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Aerodynamic Modeling and Design Procedures for Unmanned Aerial Vehicle

Propeller

Conference Paper · January 2020

DOI: 10.2514/6.2020-0018

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 Aerodynamic Modeling and Design Procedures for Unmanned
Aerial Vehicle Propeller

Mohamed Y. Zakaria ∗ , Omar. E. Abdelhamid† ,Mahmoud.M.abdelghafaar‡ , Mostafa.M.yassien§

Military Technical College, Aircraft Mechanics Engineering Department, 11766

In this effort, a sequential design procedures based on selected design parameters are used

to design a propeller used for unmanned Ariel vehicles applications. Given the engine power

in hand as well as the total aircraft drag, a complete aerodynamic design procedures are

conducted on a broad range of propeller rpm, chord distribution and twist angle in an iterative

process. A complete graphical user interface is obtained and a 3-Dimensional drawing for the

proposed designed propeller is implemented allowing a user friendly design tool for such scale.

I. Introduction
he Wright Brothers’ propellers [1] were about 80% efficient, compared to about 90% efficiency of nowadats

T propellers. The design procedures of aircraft propellers have been of interest for many years, since a hundred years

ago, the advantage of propeller design and production increased by 10% only. As for particular aircraft design, there

are many factors that affect such propeller design, including engine power, operating RPM for the propeller, diameter

limitations, aircraft performance requirements (high speed cruise, takeoff, loiter, etc.), noise requirements. As power

increases, additional blades are generally required to efficiently utilize the increased power.

The conditions under which a design would have minimum energy loss were stated by A. Betz as early as 1919[2] ;

however, no organized procedure for producing such a design is evident in Glauert’s work[3]. Those equations which

are given by Betz make extensive use of small-angle approximations and relations applicable only to light loading

conditions. Theodorsen [4] showed that the Betz condition for minimum energy loss can be applied to heavy loading as

well. In 1979, E. Larrabee [5] resurrected the design equations and presented a straightforward procedure for optimum

design. However, there are still some challenges : first, small angle approximations are used ; second, the solution for the

displacement velocity is accurate only by ignoring small values (light loading), although an approximate correction is

suggested for moderate loading ; and last is the missing viscous term in the expressions for the induced velocities. These

viscous terms may be included in the design equations to be consistent with the classical propeller analysis in order to

enhance the design procedures.

Improvements have been made in the equations and computational procedures for design of propellers and rotors of
∗. Assistant Professor, acting as Department Head, AIAA APATC Member
†. Professor, AIAA Member
‡. Research Assistant
§. Research Assistant
maximum efficiency. An iterative scheme is introduced for accurate calculation of the vortex displacement velocity and

the flow angle distribution. Momentum losses due to radial flow can be estimated by either the Prandtl or Goldstein

momentum loss function [6]. The methods presented here bring into exact agreement the procedure for design and

analysis. Furthermore, the exactness of this agreement makes it possible for an empirical verification of the Betz

condition that a constant-displacement velocity across the wake provides a design of maximum propeller efficiency. The

design procedures for such helicopter and micro rotors based on blade element theory as well as unsteady strip theory

were introduced by Dayhoum et al. [7], Zakaria et al. [8, 9]. Currently most small unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) use

inexpensive and readily available off the shelf fixed pitch propellers originally designed for radio controlled (RC) plate

forms. Selecting the best off the shelf propeller for a UAV or particular mission can become expensive and consume a

time and error process due to the complexities of maximizing the efficiency of an electric propulsion system and meeting

the performance requirements of the aircraft. In this work a series of modelling steps followed by an iterative process

were proposed for designing a low cost propeller for SUAVs applications. The proposed procedures were followed by a

series of forces and bending moments act on a rotating propeller due to centrifugal forces and thrust.

II. PROPELLER AERODYNAMICS

In this section the aerodynamics theory and the geometric data will be presented so that one can use such methods

for designing and analyzing any type of propellers. The theory and data presented are limited to those needed for the

practical design and the evaluation of the performance of the propellers operating over the speed, power, altitude and

angle range of a conventional and V/STOL airplanes. In the development of the design and performance evaluation

procedures, empirical corrections have been avoided where possible. The empirical corrections and data are only

applied where the theory is not available ; for instance, at negative thrust and other off-design operating conditions. It is

considered important to stay close to the theory wherever possible to provide information for improving the design and

correcting any deficiencies.

The basic function of a propeller is to convert shaft torque to shaft thrust with an efficient method. If the propeller is

operating at a given free-stream velocity V and is producing a thrust T, the efficiency becomes :

T ∗V
η= (1)
P

The efficiency of a given propeller at any condition depends on the losses due to friction and those losses due to the

acceleration of the fluid.

2
 Figure 1 Basic blade section angles

A. Basic propeller dimension

As the purpose of propeller is to give the required thrust with minimum consumed power (the max efficiency), such

propellers have aerodynamic profile which should be set to an optimum angle of attack(αopt ), consequently corresponds

to minimum drag to lift ratio that was determined according to the airfoil and designation and operating Reynold’s

number. Then the blade needs to be twisted to keep this optimum condition along the blade length. Figure 1 shows the

basic section angles of a typical propeller. The aerodynamic design of an aircraft propeller requires a proper choice

of design conditions among which the engine characteristics (power, revolutions) as well as the design flight speed.

Especially fixed propellers are considerably affected by the design point because their best operation corresponds to a

single flight speed only[10] as shown in the following figures (2,3,and 4) :

B. Blade Element momentum Theory (BEM)

The momentum-blade element theory is a relatively simple means to approximate the induced angle of attack (αi )

by combining two different methods ( momentum theory and blade element theory).The classical BEMT approach each

blade is discretized in a certain number of blade sections along the radius [11]. This approach allows the prediction

of propeller performance more accurately by examining the aerodynamics of the blade section. This theory does not

particularly account for the flow rotation and tip loss factor, unless it has been imposed. Approximation of the induced

effects gives only a rough estimate for the analysis. In general, if the propeller with radius (r) screws itself through the

air without slipping, then the distance it would travel in one revolution is the pitch[12] :

P = 2πrtan β


(2)

3
 Figure 2 Optimum angle of attack for an operating
speed

Figure 3 Effect of decreasing operating rmp Figure 4 Effect of increasing operating rmp

Assuming the pitch is constant throughout the blade radius, where the pitch angle β is the angle between the plane of

rotation and the section chord line. However, for the following analysis, it is more convenient to define it relative to

the zero-lift line instead of the chord line. Figure 5 Shows the front view of a rotating propeller with two blades and

an angular velocity ω (rad/s) with incoming free stream velocity U. The notation on this figure is similar to that of

McCormick [13]. Note that the induced velocity w, shown is much smaller in scale than indicated here.

Figure 5 Element forces as described by blade element momentum theory & velocity triangles

The thrust per unit radius , T 0 acting on the annulus can now be expressed as :

dT
T0 = = 2πrρV 1 + a 2V aF



(3)
dr

4
By similar arguments, the torque per unit radius Q’ is given by :

Q0
= 2πrρV 1 + a 2rωa0 F



(4)
r

V acts on the blade element with α, and acts on the disc at φ. F goes from about (1) at the hub (where the radial flow is

typically negligible) to (0) at the tip, and is not unlike the span wise loading of a wing. The functional form of this factor

was first estimated by Prandtl [14] and a more accurate, though more complex form was determined by Goldstein [5] .

The circulation equations for thrust T ’ , and torque Q’, per unit radius can be written based on figure 6 as shown :

Figure 6 Geometry of the flow at a blade section

T 0 = L0 cosφ − D0 sinφ = L0 cosφ 1 − tanφ

(5)

Q0 r = L0 sinφ + D0 cosφ = L0 sinφ 1 + /tanφ

(6)

In order to include Prandtl Tip and Hub Losses Corrections [15], where the original blade element momentum

theory does not take into account the influence of vortices shed from the blade tips into the slipstream on the induced

velocity field. However, since the blade creates a pressure difference in the flow, at the tip, that flow tends to move from

the lower blade surface to the upper blade surface, reducing the resultant force in the neighborhood of the tip. Prandtl, as

described in Glauert (1935) [3], derived a correction factor that compensates for the amount of work that can actually be

performed by the element according to its proximity to the blade’s tip (it is widespread the use of this correction for the

blade root too). The factor is calculated as :

2  
F = arccos e−f (7)
π

where :
B
ftip =


1 − ξ /sinφt (8)
2

5
Similarly, to the ftip presented in Eq. (27) , the fhub can be calculated by :

B
fhub =


ξ − 1 /sinφt (9)
2

If the element is affected by both tip losses and hub losses, the total factor is obtained by multiplying those factors, but it

must be known that the most affecting factor isftip so we can neglect hub losses factorfhub .

At each radial position along the blade, infinitesimal vortices are shed and move aft as a helicoidal vortex sheet.

Since these vortices follow the direction of local flow, the helix angle of the spiral surface is φ. The Betz condition for

minimum energy loss, neglecting contraction of the wake, requires the vortex sheet to be a regular screw surface ; i.e., (r

tan φ) must be a constant independent of radius. At the blade station,r, the total lift per unit radius is given by :

L0 = dL/dr = BπW Γ (10)

and in the wake, the circulation in the corresponding annulus is :

BΓ = 2πrF wt (11)

let the circulation Γ in Eq. (10) equal to that in Eq. (11) will ultimately determine that circulation distribution Γ (r) that

minimizes the induced power of the propeller .

In order to obtain Γ (r), it is necessary to relate wt to a more measurable quantity. The motion of the fluid must be

normal to the local vortex sheet, and this normal velocity is wn . Therefore, the tangential velocity is given by :

Wt = wn sinφ (12)

the axial velocity of the vortex filament would be :

v 0 = wn /cosφ (13)

where the increase in magnitude of v 0 over wn is due to rotation of the filament. This is analogous to a barber pole

where it appears that the stripes are translating in spite of the fact that only a rotational velocity exists. It will become

clear that it is convenient to use v 0 , and the corresponding displacement velocity ratio, ζ = v 0 V . The tangential velocity

is then given by :

Wt = V ζsinφcosφ (14)

6
the circulation can be expressed as :
2πrV 2 ζG
Γ= (15)
Bω

G = F sinφcosφ (16)

To impose the Condition for minimum energy Loss [16], a departure from Larrabee’s design procedure is considered.

The momentum equations and the circulating equations, are required to be equivalent. This condition results in the

interference factors being related to ζ by the equations :

a = ζ/2 cos2 φ 1 −  tan φ

(17)

a0 = ζ/2x cos φ sin φ 1 + / tan φ

(18)

where Eqs. (15) and (16) have been used to expressL0 in terms of ζ, and the terms in epsilon correctly describe the

viscous contribution. Equations (17,18), together with the geometry of the above figure (6) lead to the important simple

relation :

tan φ = 1 + ζ/2 x = 1 + ζ/2 λ/ξ

(19)

Here, λ is a constant, and ξ varies from ξo at the hub to unity at the edge of the disc. The relation between the two

nondimensional distances and the constant speed ratio is :

X = ωr/v = r/R /λ = ξ/λ

(20)

Recalling the Betz condition, r tan φ = const, Eq. (19) proves that for the vortex sheet to be a regular screw surface,

ζ must be a constant independent of radius. This is the condition for minimum energy loss.

To derive the Constraint Equations for design procedures, it is necessary to specify either T, delivered by the propeller

or the power P, delivered to the propeller. The nondimensional thrust and power coefficients used for design are :

Tc = 2T / ρV 2 πR2


(21)

Pc = 2P / ρV 3 πR2 = 2QΩ/ ρV 3 πR2

(22)

And using these definitions, Eq. (5,6) can be written as

Tc0 = I10 ζ − I20 ζ 2 (23)

7
 p0c = J10 ζ + J20 ζ 2 (24)

where the primes denote derivatives with respect to ξ, and

I10 = 4ξG 1 −  tan φ

(25)

I20 = λ I10 /2ξ 1 + / tan φ sin φ cos φ

(26)

J10 = 4ξG 1 + / tan φ

(27)

J20 = J10 /2 1 −  tan φ cos2 φ

(28)

Note : Superscript ( 0 ) = derivative with respect to ξ . Noted Since e is constant for an optimum design, if power is

specified, the constraint relations are :


2 1/2
ζ = − J1 /2J2 + J1 /2J2 + Pc /J2 (29)

Tc = I1 ζ − I2 ζ 2 (30)

where the integration has been carried out over the region ξ = ξo and ξ = 1

III. Design Procedures

Based on Adkins and Liebeck’s work [15], the design is initiated with the specified conditions of power (or thrust),

hub and tip radius, rotational rate, free stream velocity, number of blades, and a finite number of stations at which blade

geometry is to be determined. Also, the design lift coefficient per station if it is not constant must be specified. and then

we can get all dimensions and angles of the blade.

The design then proceeds in the following steps :

1) Select an initial estimate for ζ (ζ = 0 will work).

2) Determine the values for F and φ at each blade station by Eqs(31)and (34).

2
F = arccos e−f (31)
π
B


2 1−ξ
f= (32)
sin φt

tan φt = 1 + ζ/2 λ


(33)


tan φt
tan φ = (34)
xi

8
3) Determine the product Wc, and Reynolds number For the element dr of a single blade at radial station r, let Cl the

local lift coefficient. Then, the lift per unit radius of one blade is

ρW 2 cCL /2 = ρW Γ (35)

Where Γ is given by eq.(15) . it follows directly that :

4πλGV Rζ
Wc = (36)
CL B

and Reynolds number would be :

Wc
Re = (37)
ν

Assume for the moment that ζ is known ; then the local value of φ is known from equation (34), and the above relation is

a function only of the local lift coefficient. Since the local Reynolds number is Wc divided by the kinematic viscosity,

equation (37) plus a choice for Cl will determine the Reynolds number and , from the airfoil section data. The total

velocity is then determined by :

V 1+a


W = (38)
sinφ

Where (a) is given by Eq. (17), and the chord is then known from Eq. (36,38). If the choice for Cl causes  to be a

minimum.

4) Determine  and a from airfoil section data.

5) Determinea and a0 from Eq. (17,18), and W from Eq. (38).

6) Compute the chord from step (3), and the blade twist β = α+φ.

7) Determine the four derivatives I and J from Eq. (25,28) and numerically integrate these from ξ = ξo to ξ = 1.

8) Determine ζ and Tc from Eqs. (29) and (30).

9) If this new value for ζ is not sufficiently close to the old one (e.g., within 0.1%) start over at step 2 using the new ζ.

10) Determine propeller efficiency.

The analysis method is outlined here in order to discuss problems of convergence at off design.A correction for the

placement of the factor F used by Glauert in his equation, this requires the interference factors to be as follow :

σK
a=
(39)
F − σk

σk 0
a0 = (40)
F + σK 0

9
 Cy
k= (41)
4 sin2 φ

Cx
k0 =
(42)
4 cos φ sin φ

V 1+a


tan φ =
(43)
Ωr 1 − a0

The analysis procedure requires an iterative solution for the flow angle φ at each radial position, ξ An initial estimate for

φ can be obtained from Eq. (19) by setting ζ equal to zero. Since β is known, the value for α equal β-φ, and the airfoil

coefficients are known from the section data. The Reynolds number is determined from the known chord and W, which is

obtained from Eq. (39), and the new estimate for φ is then found from Eq. (43). A direct substitution of the new φ for the

old value will cause adequate convergence for an optimum design which is being analyzed at the design point. However,

for analysis off-design and for non optimum designs, some recursive combination of the old and new values for φ is

required to cause adequate convergence. Under some conditions (usually near the tip), convergence may not be possible

at all due to large values for the interference factors, a and a0 , in Eq. (39,40). Since F is zero at the tip and a is not for

a square tip propeller, the value for a is - 1 and a0 is +1. Such values are physically impossible since the slipstream

factors are approximately twice the values at the rotor plane. For resolving this problem, clipping the magnitude of a(N)

anda0 N at the value of a(N-1) and a0 (N-1). For analysis, the conventional thrust and power coefficients are :

T
CT = (44)
ρn2 D4

P
Cp = (45)
ρn3 D5

Using Eqs. (3) and (5), the differential forms with respect to (f) are given by :

π3 32
4 σCy ξF
CT0 =
2 (46)
F + σK 0 cos φ

When these have been integrated from the hub to the tip, the propeller efficiency is :

CT J
η= (47)
CP

IV. Implemented software using Matlab with graphical user interface "GUI"
A software design tool is developed using MATLAB software to design such propeller scale. A graphical user

interface (GUI) is also added for more simplicity for enhancing various designs. Figure 7 shows a block diagram for the

design hierarchy With inputs such as rpm, power, diameter, airfoil shape, airplane velocity and number of blades. A

10
 Figure 7 Hierarchical class structure to represent MTC Propeller software

complete design of the propeller is achieved and a 3D model is obtained with conjunction with the numerical results

results in a parametric design software. Figures from figure 8 to figure 10 present a snap shots for the designed GUI.

Figure 8 Graphical user interface (1) of the implemented software

11
 Figure 9 Graphical user interface (2) of the implemented software

Figure 10 Graphical user interface (3) of the implemented software

V. case study and software validation

The output results from the implemented software have been checked and compared with the results of Adkins and

Liebeck[15]. The required input data for Adkins and Liebeck case study are described in Table 1 :

Figures ?? show the results obtained for the case study introduced by Adkins and Liebeck and the implemented

software. The results show a very good matching with by having the same input data introduced by Ref.[15].

12
 Table 1 Required data for propeller design

Input data for propeller design Units

Power 52000 kW
Rotation Speed 2400 RPM
Hub Diameter 0.3 m
Tip Diameter 1.75 m
Aircraft Velocity 49 m/s
Lift Coefficient 0.7 -
No. of Blades 2 -

Figure 11 Comparison between chord length distribution along span towards blade tip

Figure 12 Chord length distribution along blade span in (m)

Figure 15 shows a 3D CAD model based on the obtained dimensions from the software. A technological link

13
 Figure 13 Aerodynamic lift force per unit length (N/m)

Figure 14 Off design matching with design at the same conditions (phi in deg)

between the Matlab software and the CAD modeling software in order to parametrize the input conditions in order to

enhance the design process.

14
 Figure 15 Printed blade cad 3D view

VI. Conclusion
In this work, a complete design procedures as well as a graphical user interface were obtained for small scale

propellers. The aerodynamic model is started using a mission required input for a specific small flying vehicle to obtain

the required thrust. The designed GUI is able to define each technological design step including operating, structural

and goemetrical characterestics of the proposed propeller. A case study of an already existing propeller was used to

verify the design modeling procedures. The efficiency of the propulsion system does not depend solely on the propeller,

but it is affected significantly by the motor efficiency and the vehicle characteristics[17]. Thus, as a future work, it is

important to include the motor characteristics in the design process.

Références
[1] Ash, R., Miley, S., Landman, D., and Hyde, K., “Propeller performance of Wright brothers”Bent End’propellers,” 36th

AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference and Exhibit, 2000, p. 3152.

[2] Betz, A., “with appendix by Prandtl,” L.," Screw propellers with Minimum Energy Loss," Göttingen Reports, 1919, pp. 193–213.

[3] Glauert, H., “Airplane propellers,” Aerodynamic theory, Springer, 1935, pp. 169–360.

[4] Theodorsen, T., “The Theory of Propellers IV : Thrust, Energy, and Efficiency Formulas for Single-and Dual-rotating Propellers

with Ideal Circulation Distribution,” 1944.

[5] Larrabee, E. E., “Practical design of minimum induced loss propellers,” Tech. rep., SAE Technical Paper, 1979.

[6] Adkins, C., and LIEBECK, R., “Design of optimum propellers,” 21st Aerospace Sciences Meeting, 1983, p. 190.

15
 [7] Dayhoum, A., Zakaria, M. Y., Elshabka, A. M., and Abdelhamid, O. E., “Speculation of local aerodynamic loads on helicopter

rotor blade in forward flight,” IOP Conference Series : Materials Science and Engineering, Vol. 610, 2019, p. 012099.

doi :10.1088/1757-899x/610/1/012099, URL https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1757-899x%2F610%2F1%2F012099.

[8] Zakaria, M. Y., Nemnem, A. F., Dayhoum, A., Elnady, T., and Elzahaby, A., “Centimeter Scale Micro Wind Turbine Modelling

Correction Using Wind Tunnel Experiments,” AIAA Scitech 2019 Forum, 2019, p. 1577.

[9] Zakaria, M. Y., Nemnem, A. F., Gad, K., and Abdelwahab, M. M., “Performance Analysis and Aerodynamic Modeling of

Contra-Rotating Ducted fan UAV,” AIAA Scitech 2019 Forum, 2019, p. 1788.

[10] Law, A., “OATmedia launches PPL training book set,” 2008.

[11] Thiele, M., Obster, M., and Hornung, M., “Aerodynamic Modeling of Coaxial Counter-Rotating UAV Propellers,” VFS, 8th

Biennial Autonomous VTOL Technical Meeting, 2019, p. 13.

[12] Ghoddoussi, A., “A more comprehensive database for propeller performance validations at low Reynolds numbers,” Ph.D.

thesis, Wichita State University, 2016.

[13] Mccormick, J. T., “Propeller blade,” , Nov. 16 1948. US Patent 2,453,803.

[14] Prandtl, L., “Appendix to" Schraubenpropeller mit geringstem Energieverlust’by Betz, A,” Gottinger Nachr, 1919, pp. 193–217.

[15] Adkins, C. N., and Liebeck, R. H., “Design of optimum propellers,” Journal of Propulsion and Power, Vol. 10, No. 5, 1994, pp.

676–682.

[16] Larrabee, E. E., and French, S. E., “Minimum induced loss windmills and propellers,” Journal of Wind Engineering and

Industrial Aerodynamics, Vol. 15, No. 1-3, 1983, pp. 317–327.

[17] Garner, W., “Model Airplane Propellers,” Air-Propeller research document, wbgarner08@ verizon. net, 2009.

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