 Pro DX lens
(pictured here) is an example of a wide-angle lens (11-16mm). 2. Standard Lenses A standard
lens has a focal length range of 35-70mm. The most common standard lens is a fixed 50mm
lens. Standard lenses are most commonly used for documentary and street photography,
where photographers need to move quickly and capture an interesting point of action.
Pioneers of modern street photography, such as Henri Cartier-Bresson, always used a 50mm
lens, choosing to move themselves around so as to best frame an image. The Nikon 50mm
f1.8D lens (pictured here) is an example of a standard, fixed lens. 3. Medium Telephoto /
Portrait Lens The focal range between 80-135mm is nearly always used by portrait
photographers. Fixed lenses at these lengths produce ideal framing for head and shoulders
shots. These are specialist lenses, but can be surprisingly reasonably priced. The Canon EF
100mm F/2.8 Macro USM lens is an example of a one of these types of lenses. 4. Telephoto
Any lens with a focal length of between 135mm and 300mm is a true telephoto lens.
Manufacturers make a huge range of lenses in this range ... at an equally large range of
prices! Telephoto lenses are traditionally used for sports and wildlife photography, but their
essential function is to bring distant objects closer. One example of a telephoto lens is the
Canon EF 200mm f/2L IS USM telephoto lens pictured here. 5. Specialist Lenses There are a
variety of specialist lenses available. Some of the more common are:  Super Telephoto.
These have a focal length of more than 300mm, and are used by dedicated sports and
wildlife photographers. The Nikon AF-S Nikkor 400mm f/2.8G super telephoto lens (pictured
here) is an example.  Macro. These lenses are able to focus closer to an object than normal
lenses, offering a 1:1 ratio. They are used for still-life photography of small objects. 
Fisheye. These are on the edge of wide-angle lenses, and give a distorted view of the subject
matter. The center of the image is magnified, and objects diminish in size in all directions
around it. Aperture and focal length How focal length affects photograph composition:
adjusting the camera's distance from the main subject while changing focal length, the main
subject can remain the same size, while the other at a different distance changes size. Large
(top) and small (bottom) apertures on the same lens. The two fundamental parameters of an
optical lens are the focal length and the maximum aperture. The lens' focal length
determines the magnification of the image projected onto the image plane, and the
aperture the light intensity of that image. For a given photographic system the focal length
determines the angle of view, short focal lengths giving a wider field of view than longer
focal length lenses. The wider the aperture, identified by a smaller f-number, allows using a
faster shutter speed for the same exposure.[8] The maximum usable aperture of a lens is
specified as the focal ratio or f-number, defined as the lens' focal length divided by the
effective aperture (or entrance pupil), a dimensionless number. The lower the f-number, the
higher light intensity at the focal plane. Larger apertures (smaller f-numbers) provide a much
shallower depth of field than smaller apertures, other conditions being equal. Practical lens
assemblies may also contain mechanisms to deal with measuring light, secondary apertures
for flare reduction,[9] and mechanisms to hold the aperture open until the instant of
exposure to allow SLR cameras to focus with a brighter image with shallower depth of field,
theoretically allowing better focus accuracy. Focal lengths are usually specified in millimetres
(mm), but older lenses might be marked in centimetres (cm) or inches. For a given film or
sensor size, specified by the length of the diagonal, a lens may be classified as a: 1. Normal
lens: angle of view of the diagonal about 50° and a focal length approximately equal to the
image diagonal. 2. Wide-angle lens: angle of view wider than 60° and focal length shorter
than normal. 3. Long-focus lens: any lens with a focal length longer than the diagonal
measure of the film or sensor.[10] Angle of view is narrower. The most common type of
long-focus lens is the telephoto lens, a design that uses special optical configurations to
make the lens shorter than its focal length. Lens mounts Many Single-lens reflex cameras,
and some rangefinder cameras have detachable lenses. A few other types do as well,
notably the Mamiya TLR cameras. The lenses attach to the camera using a lens mount, which
often also contains mechanical or electrical linkages between the lens and camera body. The
lens mount is an important issue for compatibility between cameras and lenses; each major
camera manufacturer typically has their own lens mount which is incompatible with others;
notable exceptions are the Leica M39 lens mount for rangefinders, M42 lens mount for early
SLRs, the later Pentax K mount, and the Four Thirds System mount for dSLRs, all of which are
used by multiple camera brands. Most large-format cameras take interchangeable lenses as
well, which are usually mounted in a lensboard or on the front standard. Types of lens
"Close-up" or macro A macro lens used in macro or "close-up" photography (not to be
confused with the compositional term "Close up") is any lens that produces an image on the
focal plane (i.e., film or a digital sensor) that is the same size or larger than the subject being
imaged. This configuration is generally used to image close-up very small subjects. A macro
lens may be of any focal length, the actual focus length being determined by its practical
use, considering magnification, the required ratio, access to the subject, and illumination
considerations. They can be special lens corrected optically for close up work or they can be
any lens modified (with adapters or spacers) to bring the focal plane "forward" for very close
photography. The depth-of-field is very narrow, limiting their usefulness. Lenses are usually
stopped down to give a greater depth-of-field. Zoom Some lenses, called zoom lenses, have
a focal length that varies as internal elements are moved, typically by rotating the barrel or
pressing a button which activates an electric motor. Commonly, the lens may zoom from
moderate wide-angle, through normal, to moderate telephoto; or from normal to extreme
telephoto. The zoom range is limited by manufacturing constraints; the ideal of a lens of
large maximum aperture which will zoom from extreme wideangle to extreme telephoto is
not attainable. Zoom lenses are widely used for small-format cameras of all types: still and
cine cameras with fixed or interchangeable lenses. Bulk and price limit their use for larger
film sizes. Motorized zoom lenses may also have the focus, iris, and other functions
motorized. Special-purpose A tilt/shift lens, set to its maximum degree of tilt relative to the
camera body. 1. Apochromat (APO) lenses have added correction for chromatic aberration.
2. Process lenses have extreme correction for aberrations of geometry (pincushion
distortion, barrel distortion) and are generally intended for use at a specific distance. 1.
Process and apochromat lenses are normally of small aperture, and are used for extremely
accurate photographs of static objects. Generally, their performance is optimized for
subjects a few inches from the front of the lens, and suffers outside this narrow range. 1.
Enlarger lenses are made to be used with photographic enlargers (specialised projectors),
rather than cameras. 2. Lenses for aerial photography. 3. Fisheye lenses: extreme wide-angle
lenses with an angle of view of up to 180 degrees or more, with very noticeable (and
intended) distortion. 4. Stereoscopic lenses, to produce pairs of photographs which give a 3-
dimensional effect when viewed with an appropriate viewer. 5. Soft-focus lenses which give
a soft, but not out-of-focus, image and have an imperfection-removing effect popular among
portrait and fashion photographers. 6. Infrared lenses 7. Ultraviolet lenses 8. Swivel lenses
rotate while attached to a camera body to give unique perspectives and camera angles. 9.
Shift lenses and tilt/shift lenses (collectively perspective control lenses) allow special control
of perspective on SLR cameras by mimicking view camera movements. Aperture An aperture
is a hole or an opening through which light travels. More specifically, the aperture of an
optical system is the opening that determines the cone angle of a bundle of rays that come
to a focus in the image plane. The aperture determines how collimated the admitted rays
are, which is of great importance for the appearance at the image plane.[2] If an aperture is
narrow, then highly collimated rays are admitted, resulting in a sharp focus at the image
plane. If an aperture is wide, then uncollimated rays are admitted, resulting in a sharp focus
only for rays with a certain focal length. This means that a wide aperture results in an image
that is sharp around what the lens is focusing on and blurred otherwise. The aperture also
determines how many of the incoming rays are actually admitted and thus how much light
reaches the image plane (the narrower the aperture, the darker the image for a given
exposure time).
The focal length of an optical system is a measure of how strongly the system converges or
diverges light. For an optical system in air, it is the distance over which initially collimated
rays are brought to a focus. A system with a shorter focal length has greater optical power
than one with a long focal length; that is, it bends the rays more strongly, bringing them to a
focus in a shorter distance. The f-number (sometimes called focal ratio, f-ratio, f-stop, or
relative aperture) of an optical system is the ratio of the lens's focal length to the diameter
of the entrance pupil. It is a dimensionless number that is a quantitative measure of lens
speed, and an important concept in photography. Depth of focus is a lens optics concept
that measures the tolerance of placement of the image plane (the film plane in a camera) in
relation to the lens. In a camera, depth of focus indicates the tolerance of the film's
displacement within the camera, and is therefore sometimes referred to as "lens-to-film
tolerance." Depth of field (DOF) is the distance between the nearest and farthest objects in a
scene that appear acceptably sharp in an image. Although a lens can precisely focus at only
one distance at a time, the decrease in sharpness is gradual on each side of the focused
distance, so that within the DOF, the unsharpness is imperceptible under normal viewing
conditions. In some cases, it may be desirable to have the entire image sharp, and a large
DOF is appropriate. In other cases, a small DOF may be more effective, emphasizing the
subject while de-emphasizing the foreground and background. In cinematography, a large
DOF is often called deep focus, and a small DOF is often called shallow focus. Camera Lens
Care Dirt Dirt is a daily challenge for your lens. Dust and other dirt on the surface of your
lens will create horrible images. One stray spec of dust is probably not going to be noticed
but if your lens is obviously dusty it can cause problems. Dirt causes even more problems as
it is more difficult to remove from your lens surface. Removing Dust and Dirt For dust and
lint, a simple microfiber lens cloth will remove the problem. Simply use light strokes working
towards the outside of the lens. For mud or other stubborn dirt, you will need to use a
cleaning solution designed for photographic lenses. If you use ammonia or another
household cleaning solution you could permanently damage the lens. Most photographic
lenses have a fine coat of oil on their surfaces. Eventually, this coating will wear off with
repeated cleanings of any kind. Using a filter (see scratches) will help prolong the life of your
lens. Scratches Scratches are a killer of your lens. There is no good way to repair them
yourself. The best thing you can do is prevent scratches. The easiest thing you can do to
protect your lens against scratches is to use a filter. A filter is a small piece of glass that fits in
front of your lens. The original purpose of filters was to change the look of an image.
However, many people use a polarizing filter or an UV filter as protection for their lenses.
These filters have generally mild effects and are useful for general photography. Keep in
mind that you are putting a relatively inexpensive piece of glass on a rather expensive piece
of glass. Use high quality filters to avoid compromising your lens quality. Shock Shock is
when your camera lens is hit or hits something else with considerable force. If you drop your
lens or if someone slams a car door on your lens it will probably cause damage. Sometimes
this damage can be repaired by an professional repair shop but it is almost always very
expensive. The best way to protect your lens is to carry it (and your camera) in a padded
camera bag, and to be aware of your surroundings. If you have your lens (and camera) out of
the bag, pay attention to what is around you and be prepared to move your camera, and
yourself, out of harm's way. Water Water is a mortal enemy to your lens. The electronic
circuits and motors inside most of today's lenses can be destroyed by water. Also, Most
lenses actually have several elements, or other lenses, inside them. If water gets on these
internal lenses and drys it leaves water spots that you cannot clean yourself. To protect your
lens from water damage there are several things to remember. If shooting in the rain, use a
rain hood. When moving between temperature extremes, carry your lens (and camera) in a
camera bag before changing temperatures to help prevent condensation inside the lens.
Once moved to the new temperature, slowly introduce the new air into the bag. 1. Be
careful to avoid dropping your lens (and camera) into water. 2. If your camera lens does get
water inside of it follow these steps. 3. Turn the lens so that the lens mount is down to help
water drain from the lens. 4. Wrap the lens in a very absorbent towel. 5. Take the lens to the
nearest professional repair shop immediately.