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Truck

A truck or lorry is a motor vehicle designed to

transport freight, carry specialized payloads, or
perform other utilitarian work. Trucks vary greatly in
size, power, and configuration, but the vast majority
feature body-on-frame construction, with a cabin
that is independent of the payload portion of the
vehicle. Smaller varieties may be mechanically
similar to some automobiles. Commercial trucks can
be very large and powerful and may be configured to
be mounted with specialized equipment, such as in
the case of refuse trucks, fire trucks, concrete mixers,
and suction excavators. In American English, a
commercial vehicle without a trailer or other Freightliner M2 dump truck
articulation is formally a "straight truck" while one
designed specifically to pull a trailer is not a truck but
a "tractor".[1]

The majority of trucks currently in use are still

powered by diesel engines, although small- to
medium-size trucks with gasoline engines exist in the
US, Canada, and Mexico. The market-share of
electrically powered trucks is growing rapidly, A Mack Titan road train in Australia
expected to reach 7% globally by 2027, and electric
motive force already predominates among both the
largest and smallest trucks.[2] In the European
Union, vehicles with a gross combination mass of up
to 3.5  t (3.4 long tons; 3.9 short tons) are known as
light commercial vehicles, and those over as large
goods vehicles.

History

Steam wagons
Liebherr T 282B hybrid electric mining truck
Trucks and cars have a common ancestor: the steam-
powered fardier Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot built in
1769. However, steam wagons were not common until the mid-19th century. The roads of the time,
built for horse and carriages, limited these vehicles to very short hauls, usually from a factory to
the nearest railway station. The first semi-trailer appeared in 1881, towed by a steam tractor

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manufactured by De Dion-Bouton. Steam-powered

wagons were sold in France and the United States
until the eve of World War I, and 1935 in the United
Kingdom, when a change in road tax rules made
them uneconomic against the new diesel lorries.

Internal combustion

In 1895, Karl Benz designed and built the first

internal combustion truck. Later that year some of
Benz's trucks were modified to become busses by
Netphener. A year later, in 1896, another internal A Mitsubishi Minicab MiEV battery-electric truck
combustion engine truck was built by Gottlieb
Daimler, the Daimler Motor Lastwagen.[3] Other
companies, such as Peugeot, Renault and Büssing, also built
their own versions. The first truck in the United States was
built by Autocar in 1899 and was available with 5 or 8
horsepower (4 or 6  kW) engines.[4] Trucks of the era mostly
used two-cylinder engines and had a carrying capacity of 1.5 to
2  t (3,300 to 4,400  lb). After World War I, several advances
were made: electric starters, and 4, 6, and 8 cylinder engines.

Diesel engines A Sentinel steam wagon

Although it had been invented in 1897, the diesel engine did

not appear in production trucks until Benz introduced it in
1923.[5] The diesel engine was not common in trucks in Europe
until the 1930s. In the United States, Autocar introduced diesel
engines for heavy applications in the mid-1930s. Demand was
high enough that Autocar launched the "DC" model (diesel
conventional) in 1939. However, it took much longer for diesel Daimler Motor-Lastwagen from
engines to be broadly accepted in the US: gasoline engines were 1898
still in use on heavy trucks in the 1970s.[6][7]

Electric Motors

Electrically powered trucks predate internal combustion ones

and have been continuously available since the mid-19th-
century. In the 1920s Autocar Trucks was the first of the major
truck manufacturers to offer a range of electric trucks for
sale.[8] Electric trucks were successful for urban delivery roles
and as specialized work vehicles like forklifts and pushback
tugs. The higher energy density of liquid fuels soon led to the President Joe Biden test driving the
decline of electric-powered trucks in favor of, first, gasoline, Ford F-150 Lightning all-electric
and then diesel and CNG-fueled engines until battery pick up at Ford's Rouge Electric
technology advanced in the 2000s when new chemistries and Vehicle Center
higher-volume production broadened the range of applicability

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of electric propulsion to trucks in many more roles. Today, manufacturers are electrifying all
trucks ahead of national regulatory requirements, with long-range over-the-road trucks being the
most challenging.[9][10]

Etymology

Truck is used in American English, and is common in Canada,

Australia, New Zealand, Pakistan and South Africa, while lorry
is the equivalent in British English, and is the usual term in
countries like Ireland, Malaysia, Singapore and India.

The first known usage of "truck" was in 1611 when it referred to

the small strong wheels on ships' cannon carriages, and comes
from "Trokhos" (Greek) = "wheel". In its extended usage, it
Mannesmann Mulag truck at the
came to refer to carts for carrying heavy loads, a meaning
Finlayson factory in Tampere,
known since 1771. Its expanded application to "motor-powered
Finland in 1921
load carrier" has been in usage since 1930, shortened from
"motor truck", which dates back to 1901.[11][12]

"Lorry" has a more uncertain origin, but probably has its roots in the rail transport industry, where
the word is known to have been used in 1838 to refer to a type of truck (a goods wagon as in British
usage, not a bogie as in the American), specifically a large flat wagon. It might derive from the verb
lurry (to carry or drag along, or to lug) which was in use as early as 1664, but that association is
not definitive.[13] The expanded meaning of lorry, "self-propelled vehicle for carrying goods", has
been in usage since 1911.[14][15]

International variance

In the United States, Canada, and the Philippines, "truck" is

usually reserved for commercial vehicles larger than regular
passenger cars, but includes large SUVs, pickups, and other
vehicles with an open load bed. In Australia, New Zealand and
South Africa, the word "truck" is mostly reserved for larger
vehicles. In Australia and New Zealand, a pickup truck is
frequently called a ute (short for "utility" vehicle),[16] while in
South Africa it is called a bakkie (Afrikaans: "small open A Japanese concrete mixer
container"). In the United Kingdom, India, Malaysia,
Singapore, Ireland, and Hong Kong lorry is used instead of
truck, but only for the medium and heavy types, while truck is used almost exclusively to refer to
pickups.

Types by size

Ultra light

Often produced as variations of golf cars, with internal combustion or battery electric drive, these
are used typically for off-highway use on estates, golf courses, and parks. While not suitable for
highway use some variations may be licensed as slow speed vehicles for operation on streets,

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generally as a body variation of a neighborhood electric vehicle.

A few manufactures produce specialized chassis for this type of
vehicle, while Zap Motors markets a version of their Xebra
electric tricycle (licensable in the U.S. as a motorcycle).

Very light

Popular in Europe and Asia, many

Might-E Truck from Canadian
mini-trucks are factory redesigns
Electric Vehicles
of light automobiles, usually with
monocoque bodies. Specialized
designs with substantial frames
such as the Italian Piaggio shown
here are based upon Japanese
designs (in this case by Daihatsu)
and are popular for use in "old
A Piaggio Porter
town" sections of European cities
that often have very narrow
alleyways.
Tata Super Ace in Indonesia
Regardless of name, these small trucks serve a wide range of
uses. In Japan, they are regulated under the Kei car laws, which
allow vehicle owners a break in taxes for buying a smaller and less-powerful vehicle (currently, the
engine is limited to 660 cc displacement). These vehicles are used as on-road utility vehicles in
Japan. These Japanese-made mini trucks that were manufactured for on-road use are competing
with off-road ATVs in the United States, and import regulations require that these mini trucks
have a 25  mph (40  km/h) speed governor as they are classified as low-speed vehicles.[17] These
vehicles have found uses in construction, large campuses (government, university, and industrial),
agriculture, cattle ranches, amusement parks, and replacements for golf carts.[18]

Major mini truck manufacturers and their brands:

Daihatsu Hijet
Honda Acty
Tata Ace
Mazda Scrum
Mitsubishi Minicab
Subaru Sambar
SML truck on the road in Accra
Suzuki Carry

Light

Light trucks are car-sized (in the US, no more than 13,900  lb
(6.3 t)) and are used by individuals and businesses alike. In the
EU they may not weigh more than 3.5  t (7,700  lb) and are
allowed to be driven with a driving licence for cars. Pickup
trucks, called utes in Australia and New Zealand, are common

A Ford Ranger pickup truck

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in North America and some regions of Latin America, Asia, and Africa, but not so in Europe, where
this size of commercial vehicle is most often made as vans.

Medium

Medium trucks are larger than light but smaller than heavy
trucks. In the US, they are defined as weighing between 13,000
and 33,000  lb (5.9 and 15.0  t). For the UK and the EU the
weight is between 3.5 to 7.5  t (7,700 to 16,500  lb). Local
delivery and public service (dump trucks, garbage trucks and
fire-fighting trucks) are normally around this size.

Heavy
Fuso Canter, 8th Generation in
Taiwan
Heavy trucks are the largest
on-road trucks, Class 8.
These include vocational
applications such as heavy
dump trucks, concrete
A cement mixer is an example of a
pump trucks, and refuse
Class 8 heavy truck.
hauling, as well as
ubiquitous long-haul 4x2
and 6×4 tractor units.[19]

Road damage and wear increase very rapidly with the axle
Seddon Atkinson Stratos refuse
weight. The number of steering axles and the suspension type
compactor
also influence the amount of the road wear. In many countries
with good roads a six-axle truck may have a maximum weight
of 44 t (97,000 lb) or more.

Off-road

Off-road trucks include

standard, extra heavy-duty
highway-legal trucks,
typically outfitted with off-
In Pakistan the majority of trucks road features such as a
are colorful and decorated. front driving axle and
special tires for applications
such as logging and
ALMA antenna transporters are
construction, and purpose-built off-road vehicles
20 m (652⁄3 ft) long, 10 m (327⁄9 ft)
unconstrained by weight limits, such as the Liebherr T 282B
wide, weigh 130 t (127.9 long tons;
mining truck. 143.3 short tons) and drive on 28
tires.[20]
Maximum sizes by country

Australia has complex regulations over weight and length, including axle spacing, type of axle/axle
group, rear overhang, kingpin to rear of trailer, drawbar length, ground clearance, as well as height
and width laws. These limits are some of the highest in the world, a B-double can weigh 62.5  t
(61.5 long tons; 68.9 short tons) and be 25 m (82 ft) long, and road trains used in the outback can
weigh 172 t (169.3 long tons; 189.6 short tons) and be 53.5 m (176 ft) long.[21][22]
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The European Union also has complex regulations. The number and spacing of axles, steering,
single or dual tires, and suspension type all affect maximum weights. Length of a truck, of a trailer,
from axle to hitch point, kingpin to rear of trailer, and turning radius are all regulated. In
additions, there are special rules for carrying containers, and countries can set their own rules for
local traffic.[23]

The United States Federal Bridge Law deals with the relation between the gross weight of the
truck, the number of axles, the weight on and the spacing between the axles that the truck can have
on the Interstate highway system.[24] Each State determines the maximum permissible vehicle,
combination, and axle weight on state and local roads.

Maximum
Country With one trailer Maximum combination
with three axles
23 t (22.6 long tons; 172 t (169.3 long tons;
Australia[21][22] 25.4 short tons) 189.6 short tons)
12 m (39 ft) 53.5 m (176 ft)

25 t (24.6 long tons; 49 t (48.2 long tons; 55 t (54.1 long tons; 60.6
China[25] 27.6 short tons) 54.0 short tons) short tons)
12 m (39 ft) 16.5 m (54 ft) 18.75 m (62 ft)

26 t (25.6 long tons; 44 t (43.3 long tons; 48.5

EU[23] 28.7 short tons) short tons)
12 m (39 ft) 16.5 m (54 ft) 18.75 m (62 ft)
28 t (27.6 long tons; 76 t (74.8 long tons; 76 t (74.8 long tons; 83.8
Finland[26] 30.9 short tons) 83.8 short tons) short tons)
13 m (43 ft) 34.5 m (113 ft 2 in) 34.5 m (113 ft)

26 t (25.6 long tons; 30 t (29.5 long tons; 44 t (43.3 long tons; 48.5
[27] 28.7 short tons) 33.1 short tons) short tons)
Ireland
12 m (39 ft) 16.5 m (54 ft 2 in) 22 m (72 ft)

26 t (25.6 long tons; 74 t (72.8 long tons; 74 t (72.8 long tons; 81.6
Sweden[28] 28.7 short tons) 81.6 short tons) short tons)
24 m (79 ft) 25.25 m (82 ft 10 in) 25.25 m (82.8 ft)
26 t (25.6 long tons; 44 t (43.3 long tons; 44 t (43.3 long tons; 48.5
UK[29] 28.7 short tons) 48.5 short tons) short tons)
12 m (39 ft) 16.5 m (54 ft) 18.75 m (62 ft)

USA[30][31] 54,000 lb (24 t) 80,000 lb (36 t) 80,000 lb (36 t)

(Interstate) 45 ft (13.7 m) none none

Uniquely, the State of Michigan has a gross vehicle weight limit of 164,000 lb (74 t), which is twice
the U.S. federal limit.[32][33][34] A measure to change the law was defeated in the Michigan Senate
in 2019.[35][36][37][38][39]

Design
Almost all trucks share a common construction: they are made of a chassis, a cab, an area for
placing cargo or equipment, axles, suspension and roadwheels, an engine and a drivetrain.
Pneumatic, hydraulic, water, and electrical systems may also be present. Many also tow one or
more trailers or semi-trailers.

Cab

The "cab", or "cabin" is an enclosed space where the driver is seated. A "sleeper" is a compartment
attached to or integral with the cab where the driver can rest while not driving, sometimes seen in
semi-trailer trucks.
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There are several cab

configurations:

"Cab over engine" (COE) or

"flat nose"; where the driver
is seated above the front
axle and the engine. This
design is almost ubiquitous
A cabover truck
in Europe, where overall
truck lengths are strictly
regulated, and is widely
used in the rest of the world. They were common in North
American heavy-duty trucks but lost prominence when
permitted length was extended in the early 1980s. Streamlined conventional cab
Nevertheless, this design is still popular in North America
among medium- and light-duty trucks. To reach the engine,
the whole cab tilts forward, earning this design the name of
"tilt-cab". This type of cab is especially suited to the delivery
conditions in Europe where many roads require the short
turning radius afforded by the shorter wheelbase of the cab
over engine layout.[40]
"Cab-under" is where the driver is positioned at the front at
the lowest point possible as means for maximum cargo
space as possible.[41][42][43][44] Examples were made by
Cab beside engine
Hunslet, Leyland, Bussing, Strick[45] and Steinwinter.[46]
"Conventional" cabs seated the driver behind the engine,
as in most passenger cars or pickup trucks. Many new cabs are very streamlined, with a
sloped hood (bonnet) and other features to lower drag. Conventional cabs are the most
common in North America, Australia, and China, and are known in the UK as "American cabs"
and in the Netherlands as "torpedo cabs".
"Cab beside engine" designs are used for terminal tractors at shipping yards and for other
specialist vehicles carrying long loads such as pipes. This type is often made by replacing the
passenger side of a cab-over truck with an extended section of the load bed.

A further step from this is the side loading forklift that can be described as a specially fabricated
vehicle with the same properties as a truck of this type, in addition to the ability to pick up its own
load.

Engines and motors

Most small trucks such as sport utility vehicles (SUVs), vans or

pickups, and even light medium-duty trucks in North America,
China, and Russia use gasoline engines (petrol engines), but
many diesel engined models are now being produced. Most of
the heavier trucks use four-stroke diesel engines with a
turbocharger and intercooler. Huge off-highway trucks use
locomotive-type engines such as a V12 Detroit Diesel two
stroke engine. A large proportion of refuse trucks in the United
States employ CNG (compressed natural gas) engines for their
low fuel cost and reduced carbon emissions. Cummins ISB 6.7L medium-duty
truck diesel engine
A significant proportion of North American manufactured
trucks use an engine built by the last remaining major
independent engine manufacturer (Cummins) but most global OEMs such as Volvo Trucks and

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Daimler AG promote their own "captive" engines.[47]

In the European Union, all new truck engines must comply with Euro VI emission regulations.[48]

As of 2019 several alternative technologies are competing to displace the use of diesel engines in
heavy trucks. CNG engines are widely used in the US refuse industry and in concrete mixers,
among other short-range vocations, but range limitations have prevented their broader uptake in
freight hauling applications. Heavy electric trucks and hydrogen-powered trucks are new to the
market in 2021,[49][50] but major freight haulers are interested.[51][52] Although cars will be first
the phase-out of fossil fuel vehicles includes trucks.[53] According to The Economist magazine
"Electric lorries will probably run on hydrogen, not batteries, which are too expensive."[54] Other
researchers say that once faster chargers are available batteries will become competitive against
diesel for all, except perhaps the heaviest, trucks.[55]

Drivetrain

Small trucks use the same type of transmissions as almost all

cars, having either an automatic transmission or a manual
transmission with synchromesh (synchronizers). Bigger trucks
often use manual transmissions without synchronizers, saving
bulk and weight, although synchromesh transmissions are used
in larger trucks as well. Transmissions without synchronizers,
known as "crash boxes", require double-clutching for each
shift, (which can lead to repetitive motion injuries), or a
technique known colloquially as "floating", a method of
A truck rear suspension and drive
changing gears which doesn't use the clutch, except for starts axles overview
and stops, due to the physical effort of double-clutching,
especially with non-power-assisted clutches, faster shifts, and
less clutch wear.

Double-clutching allows the driver to control the engine and

transmission revolutions to synchronize so that a smooth shift
can be made; for example, when upshifting, the accelerator
pedal is released and the clutch pedal is depressed while the
gear lever is moved into neutral, the clutch pedal is then
released and quickly pushed down again while the gear lever is
moved to the next higher gear. Finally, the clutch pedal is
released and the accelerator pedal pushed down to obtain the Eaton Roadranger 18 speed "crash
required engine speed. Although this is a relatively fast box" with automated gearshift
movement, perhaps a second or so while the transmission is in
neutral, it allows the engine speed to drop and synchronize
engine and transmission revolutions relative to the road speed. Downshifting is performed in a
similar fashion, except the engine speed is now required to increase (while the transmission is in
neutral) just the right amount in order to achieve the synchronization for a smooth, non-collision
gear change. "Skip changing" is also widely used; in principle, the operation is the same as double-
clutching, but it requires neutral be held slightly longer than a single-gear change.

Common North American setups include 9, 10, 13, 15, and 18  speeds. Automatic and automated
manual transmissions for heavy trucks are becoming more and more common, due to advances
both in transmission and engine power. In Europe, 8, 10, 12, and 16 gears are common on larger
trucks with a manual transmission, while conventional automatic or automated manual

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transmissions would have anything from 5 to 12 gears. Almost all heavy truck transmissions are of
the "range and split" (double H shift pattern) type, where range change and so‑called half gears or
splits are air operated and always preselected before the main gear selection.

Frame

A truck frame consists of two parallel boxed (tubular) or

C‑shaped rails, or beams, held together by crossmembers.
These frames are referred to as ladder frames due to their
resemblance to a ladder if tipped on end. The rails consist of a
tall vertical section (two if boxed) and two shorter horizontal
flanges. The height of the vertical section provides opposition
to vertical flex when weight is applied to the top of the frame
(beam resistance). Though typically flat the whole length on
heavy-duty trucks, the rails may sometimes be tapered or A truck rear frame (chassis) section
arched for clearance around the engine or over the axles. The view
holes in rails are used either for mounting vehicle components
and running wires and hoses or measuring and adjusting the
orientation of the rails at the factory or repair shop.

The frame is usually made of steel, but can be made (whole or

in part) of aluminum for a lighter weight. A tow bar may be
found attached at one or both ends, but heavy tractors almost
always make use of a fifth wheel hitch.

Body types
Pickup truck frame (right rear view)
Box trucks ("tilts" in the UK) have walls and a roof, making
an enclosed load space. The rear has doors for unloading; a
side door is sometimes fitted.[56]

Chassis cab trucks have a fully enclosed cab at the front, with bare chassis frame-rails behind,
suitable for subsequent permanent attachment of a specialized payload, like a fire-truck or
ambulance body.

Concrete mixers have a rotating drum on an inclined axis, rotating in one direction to mix, and
in the other to discharge the concrete down chutes. Because of the weight and power requirements
of the drum body and rough construction sites, mixers have to be very heavy duty.[57][58]

Dual drive/Steer trucks are vehicles used to steer the rear of trailers.[59][60][61][62]

Dump trucks ("tippers" in the UK) transport loose material such as sand, gravel, or dirt for
construction. A typical dump truck has an open-box bed, which is hinged at the rear and lifts at the
front, allowing the material in the bed to be unloaded ("dumped") on the ground behind the
truck.[63][64]

Flatbed trucks have an entirely flat, level platform body. This allows for quick and easy loading
but has no protection for the load. Hanging or removable sides are sometimes fitted.[65]

Refrigerator trucks have insulated panels as walls and a roof and floor, used for transporting
fresh and frozen cargo such as ice cream, food, vegetables, and prescription drugs. They are mostly
equipped with double-wing rear doors, but a side door is sometimes fitted.

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Refuse trucks have a specialized body for collecting and, often, compacting trash collected from
municipal, commercial, and industrial sites. This application has the widest use of the cab-over
configuration in North America, to provide better maneuverability in tight situations. They are
also among the most severe-duty and highest GVWR trucks on public roads.

Semi-tractors ("artics" in the UK) have a fifth wheel for towing a semi-trailer instead of a body.

Tank trucks ("tankers" in the UK) are designed to carry liquids or gases. They usually have a
cylindrical tank lying horizontally on the chassis. Many variants exist due to the wide variety of
liquids and gases that can be transported.[66]

Wreckers ("recovery lorries" in the UK) are used to recover and/or tow disabled vehicles. They
are normally equipped with a boom with a cable; wheel/chassis lifts are becoming common on
newer trucks.[67][68][69]

Sales and sales issues

Manufacturers

Truck market worldwide

Largest truck manufacturers in the world as of 2015.

Pos. Make Units

1 Daimler AG (Mercedes-Benz, Freightliner, Unimog, Western Star, Fuso, BharatBenz) 506,663[70]

2 Navistar International 359,000[71]

3 Dongfeng 336,869[72]

4 Tata 317,780[73]

5 Volvo Group (Volvo, Mack, Renault, UD Nissan) 207,475[74]

6 Volkswagen Group (MAN, Scania, Caminhões e Ônibus) 179,035[75]

7 Hino 162,870[76]

8 Paccar (DAF, Kenworth, Peterbilt, Leyland) 154,700[77]

9 Iveco 140,200[78]

Driving
In many countries, driving a truck requires a special driving license. The requirements and
limitations vary with each different jurisdiction.

Australia

In Australia, a truck driver's license is required for any motor vehicle with a Gross Vehicle Mass
(GVM) exceeding 4.5  t (4.4 long tons; 5.0 short tons). The motor vehicles classes are further
expanded as:

Combination

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HC: Heavy Combination, a typical prime mover plus semi-

trailer combination.
MC: Multi Combination, e.g., B Doubles/road trains

Rigid

LR: Light rigid: a rigid vehicle with a GVM of more than

4.5 t (4.4 long tons; 5.0 short tons) but not more than 8 t
(7.9 long tons; 8.8 short tons). Any towed trailer must not
weigh more than 9 t (8.9 long tons; 9.9 short tons) GVM.
Inside a Mack truck
MR: Medium rigid: a rigid vehicle with 2 axles and a GVM
of more than 8 t (7.9 long tons; 8.8 short tons). Any towed
trailer must not weigh more than 9 t (8.9 long tons; 9.9 short tons) GVM. Also includes vehicles
in class LR.
HR: Heavy Rigid: a rigid vehicle with three or more axles and a GVM of more than 8 t (7.9 long
tons; 8.8 short tons). Any towed trailer must not weigh more than 9 t (8.9 long tons; 9.9 short
tons) GVM. Also includes articulated buses and vehicles in class MR.

Heavy vehicle transmission

There is also a heavy vehicle transmission condition for a license class HC, HR, or MC test passed
in a vehicle fitted with an automatic or synchromesh transmission; a driver's license will be
restricted to vehicles of that class fitted with a synchromesh or automatic transmission. To have
the condition removed, a person needs to pass a practical driving test in a vehicle with non-
synchromesh transmission (constant mesh or crash box).[79]

Europe

Driving licensing has been harmonized throughout the

European Union and the EEA (and practically all European
non-member states), so that common rules apply within
Europe (see European driving licence). As an overview, to drive
a vehicle weighing more than 7.5  t (7.4 long tons; 8.3 short
tons) for commercial purposes requires a specialist license (the
type varies depending on the use of the vehicle and number of
seats). For licenses first acquired after 1997, that weight was
reduced to 3.5  t (3.4 long tons; 3.9 short tons), not including Inside a Mercedes-Benz truck
trailers.

Since 2013, the C1 license category allows driving vehicles over

3.5 and up to 7.5 tonnes. The C license category allows driving vehicles over 3.5 tonnes with a
trailer up to 750  kg, and the CE category allows driving category C vehicles with a trailer over
750 kg.

South Africa

To drive any vehicle with a GVM exceeding 3.5 t (3.4 long tons; 3.9 short tons), a code C1 drivers
license is required. Furthermore, if the vehicle exceeds 16 t (15.7 long tons; 17.6 short tons) a code
C license becomes necessary.

To drive any vehicle in South Africa towing a trailer with a GVM more than 7.5 t (7.4 long tons; 8.3
short tons), further restrictions apply and the driver must possess a license suitable for the GVM of
the total combination as well as an articulated endorsement. This is indicated with the letter "E"

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prefixing the license code.

In addition, any vehicle designed to carry goods or passengers may only be driven by a driver
possessing a Public Driver's Permit, (or PrDP) of the applicable type. This is an additional license
that is added to the DL card of the operator and subject to annual renewal unlike the five-year
renewal period of a normal license.

The requirements for obtaining the different classes are below.

"G": Required for the transport of general goods, requires a criminal record check and a fee on
issuing and renewal.
"P": Required for the transport of paying passengers, requires a more stringent criminal record
check, additionally the driver must be over the age of 21 at time of issue. A G class PrDP will
be issued at the same time.
"D": Required for the transport of dangerous materials, requires all of the same checks as
class P., and in addition the driver must be over 25 at time of issue.

United States

In the United States, a commercial driver's license is required

to drive any type of commercial vehicle weighing 26,001  lb
(11,794 kg) or more.[80] The federal government regulates how
many hours a driver may be on the clock, how much rest and
sleep time is required (e.g., 11 hours driving/14 hours on-duty
followed by 10 hours off, with a maximum of 70 hours/8 days
or 60 hours/7 days, 34 hours restart )[81] Violations are often
subject to significant penalties. Instruments to track each
driver's hours must sometimes be fitted. In 2006, the US Inside a Navistar 9000
trucking industry employed 1.8  million drivers of heavy
trucks.[82]

There is a shortage of willing trained long-distance truck drivers.[83] Part of the reason for this is
the economic fallout from deregulation of the trucking industry. Michael H. Belzer, associate
professor, in the economics department at Wayne State University and co-author of Sweatshops
on Wheels: Winners and Losers in Trucking Deregulation, argues that low pay, bad working
conditions and unsafe conditions have been a direct result of deregulation.[84][85] The book cites
poor working conditions and an unfair pay system as responsible for high annual employee
turnover in the industry.[86][87]

In 2018, in the US, 5,096 large trucks and buses were involved in fatal crashes:

The number of large trucks involved in fatal crashes is 4,862,

The number of large trucks involved in injury crashes is 112,000,
The number of large trucks involved in property damage only crashes is 414,000.[88]

Environmental effects
Like cars, trucks contribute to air, noise, and water pollution.[89] Unlike cars, as of 2022, most
trucks run on diesel, and diesel exhaust is especially dangerous for health.[90] Some countries have
different vehicle emission standards for trucks and cars.[91][92]

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NOx and particulates emitted by trucks are very dangerous to

health,[93][94] causing thousands of early deaths annually in the
US alone.[95] As older trucks are usually the worst,[96] many
cities have banned 20th century trucks.[97] Air pollution also
threatens professional truck drivers.[98]

Over a quarter of global transport CO2 emissions are from road

freight,[99] in 2021 over 1700 million tonnes from medium and
heavy trucks,[100] so many countries are further restricting
truck CO2 emissions to help limit climate change.[101] Many Exhaust fumes from a small truck

environmental organizations favor laws and incentives to

encourage the switch from road to rail, especially in
Europe.[102] Several countries have pledged that 30% of sales of trucks and buses will be zero
emission by 2030.[103]

With respect to noise pollution, trucks emit considerably higher sound levels at all speeds
compared to typical cars; this contrast is particularly strong with heavy-duty trucks.[104] There are
several aspects of truck operations that contribute to the overall sound that is emitted. Continuous
sounds are those from tires rolling on the roadway and the constant hum of their diesel engines at
highway speeds. Less frequent noises, but perhaps more noticeable, are things like the repeated
sharp-pitched whistle of a turbocharger on acceleration, or the abrupt blare of an exhaust brake
retarder when traversing a downgrade. There has been noise regulation put in place to help control
where and when the use of engine braking retarders are allowed.

Operator health and safety

A truck cab is a hazard control that protects the truck operator
from hazardous airborne pollutants. As an enclosure, it is an
example of an engineering control. Enclosed operator cabs
have been used on agriculture, mining, and construction
vehicles for several decades. Most modern-day enclosed cabs
have heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems
for primarily maintaining a comfortable temperature and
providing breathable air for their occupants. Various levels of
filtration can be incorporated into the HVAC system to remove
airborne pollutants such as dusts, diesel particulate matter Truck cab filter housing using a
contiguous series of pre-, HEPA,
(DPM), and other aerosols.[105]
and charcoal panel filters
Two key elements of an effective environmental enclosure are a
good filtration system and an enclosure with good integrity
(sealed isolation from the outside environment). It is recommended that a filtration system filter
out at least 95% or greater of airborne respirable aerosols from the intake airflow, with an
additional recirculation filtering component for the inside air. Good enclosure integrity is also
needed to achieve positive pressure to prevent wind-driven aerosol penetration into the enclosure,
as well as to minimize air leakage around the filtration system. Test methods and mathematical

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modeling of environmental enclosures are also beneficial for quantifying and optimizing filtration
system designs, as well as maintaining optimum protection factor performance for enclosure
occupants.[105]

Operations issues

Taxes

Commercial trucks in the US pay higher road use taxes on a state level than other road vehicles
and are subject to extensive regulation.[106] A few reasons commercial trucks pay higher road use
taxes: they are bigger and heavier than most other vehicles, and cause more wear and tear per
hour on roadways; and trucks and their drivers are on the road for more hours per day. Rules on
use taxes differ among jurisdictions.

Damage to pavement

The life of a pavement is measured by the number of passes of a vehicle axle. It may be evaluated
using the Load Equivalency Factor,[107] which states that the damage by the pass of a vehicle axle
is proportional to the 4th power of the weight, so a ten-ton axle consumes 10,000 times the life of
the pavement as a one-ton axle. For that reason, loaded trucks cost the same as thousands of cars
in pavement costs, and are subject to higher taxes and highway tolls.[36][37]

Commercial insurance

Primary liability insurance coverage protects the truck from damage or injuries to other people as
a result of a truck accident. This truck insurance coverage is mandated by U.S.  state and federal
agencies, and proof of coverage is required to be sent to them. Interstate trucks in the U.S. are
required to have a minimum of $75,000 in liability insurance. This includes motor carriers
operating vehicles with a gross weight rating in excess of 10,000 lb (4.5 t) (which transport non-
hazardous materials). All motor carriers operating vehicles transporting materials classified as
hazardous, and which have a gross weight rating in excess of 10,000  lb (4.5  t) must have a
minimum of $1,000,000 in liability insurance. All motor carriers operating vehicles such as
hopper-type cargo vehicles or tankers with a capacity in excess of 3,500  US  gal (13,000  L) must
have a minimum of $5,000,000 in liability insurance. Pricing is dependent on region, driving
records, and history of the trucking operation.

Motor truck cargo insurance protects the transporter for his responsibility in the event of damaged
or lost freight. The policy is purchased with a maximum load limit per vehicle. Cargo insurance
coverage limits can range from $10,000 to $100,000 or more. Pricing for this insurance is mainly
dependent on the type of cargo being hauled.

Safety

Trucking accidents

In 2002 and 2004, there were over 5,000 fatalities related to trucking accidents in the United
States. The trucking industry has since made significant efforts in increasing safety regulations. In
2008, the industry had successfully lowered the fatality rate to just over 4,000 deaths, but trucking
accidents are still an issue that causes thousands of deaths and injuries each year. Approximately
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6,000 trucking accident fatalities occur annually in the United

States. Fatalities are not the only issue caused by trucking
accidents. Here are some of the environmental issues that arise
with trucking accidents:

14.4% of trucking accidents cause cargo to spill

6.5% cause open flames

Following increased pressure from The Times "Cities Fit For

Cycling" campaign and from other media in Spring 2012, Trucking accident
warning signs are now displayed on the backs of many heavy
goods vehicles (HGV). These signs are directed against a
common type of accident that occurs when the large vehicle turns left at a junction: a cyclist trying
to pass on the nearside can be crushed against the HGV's wheels, especially if the driver cannot see
the cyclist. The signs, such as the winning design of the InTANDEM road safety competition (htt
p://www.intandemcompetition.com) launched in March 2012, advocate extra care when passing a
large vehicle on the nearside.

HGV safety in the EU

In-vehicle speed limitation is required applying a 90 km/h limit to commercial vehicles over 3.5
tonnes.[108]

Front, side, and rear underrun protection is required on commercial vehicles over 3.5 tonnes.[108]

Trucks must be fitted with blind-spot mirrors that give drivers a wider field of vision than
conventional mirrors.[109]

See also
Transport portal

Cars portal

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Air brake Large goods vehicle

Animal transporter List of military trucks
Articulated hauler List of pickup trucks
Autonomous truck List of trucks
Ballast tractor Logging truck
Campervan Multi-stop truck
Cutaway van chassis Roll-off truck
Dekotora, Japanese decorated trucks Tail lift
Food truck Terminal tractor
Glossary of the American trucking industry Traffic congestion
Great West Truck Show Truck art in South Asia
Gun truck Truck classification
Hand truck Truck hijacking
Kei truck Truck scale
Haul truck Truck stop

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External links
Truck (https://curlie.org/Business/Transportation_and_Logistics/Trucking/) at Curlie
Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration (http://www.fmcsa.dot.gov/)
Different sizes and classes of trucks in the UK (http://www.returnloads.net/Industry-Info/Genera
l/Haulage-Courier-vehicle-types-and-weights)
Hutchinson, Rollin W. Jr. (January 1912). "Motor Trucks – The New Freighters: Quicker and
More Reliable Service, Cleaner and Less Congested Cities, Concrete Examples of Saving" (htt
ps://books.google.com/books?id=Vv--PfedzLAC&pg=PA268). The World's Work: A History of
Our Time. XXIII: 268–187. Retrieved 10 July 2009.

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