ALLIED PHYSICS -PAPER II

UNIT I-ELECTRICITY
Current and current density Expression for current density -
Ohm's law - Resistors in series and in parallel - I-V
characteristis of resistor - color coding - Conversion of a
galvanometer into an ammeter and voltmeter Kirchoff's laws
-
-
Application of Kirchoff's laws in Wheatstone network
Sensitiveness of bridge.
 UNIT - II

ELECTRICITY

1.1 Current

Electric current is defined as the rate of flow of charges across

sectional area of a conductor in any electrical circuit. Iffq
any cross
a time t then
is the electrical charge passing through a conductor in
current I is given by I ==q/t. Current is a scalar quantity. If the current
varies with time in a conductor, the instantaneous current i is given

by i d/dt. S.I unit coulomb per second.

of current is ampere or

Current is the flow of charge and it is created in a conductor when

there is a potential diference between the two ends of a conductor.
The value of current flowing through any conductor in an electrical
circuit can be obtained using Ohm's law and Kirchoff's laws. Current
can be measured using an ammeter, galvanometer, multimeter or a

potentiometer.
1.2 Current density
Current density is defined as the current flowing per unit normal
cross sectional area of a conductor in an clectrical circuit. Here, the
area of cross section of the conductor is considered normal to direction
of flow of charges. If I is the current and A is the area of cross
section of the conductor, current density () is given by

J A
where q and t are the charge and time respectively.

Unit A/m2

I
In vector notation, J==n where n is the unit vector normal to
A
the area of cross section of the conductor. In vector notation, current
can be written as

1
 = J{A.n)

=
J.A where A is the area
of cross section normal
to the direction of flow of current. Thus current is a scalar quantity
Expression for current density (J = nev)

Consider a conductor in the form of a cylinder or a wire as

shown in the figure 1.1

Ba

Fig.1.1
When a steady electric field E is applied to the conductor AB
using a battery (Ba), the free electrons in the conductor get drifted
with a constant average velocity (v) in a direction opposite to the
electric field. This velocity is called the drift
velocity of the electrons.
Let A and 7 be the area of cross section and length of the conductor
respectively. Number of free or conducting electrons in the conductor
is nAl, where n is the number of electrons
per unit volume.
The total charge flowing through the conductor is
q =nAle
where e is the charge of an electron. Time of
passage of charge or
current in the conductor is

t = l/v

Current passing through the conductor is

I (nAle)/ ({l/v)

or I = nAev

2
 J= VA
Current density is
=
nev.

This is the expression

for current density.

In vector notation, J =
nev

1.3 Ohm's law

to linear
Ohm's law is a fundamental law which can be applied
difference
electrical components like resistors. It states that potential to the
(V) between two points of a conductor is directly proportional
current floWing through
it.

i.e. V a I
or V IR ()
where R is the resistance of the conductor. This law is applicable
uniform and the temperature of the conductor
when the current is

remains constant.

Ohm's law in vector notation

also be written in terms of current density and

Ohm's law can

electric field. In a conductor at constant temperature, the current

density (0) is directly proportional to the electric field (E). i.e. JaE

(2)
or
J=oE
where o is the conductivity of the conductor. This expression (2)
gives the vector notation of Ohm's law.

The expression (1) can be obtained from the expression (2).

J= oE

E
where p is the resistivity of the conductor
We know that J = /A and R = (p//A, wherel and A are the
length and area of cross section of the conductor respectively.

(V/) E (VI)
VA
=
Since
(RA/)
 = V/R

or V = I R. This is Ohm's Law

1.4 Resistors

A device that offers resistance lo 1low of clectric curren

measured in ohms is called resistors. A resistor made of rbon o

called carbon resistor.

graphite is a

Resistors in Series

R, R
wwww
wwwm ww
Fig 1.2
Let us consider three resistors of resistance R, R, and R, are
connected in series as shown in Fig 1.2. The effective resistance of
the series combination is

R R,+R+R,
Thus, the equiva lent resistance of a number of res istors in series
connection is equal to the sum of the resistance of individual resistors.

Resistors in parallel
Consider three resistors of resistance R, R, and R, are
connected in parallel as shown in Fig.1.3

R
R

Fig 1.3
The effective resistance of the parallel combination is

RRR, R,
4
Thus, when a number of resistors are conneccted in parallel, the sum
of the reciprocal of the resistance of the individual resistors is equal
to the reciprocal of the eflcctive resistance of the combination.
of
1.5 1-V Characteristics a resistor

Ba K

Rh

Fig 1.4

Fig 1.4 shows the cireuit arrangement for determining the-V

characteristics of a resistor. To measure the voltage across the resistor,
a voltmeter is used. The current through R is measured using an
ammeter. Circuit connections are made as shown in Fig 1.4. At one
position of rheostat Rh, note the reading in the ammeter I for the
current and reading in the voltmeter V for the potential difference
across the resistor R in the circuit. The readings are tabulated
(Table 1.1). By adjusting the rheostat in various position the respective
readings of the ammeter and voltmeter are noted.
Table 1.1

S. No. Current through P.D across R (volt)

R (ampere)

A graph is drawn by taking current (1) along the X-axis and

potential difference (V) along the Y-axis. The curve obtained is as
shown in Fig.1.5.
 Current
Fig 1.5
Thus the I-V graph is a straight line that pass through the origin
of the graph. The slope of the I-V graph gives the resistance of the
resistor. Its SI unit is ohm. From the graph, one can say that the
potential diference V across the resistor of resistance R is directly
proportional to the current through R.
i.e V ocI

V
OrT Constant =R

or V IR
This is called Ohm's law.
1.6 Colour coding

Table 1.2

Colour Number
Black

Qrown
Br
Red

Orange
Yellow
Green
Blue
Violet

| Gray
White
9
 The resistance of aresistor is indicated by the colour
carbon

1.2). A three code carbon resistor is discussed

code drawm on it (Table
at one end corresponds to the tolerance.
here.The silver or gold ring
due to
of change in the valuc of a resistor
The percentage
variation in humidity and temperature is called
manufacturing defect or resistance.
tolerance.
Tolerance is a tolerable range (+) of the
and brown rings is 10%, 5%,
The tolerance of silver, gold, red
is no coloured rings at this end, the
2% and 1% respectively. If there of tolerance
is 20%. The first two rings at the other end
tolerance
of resistance in ring indicates
ohm. The third
ring are significant igures the
to be multiplied or number of zeroes following
the powers of 10
significant figure.

Example
Brown Black Orange Gold

Fig 1.6

in Fig 1.6 corresponds to 1. The

next
The first Brown ring
third Orange ring corresponds to
Black ring corresponds to 0. The
tolerance. The total resistanceis
10. The gold ring represents 5%
10x 10 + 5%. i.e. 10KQ t 5%.
into an ammeter
1.7 Conversion of a galvanometer
Galvanometer is a device used to check if there is a current in
indicates the presence of
a circuit. Deflection in a galvanometer
converted into an ammeter
current in a circuit. A galvanometer can be
Dy connecting a low resistance parallel
to the galvanometer. This low
is called a shunt.
resistance connected parallel to the galvanometer
into an ammeter
The circuit diagram to convert a galvanometer
is shown in the figure 1.7
 Fig 1.7
In the above diagram,
G is the galvanometer with the internal1
resistance G, S is the shunt resistance connected parallel to the
galvanometer. Let 1, , and I, be the main current, current through
the galvanometer and current through the shunt resistance
respectively. From Kirchoff's current law,

I-1,+ (1)
Since G and S are connected in parallel, the potential differences
across G and S are
equal.
G1S (2)
1-1)S=,G
or S-1-1. (3)
Using the equation (3), the value of shunt resistance (S) required to
convert a
galvanometer into an ammeter can be found. Since
galvanometer resistance (G) and shunt resistance (S) are connected
in parallel,effective resistance (R) of the converted
the
(ammeter) is given by
galvanometer

(4)
1.8 Conversion of RS G
a
galvanometer into a voltmeter
A voltmeter is used to measure
across an electrical
potential difference or voltage
component of a circuit. A galvanometer can be
converted into voltmeter by
the
connecting a high resistance in series with
galvanometer. The circuit diagram to convert a galvanometer into a
voltmeter is given in the figure 1.8

8
 0
R
Mm-

Fig 1.8
In the above diagram, G is the galvanometer with internal
resistance G and R is the high resistance connected in series with the
galvanometer. The converted galvanometer (voltmeter) is always
connected in parallel across an electrical component like a resistor to
measure the voltage. Let V be the voltage across the electrical
component. According to Kirchoff's voltage law,

V 1,G+R
V-I(G+R) (1)
where is current through the galvanometer or the high resistance
R.

From (1), (2)

The cquation (2) gives the high resistance required to convert the
galvanometer into a voltmeter.
1.9 Kirchoff's laws
Kirchoff's laws are used to solve complicated electrical circuits.
Using Kirchoff's laws, the current or voltage in different branciics
of electrical circuits can be found.

Kirchoff's first law

This is called Kirchoff's Current Law (KCL). This current
law is a
consequence of conservation of charge.

9
 Statement

the algebraie
sum ot currents meeting al
any
It states that
circuit is zero.
junction ina
in the figure 1.9. The numbers I, 2, 3, 4
Consider a cireuit given
five conductors (resIstances)
meeting at
the junction O.
and 5 represcnt

. wwn

Fig 1.9
The convention used here is that the current flowing towards
the junction is positive and the current flowing away from the junction
isnegative. Let 1,, 1, 1, and 1, be the current in the conductors

According to Kirchoff's first law,

--1-,+=0
or ,+1,1+1 +
Therefore, sum of currents entering the Junction is equal to the
Sum of currents leaving the junction O.

Kirchoff's second law

This law is also called as Kirchoff's Voltage Law (KVL). It is
a of
consequence conservation of energy.
Statement
In any closed network
(mesh the algebraic sum of products of
curTent and resistance is
cqual
to the
algebraic sum of emfs in the network.
10
 Consider a closed circuit as shown in the figure 1. 10.

R
M

- R
Fig 1.10
When Kirchoff's laws are applied to electrical networks, the following
conventions or rules may be used.

The current in clockwise direction is taken as positive

and the current in anticlockwise direction is taken as
negative.
i) For a cell, negative to positive terminal is taken as positive.
According to Kirchoff's II law, for the mesh ABCD

i, R-i, R,+i, R, +i/, R, =E, -E,

Kirchoff's laws can be used
i ) t o find values of current in different parts of a circuit
to find the balancing condition and sensitivity of
Wheatstone's bridge and to solve the complicated
electrical circuits.
1.10 Wheatstone's bridge
The Wheatstone's bridge is used to find the unknown resistance
of an electrical component like a resistor. It consists of four resistances
P,Q.R and S connectedas shown in the figure I.1 1. In this bridge, a

11
 A and C and a
galvanometo.
E is
connected
betwcen
i
cell of emf
between B and D.
connected

Yg
D

S
)I-11+s|

Fig 1.11

Theory
Let I, 1, and I, be the main current from the cell, current through
the resistance P and current through the galvanometer respectively.
Applying Kirchoff's voltage law to the closed loop or mesh ABDA,|
,P+1,G-(1-1) R =0

or (P +R) I, +GI= IR ()
Applying Kirchoff's voltage law to the mesh BCDB, we get

- 1 9 - ( 1 - 1 , + 1 ) S - 1 G =0

or(Q+S) 1,-Q+S+G)1-IS (2)

Multiplying equation (1) by (Q+S) on both sides

(P+R)(Q+5) 1+G (Q+S) 1=R (Q+S)I (3)

Multiplying equation (2) by (P +R) on both sides
(P+R) (Q+S) 1-P+R) (Q+S+G) I. = S(P+R))
(4)
Subtracting equation (4) from equation (3)
GQ+S) + (P+R) (Q+S+G)]I = [R(Q+S) - S(P+R)]
12
 (QR-PS)
or GQ+S)+(P+ RXQ+S+G) (5)

The expression(5) gives the value of current through the galvanometer

when the Wheatstone's bridge is unbulanced or slightly outof bulance.
Condition for balance of the bridgRe

When the Wheatstone's bridge is balanced, 1, 0. Therefore,

equation (5)) can be written as (QR-PS) 0
=

PS QR

P_R

This is the condition for balance of Wheatstone's bridge.

Sensitiveness of Wheatstone's bridge
When the current through the galvanometer ( ) in the
Wheatstone's bridge is zero then the bridge is said to be balanced. If
the current through the galvanometer (1,) is not zero, the bridge is
said to be unbalanced. The Wheatstone's bridge is said to be more
sensitive if,

is large
The resistance P, Q, R and S of the bridge are of the same
order of magnitude.
Limitations of Wheatstone's bridge

i) The Wheatstone's bridge cannot be used to measure very low

resistance or very high resistance.
i) For the higher sensitiveness of the bridge, the resistances P, Q
R and S of the Wheatstone's bridge are of the same order of
magnitude.

Questions
1. Define current density. Derive an expression for it.

2. Explain Ohm's law in vector form

13
 V charactor
draw the I
cristics of
-

to
experiment
Explain the
resistor.
of a carbon resistor
detail, the colour coding
Explain, in
galvanometer intoo
convert a
How will you
5. b) an ammeter
voltumeter
and
a) a

Kirchoff's laws
6. Explain
the Wheatstone's bridge. an expression for t
Obtain the
7. Explain when is sliphl bridge
current through
the galvanometer
the balancing condition.
balance and hence obtain
out of

Objective type questions

1. Current is detined as
unit timne
unit time b) Charge per
a) energy per
unit time
c) Power unit time d) Voltage per
per

density is
2. SI unit of current

a) A/m b) A
A/m c)A/md)Am
is
The resistance of an ideal
ammeter
3.
d) less than 0
a) 0 b) infinity c)100
4. The resistance of an ideal voltmeter is
d)less than
a) 0 b) infinity c)
be converted into a voltmeter by connecting
5. A galvanometer can
with the
n.
a high resistance . ***********

galvanometer
a) Series b) Parallel

c) Series or Parallel d) none of above

6. The cxpression for shunt resistance (S) required to conver
galvanometer into an ammeter is

a) S (GI)/(1-4) b) S =
G/
(1-)
c) S =I/(1-1) d) S (1-1) /G
14
 The equation for high resistance (R) required to convert a
galvanometer into a voltmeter is

a) R=G b)R G

GV
c)R=
d)RR-G
8. Ohm's law in vector form is given by

(a) PE 6 ) j=G (C) J=nev

(d) none of above

9. SI unit of current is
a) volt )watt c) ampere d) Joule
10. When two 100 ohm resistors are connected in parallel, then the
effective resistanceis
a) 200 ohms b) 100 ohms c)50 ohms d) 25 ohms
I1. The total resistance of n resistors which are connected in series,
each of resistance R is
a) R b) nR c) R/n d) n/R
12. SI unit of resistance is

a) ohm b) mho c) volt d) ampere

13. How will you represent a resistance of 3700 SQt 10% by colour
Code

a) Orange, Violet, Red and Silver

b) Green, Violet, Red and Gold
)Gray, Violet, Red and Silver
d) Orange, Violet, Red and Gold
14, A carbon resistor has coloured strips as shown in fig. What is
its resistance?

15
 Gold
Brown
Yellow

Violet

a) 480 2 t 5%
b) 470 2 t 5%
d) 570 2+ 5%
c)470 2 + 1%

Key 5) a
3) a 4) b
1) b 2) a
9) c 10) c
6) a 7)b 8) b

13) a 14) b
11)b 12) a

Worked out problems

m is connected across
of diameter 5 mm and length 10
A wire
Calculate the current density in the wire.
a cell of emf 1.5 V.
1.7 x 10° Nm.
The resistivity of the wire p
=

is
The resistance of the wire

1.7x10x10
Tx(2.5x103? 0.8662

Current in the wire 1s

i S = 1.732 ampere
R 0.866
Current density J = i/'A

1.732
x(2.5x 10*)88254.7 ampere/m*
2. The resistance of four arms of a Wheatstone's bridge are
10, 10 and 10.5 ohms as shown in figure. The resistance or
16
 galvanometer is 50 2 and the battery supplies a current of 0.2
A. Calculate the current through the galvanometer.
B

102r V 10N

10 TO.502
0.2A

Applying Kirchoff's second law to the closed network ABDA.

101+ 50 1,- 10 (0.2-) =0
or 201+ 501,-2
or
101+251.=1 (1)
For the closed mesh BDCB,
50 1+ 10.5
(0.2-I+1,)- 10 (1-1) =
0
or 20.5 I + 70.5 I,= -2.1 (2)
Solving equations (1) and (2), we get
-0.32 x 103 A
3. A wire of diameter Imm carries a uniform current of 1 A. If
the electron number density in the wire is 10 x 102" electrons/
m, find the current density and the drift velocity of electron.
Area of cross section A= nr*
A=Tx (0.5 x 10 )} = 7.85 x 10" m

Current density = J = /A

7.85x10-71.273x106 Am

Drift Velocity =
v =
J/ne
17
 1.273 x 10"
"
10x 10x I.6x 10

= 7.95 x 10' m/s

A galvanometer has a resistance ot 50 S2 and gives a full calk
4
detlection for a current of 5 MA. HOw can you convert th
galvanometer in to an ammeter to measure in the range of 0

1A.
Given G 50 2

5 mA

I =1A
The shunt resistance required to convert the galvanometer into
the ammeter is

G5x 10 x50
0.25 iQ
S-T- 1-5x10

. . A shunt resistance of 0.251Q must be connected in parallel

to the galvanometer to convert it into an ammeter.

Diagram
G 502

m
S
A galvanonmeter of resistance 502 has a current sensitiveness
of 2 mA/division. How can you convert it to a voltmeter
to
measure voltage in the range 0 to 1000 V? (No. of divisions iS
50).
Given G = 502, V = 1000V, I,= 2 mAx 50 = 100 mA.

18
 G
R

wwm

V
R 7,G
1000
50
100x10
R =9950 2
Exercise problems

1 A Copper wire of diameter 2 mm carries a current of 100 mA.

Find the current density and drift velocity of electron. Given
number density n = 10 x 10* electrons /m

(Ans:0.0199 x 10 m/s)
2. A galvanometer with a full scale deflection of 10 mA has a
resistance of 40 2. How can you convert this galvanometer
into an ammeter to measure current up to 2A? What is
equivalent resistance of the ammeter

(Ans:S 0.201 2;R=0.1999 )

5. A galvanometer of resistance 50 2 shows full scale deflection
for current of 2 mA. How can you convert this galvanometer
into voltmeter to read up to 10 volt?
(Ans: R-4950 2; A high resistance (49502) is connected in
Series with the galvanometer)

19