ICT and education as determinants of environmental quality: The role of financial

development in selected Asian countries

Muhammad Wasif Zafara,b, Syed Anees Haider Zaidic , Sadia Mansoord, Avik Sinhae, Quande Qina,*

College of Management, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, China

a

b
Department of Management Science, COMSATS University of Islamabad, Vehari Campus, Pakistan.
Department of Management Science, COMSATS University of Islamabad, Sahiwal Campus, Pakistan.
c

d
Department of Economics, Institute of Business Management, Karachi, Pakistan
Centre for Excellence in Sustainable Development, Goa Institute of Management, India
e

Abstract: Rising environmental concerns due to extensive energy consumption and carbon
emission in the process of developing information communication and technology (ICT) cannot
be overshadowed by its significant contribution in economic growth. This study is an attempt to
explore long run influences of ICT and education on environmental quality. By incorporating the
role of financial development, energy consumption and income into the function of carbon
emissions, the results obtained by the continuously updated and fully modified (Cup-FM) test
indicate that economic growth, education and energy consumption stimulates carbon emissions
intensity in Asian countries (1990-2018). The second-generation unit root tests and Lagrange
Multiplier (LM) bootstrap cointegration method investigate stationary properties and
cointegration. Our findings suggest that investment in technology and financial markets require
policymakers' attention as we have empirically established long-run inverse impacts of financial
development and ICT on carbon emissions. Furthermore, the study suggests a focus on clean
energy policy as the rising pollution levels due to fossil fuel hampers long-run productivity. This
paper contributes to the existing literature by proposing that ICT-led economic policies may help
solve environmental quality and economic growth issues.

Keywords: Environmental Quality; ICT; Education; Financial development; Economic growth

1
1. Introduction

The advent of information and communication technologies (ICT) has influenced the global

economy through various channels. It has introduced user-friendly e-commerce networks, turned

remote areas into new market places, removed entry barriers in the markets, eased social and

economic transmission in the education, health and trade sectors and made the production

processes more efficient. The gains from ICT suggest its potential role in determining and driving

sustainable development and long-term economic prosperity. However, meeting the desired

objective of sustainable development goals is subject to green ICT. It has been argued that green

ICT can reduce the growth-environment tradeoff and economization of resources (Asongu et al.,

2018). By definition, green ICT refers to minimum negative impacts of information technology

on the environment and climate changes. The negative impacts of ICTs are related to their cost of

energy consumption and carbon dioxide (CO 2) emissions. The empirical literature finds that ICT

increases electricity consumption and has nearly a 3% share in greenhouse gas emissions such as

CO2 (Røpke and Christensen, 2012). Avoiding the negative impacts requires upscaling the

existing ICT structure to provide a low carbon-emitting process for smart agricultural, financial

and industrial setups.

Green-ICT has been considered as a potential solution to environmental issues. This is

because green ICT reduces energy consumption and CO 2 emissions by transforming the physical

resource involvement into information resources that can be equally efficient in productivity

(Sadorsky, 2012; Salahuddin and Alam, 2015). Furthermore, green ICT reduces the transaction

and travel costs of those corporations and households that use fossil fuels, which in turn cause

CO2 emissions (Asongu, 2018a). Besides, switching to green ICT systems in countries where the

current levels of ICT penetration are low (and where reliance on fossil energy resources is higher)

might reduce CO2 emissions at a higher percentage than in economies that already have higher

2
ICT penetration (Asongu, 2018b). Moreover, yearly global CO2 emission reductions of 20% can

be achieved by 2030 by systematically planning investment in and expanding the ICT sector 1.

Empirical literature supports two contradictory views on the effect of ICT penetration on the

environment. On the one hand, there is extensive literature on the positive effects of ICT

penetration on the environment. This literature group emphasizes the direct substitution effects of

ICT penetration, suggesting that ICT penetration replaces the electricity input-based machines

with less energy-intensive hybrid machines (Cai et al., 2013). For instance, (Choi et al., 2010)

used a logistic growth model for the Japanese economy and found that energy and electricity

consumption declined in the manufacturing sector due to ICT penetration. ICT simultaneously

caused an upsurge in electricity consumption and CO 2 emissions in five other sectors (like

residential and industrial).

On the other hand, another strand of literature stresses the direct but negative effects of ICT

on environmental pollution. According to this group of literature, a primary concern is related to

the increase in energy and electricity consumption in improving the information technology

system. These concerns cannot be overlooked, especially when there is an increase in the

production of electricity-dependent commodities. The International Energy Agency (IEA) claims

that products like air conditioners, automatic and hybrid machines were contributing 59% of all

global CO2 emissions (2009). The IEA came up with startling estimates regarding electronic

products while evaluating the track of CO 2 emissions caused by increased electronic products.

However, research-based innovations can play a significant role in increasing the positive

spillovers of ICT penetration. For example, by introducing efficient transmission systems in the

machine manufacturing sectors of Japan, Korea and China, the contribution to CO 2 emission has

been reduced to 34%.

Considering the indirect but positive association of ICT penetration and carbon emissions,

appealing work by (Cho et al., 2007) has highlighted the compensation effects that ICT diffusion

1
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Changes reported (2015)

3
exerts. For example, the South Korean economy has substituted labor with information

technology to reduce production costs in the first stage. The country later experienced positive

causality between electricity usage and CO 2 emissions. Similarly, financial development (FD),

trade openness, and the income effect attract foreign investors to emerging economies, where

initial industrialization provides a platform for low-cost startups. On the other hand, easy access

to funds nourishes exportable production results in energy consumption and CO 2 emissions and

exposes the economy to the residual effect (Birdsall and Wheeler, 1993; Frankel and Romer,

1999).

Furthermore, a low-interest rate regime helps those establishing new businesses in terms of

profitability. Also, new production plants increase energy resource utilization. However, the

absence of a proper waste management policy gives these enterprises leverage that allows them to

save their profits, which should be put toward the cost of reducing their CO 2 emissions (Dogan

and Turkekul, 2015).

According to Omri, Daly, Rault, & Chaibi (2015), FD encourages people to move to urban

areas for better financial returns and opportunities. As such, this resource consumption increment

comes at a cost mainly identified through three leading factors. First, FD fosters increased urban

populations and an increased waste burden that intensifies environmental problems. Secondly,

financial openness boosts employment creation, making luxury items (like private vehicles, air

conditioners and other CO2 emission-creating products) far more affordable. These products add

to carbon emissions in the long run. Thirdly, FD attracts foreign investors looking for production

facilities with the fewest managerial issues concerning waste management. These foreign firms

have been known to pay bribes to obtain a location to dump their production waste without

incremental tax increases. This results in the recipient countries experiencing more complicated

CO2 emissions problems (Kasman and Kasman, 2015). However, these dynamics have ignored

the role of education, awareness and trade terms, which have been repeatedly mentioned as

potential interventions at climate policy conferences (2011, 2015 and 2018).

4
 A recent debate over the complex relationship between negative externality, economic

growth and ICT systems has encouraged researchers to explore their theoretical relationship

through education and awareness patterns empirically. Consider that ICT refers to a convergence

of multiple wires and optics systems to a single and efficient track that can reduce technology

expansion's economic and social cost. As such, updated technology through education can play a

vital role in this process. Countries like Korea and Japan are investing and expanding their ICT

sectors to accelerate economic growth with minimal environmental damage. Several Korean and

Japanese companies are coupling ICT with investment in research and development that explores

the modern techniques used to reduce carbon emissions. The expansion of the ICT sector and

efficient resource mobilization policies can help raise productivity while reducing energy and

electricity consumption with the advent of the transitional effect. This has been caused by

updated education and research that will help control CO 2 emissions in the long run (Coroama et

al., 2013; Shahiduzzaman and Alam, 2014; Zafar et al., 2021).

According to the World Bank (2019), growing industrialization in major Asian economies

has exposed the world to its highest-ever levels of per capita carbon emissions. China and India

have excelled in all economic sectors by increasing ICT penetration and high-tech

industrialization, but they jointly contribute nearly 35% of the world's total CO 2 emissions.

During the last two decades, Asian economies like India, China, Japan, Thailand and Malaysia

have expanded industrial startups to enhance their economic growth. Moreover, FD and

liberalization have made these countries more attractive to large manufacturing sector foreign

investors. Asian countries like China, India, Singapore, Japan, Thailand and Taiwan have

experienced the environmental cost of economic growth, which coincided with the advent of

financial openness, trade expansion and foreign direct investment during the past three decades.

However, these economies have heavily invested in ICT penetration, to have positive ICT

externality for their emissions management streams in the long run. The yearly increments of

energy demand (2.4%), natural gas consumption (5.3%) and other fossil fuel consumption (8.9%)

5
of high-tech industrialized Asian economies show that they are moving towards experiencing a

nearly 60% higher energy demand in 2030 (as compared to 2000), along with the highest-ever

CO2 emissions rate (International Energy Agency, IEA 2019).

As per the recent SDG progress report, the Asian economies are failing to control the

climatic shift issues. Therefore, they are gradually drifting away from attaining SDG 13

(UNESCAP, 2021). This situation can be attributed to the continual usage of fossil fuel-based

energy solutions, and this energy usage pattern is exerting a negative environmental externality

for the Asian economies. Moreover, following the Limits to Growth discourse, this dependence

on fossil fuel solutions creates a deterrence on achieving energy security in these nations

(Meadows et al., 1972). The latest energy security assessment report by United Nations

Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UNESCAP, 2021) has also

mentioned this issue as a deterrent in attaining SDG 7. To combat these issues, the policymakers

need to build a resilient environmental awareness mechanism, for which a policy realignment

might be necessary.

Furthermore, in the educational assessment report, the United Nations Educational,

Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO, 2018) has mentioned that embedding ICT and

education in the pro-ecological policy regime might help the Asian countries attain the Agenda

2030. However, this policy realignment calls for effective mobilization of SDG financing, and

this issue was discussed in the 2019 Asia-Pacific Conference on Financing for Inclusive and

Sustainable Development (IISD, 2020). Therefore, to ascertain sustainable development in the

Asian economies, a realigned policy framework is necessary, and there lies the need for the

present study.

The literature has limited evidence on proposing an SDG-oriented policy framework for the

Asian countries, and in the wake of Industry 4.0, this policy framework might prove crucial.

During the Industry 4.0 era, ICT might emerge as a major enabler for economic growth;

therefore, it needs to be utilized as a policy instrument for achieving sustainable development.

6
Understanding the growing challenges related to carbon emissions management, this article has

attempted to assess the role of ICT and education in determining the quality of the environment in

Asian economies. Based on the study outcomes, this study proposes a policy framework

considering ICT and education as primary policy instruments for reducing carbon emissions and

sustaining economic growth patterns. The rapid economic growth of Asian countries has exposed

them to many environmental challenges that are effectively the offshoots of financial

liberalization and educational investment in information management systems.

Moreover, considering the unconcluded FD-carbon emission relationship, this paper

empirically explores this relationship for Asian economies by controlling the share of economic

growth and energy consumption. This study recommends a realigned policy framework, which

might help Asian countries achieve sustainable development. The novelty of this study lies in the

generalizability of the policy framework, which can serve as a benchmark for the other emerging

industrialized economies facing the issues of carbon emission-led climatic shift. By far, this ICT

and education-oriented developmental policy realignment approach have not been considered in

the literature, and there lies the policy-level contribution of this study. Hence, this study aims at

to find the answer of research question “what is the role of financial development, ICT and

education in environmental quality of Asian countries”? the sub-questions are states as:

What is role of ICT on environmental quality?

What is role of education on environmental quality?

What is role of financial development on environmental quality?

What is role of interactive term (education X ICT) on environmental quality?

What is role of interactive term (financial development X ICT) on environmental quality?

The remaining sections are structured as follows: Section 2 presents the discussion on

relevant literature. Section 3 elaborates on model development and data. Section 4 reports the

study outcomes and a discussion of the results, and Section 5 concludes the study by discussing

suitable policy designs.

7
2. Literature review

Researchers have been raising concerns regarding the impact of ICT penetration on

environmental sustainability. This impact is made through the inefficient utilization of

energy resources, which go on to cause carbon emissions. This article examines the

effects of ICT, FD, and education on environmental quality by examining the trend of

carbon emissions in selected Asian countries.

Literature states that inefficient and unsustainable energy resource consumption

exposes the economy to uncertain external shocks (like oil price shocks or demand-

supply discrepancy concerns) and negatively impacts trade and financial sector growth

(Suzuki et al., 1995; Toffel and Horvath, 2004; Almulali and Sab, 2012). Moreover,

inefficient energy consumption in the ICT setup process has a direct life cycle effect on

environmental degradation, manifested as increased emissions in the form of solid and

gas wastes during the production process. Later, ICT has an indirect life cycle effect

caused by the utilization of manufactured electric machines that emit CO2 (Suzuki and

Oka, 1998). Furthermore, Saidi et al. (2015) and Tunali (2016) have maintained that

developing economies have an inverted U-shape relationship between ICT expansion and

CO2 emissions. This implies that when an economy starts replacing its existing inefficient

energy inputs with efficient technology systems, the economy will initially experience an

increase in energy consumption and carbon emission; later on, the hybrid technology

enhances the energy conservation process and reduces the level of CO2 emissions. To

understand the dynamics of these variables, we have classified the literature review into

three categories: 1) ICT-Environmental Quality Nexus, 2) Education-Environmental

Quality Nexus, and 3) FD-Environmental Quality Nexus.

8
2.1 ICT-Environmental Quality Nexus

It is difficult to ignore how science and technology have transformed people's

financial and economic decisions. However, this transformation has also raised concerns

related to environmental quality in regions of the world with extensive ICT penetration.

In this pursuit, one strand of literature has investigated the relationship between ICT and

environmental quality by using cross-sectional and time-series data. For instance, by

using regional data for China, Zhang & Liu (2015) investigate the link between ICT and

emissions using a STIRPAT (Stochastic Impacts by Regression on Population, Affluence

and Technology) model from 2000 to 2010. The dynamic panel method results show that

ICT has helped reduce emissions in all regions of China. However, an inverted U-shaped

relationship between carbon emission and ICT has been reported by Añón, Gholami, &

Shirazi (2017). The study uses data from developing and developed countries to check

the nonlinear relationship between ICT and emissions.

Tracing back the extensive investment in ICT, most countries started investing

during the latter half of the 1990s. Using data from 2000 to 2012, Asongu et al. (2018)

query the link between ICT and carbon emissions. The study finds an insignificant impact

of mobile and Internet on emissions in the linear form, while in the nonlinear form,

mobile and Internet reduce emissions. The results provide suggestions for 44 sub-Saharan

Africa countries by employing the Generalized Method of Moment. Another study by

Asongu (2018b), using the same length data set, observed the relationship between ICT

and CO2 emissions. The estimated results indicate that ICT reduces emissions when ICT

interacts with trade and FD in the long run. Finally, Danish, Khan, Baloch, Saud, &

Fatima (2018) assessed the link between ICT and emissions for N-11 countries from

9
1990 to 2015. This study used second-generation econometric methods to overcome the

issue of heterogeneity in the panel data. The augmented mean group results propose that

ICT reduces emissions by increasing income levels, while ICT increases emissions by

increasing FD in the studied region. Ozcan & Apergis (2018) examined the impact of

internet use on environmental quality for emerging countries. They reported that a

negative relationship exists between internet use and pollution. The study arrived at these

findings by using panel methodology for the period 1990 to 2015.

In a recent investigation of the Tunisian economy from 1975 to 2014, Amri, Zaied,

& Lahouel (2019) employed the autoregressive distributed lag method. The study finds a

statistically insignificant relationship between ICT and carbon emissions. Using panel

data from Iran, Dehghan & Shahnazi (2019) examined the impact of ICT on carbon

emissions for the agriculture, services, industry, and transportation sectors. Dynamic OLS

(ordinary least squares) results suggest a negative link between ICT and emissions for the

transport and services sector but a positive and significant link with the industry sector.

Shobande (2021) found a positive link between ICT and emissions level in Africa using

fixed-effect method. For developing countries, (Mathieu et al., 2021) used the PMG-

ARDL method and reported an insignificant link between ICT and environment for

relatively high income developing countries but significant and negative for low income

developing countries. Finally, Anser et al. (2021) examined the impact of ICT on carbon

emissions with panel quantile regression method and found positive link between both

variables. Chatti (2021) reported similar results for 42 different countries. However, Ben

Lahouel et al. (2021) documented positive impact of ICT on carbon emissions for

Tunisia.

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2.2 Financial Development- Environmental Quality Nexus

Some literature has found a dynamic relationship between FD and environment

quality, but the empirical results obtained mixed results on the relationship between FD

and CO2 emissions. For example, Jalil & Feridun (2011) have examined the role of

financial expansion in China, ultimately finding a declining trend in carbon emissions

due to FD. Adding to previous literature, Shahbaz, Solarin, Mahmood, & Arouri (2013)

assessed the linkages of FD and emissions in the Malaysian economy. The study reported

a negative relationship between these two variables. Moreover, Shahbaz, Kumar, & Nasir

(2013) arrived at similar results for the South African economy. Shahbaz, Hye, Tiwari, &

Leitão (2013) maintained a negative relationship between financial openness and carbon

emissions in Indonesia. Using a long-run cointegration econometric method, Boutabba

(2014a) suggests that a positive link exists between FD and environmental quality in

India. Contrary, Omri et al. (2015) have found an insignificant and weak association

between financial liberalization and environmental quality in Middle-East-North-Africa

(MENA) countries. Shahbaz, Jawad, Shahzad, Ahmad, & Alam (2016) have suggested an

asymmetric impact of FD on emissions by using quartile data from Pakistan. The study's

results show that environmental quality decreases in line with increases in FD in the long

run. Katircioğlu & Taşpinar (2017) investigated the Turkish economy's long-run data

with structural breaks.

e results indicate that FD plays an ineffective role in mitigating carbon emissions.

Huang & Zhao (2018) used province-level data from China to check the link between FD

and emissions. The results indicate that FD reduces CO2 emissions significantly. The

results of a study by Salahuddin, Alam, Ozturk, & Sohag (2018) claim that an

11
insignificant relationship exists between FD and emissions in the long run in Kuwait. For

central and eastern European countries, studies have assessed the causal relationship

between FD and carbon emissions. Saud, Chen, Haseeb, Khan, & Imran (2019)

empirically established that FD has negatively affected the environmental quality of

European economies. They employed the dynamic seemingly unrelated regression

method to estimate the long-run connection between variables. A recent study on the

Russian economy conducted by Bass, Burakov, & Freidin (2019) suggests a positive link

between financial openness and carbon emissions. However, Zhao and Yang (2020)

reported negative link between financial development and carbon emissions for China.

Shen et al., (2021) also reported positive link between FD and emissions by using

province level data of China. However, Zafar et al. (2021) found negative link between

FD and carbon emissions for Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation countries. The similar

results reported by Khan and Ozturk (2021) for 88 developing countries by using panel

methods. Xu et al. (2021) also reported similar results for 42 countries during 1990–

2018.

2.3 Education- Environmental Quality Nexus

In the modern world, education plays an important role in increasing environmental

quality by reducing carbon emissions. Without education, it would be almost impossible

to achieve sustainable economic growth and a sustainable environment. Recently,

researchers and econometricians have shifted their focus away from other factors and

education to check the impact of education on carbon emissions. For example, literature

has identified that education can be one of the important determinants of emissions.

Gangadharan & Valenzuela (2001) estimated the empirical relationship between

12
education and emissions for 51 countries. They used different proxies to measure

environmental quality. The panel methodology results concluded that education has an

insignificant relationship with most of the environmental proxies. Managi & Jena (2008)

probed the validity of EKC for India by including an educational index as an independent

variable. The reported results show a positive relationship between emissions and the

educational index. For Latin American countries, Sapkota & Bastola (2017) examined

how foreign direct investment (FDI) and increasing human capital affect environmental

quality. The study uses panel methodology and separately estimated the impacts for

developing and emerging economies. The results show that human capital increases

environmental quality in emerging economies but reduces environmental quality in low-

income countries.

Using a long run ARDL cointegration method, Balaguer & Cantavella (2018)

investigated the Australian economy (1950-2014) to explore the linear and nonlinear

impact of education on carbon emissions. The study found an inverted U-shaped

relationship between the dynamics of education expansion and carbon emissions. Bano,

Zhao, Ahmad, Wang, & Liu (2018) used a similar estimation method to assess the link

between human capital and emissions in the Pakistan economy (1971-2014). The study

used four different proxies to measure human capital. The results suggest that human

capital reduces emissions from the environment in the long run. Similar findings have

been reported by Zafar, et al. (2019) and Zafar et al. (2020), who assessed the USA and

OECD economies and concluded that education reduces the ecological footprint. Another

study conducted by Zafar et al. (2021) for Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation countries

and suggested that education helps to reduce emissions levels. Similarly, Zafar et al.

13
(2021) and Zaman et al. (2021) found negative relationship between education and

emissions for top remittance receiving countries and China, respectively.

A broad overview of all the reviewed studies is summarized in Appendix 1. Based

on the literature review, this study aims to contribute to existing literature by addressing

the following gaps: Considering that financial development plays a vital role in ensuring

investment flows to innovation and technology, this study has added financial

development in ICT-growth nexus. Moreover, carbon emission and education are

inversely correlating variables. Therefore, this study has employed education as an

explanatory variable to establish the impact of ICT penetration on the existing carbon

emission level that has not been widely debated in previous literature.

3. Model development and data

3.1. Model development

Since the 1960s, literature has engaged in an unsettling debate regarding the impact

of ICT on economic growth. One theoretical link between ICT and economic growth

states that data show how ICT accelerates economic growth by reducing financial costs.

For example, improved and energy-efficient machines save energy resources, and

improvements in transmission mechanism services help the economy utilize physical

resources more efficiently. Ample literature has found a positive contribution of ICT in

economic growth in developing countries (Engelbrecht and Xayavong, 2007). However,

researchers have introduced the environmental effects of ICT into the ICT-growth nexus

during the past two decades because rapid ICT development has changed both growth

patterns and environmental regulations. Some studies reported the positive results (and

others the negative effects) of ICT on environmental quality. Different researchers have

14
used various indicators of ICT. For example, Schaefer, Weber, & Voss (2003) considered

handsets (mobile phones) as an ICT indicator. The study emphasizes the positive effects

of carbon emissions and energy demand when carrying headsets.

The dynamics between financial openness, development and carbon emissions are

composite. They affect each other differently, through consumption and production

patterns, in terms of both intensity and rigor. For instance, when FD refers to the ease of

doing business, it affects investors' behavior and profitability. In response, investors can

expand production by hiring labor and investing capital. Considering that investors create

increased labor demand, the income made due to that labor will eventually be used to

purchase consumer products included in the ICT setup. This will ultimately trigger

emissions growth and energy demands. On the other hand, an increase in capital demand

could potentially directly boost energy demand. In that case, carbon emissions could rise

in line with capital formation.

Similarly, FD offers easy consumption options via low-interest-rate borrowing.

Consumers can maximize their financial utility by leasing cars, homes and many other

high-end products. The consumption of machinery (like cars, mobile phones, laptops,

automotive and automatic products) has a positive relationship with energy demand and

carbon emissions (Shahbaz et al., 2013).

Low-cost debt-raising opportunities help economies to grow out of stagnant

productivity traps. However, higher production leads to additional energy demands and

increased negative effects on the environmental quality of countries that have waste

management and pollution issues (Dasgupta et al., 2002). In another link, literature

reports that a low education rate can negatively affect openness and emissions due to a

15
lack of awareness regarding the efficient utilization of machines and nonrenewable

resources (Gangadharan and Valenzuela, 2001). Therefore, this study intends to

reinvestigate the dynamic relationship between ICT, FD, education and carbon emissions

so that the study can suggest policy recommendations accordingly.

This study has constructed the following models for the empirical estimation of the

role of ICT, education, and FD in determining the long-term environmental quality in 16

Asian economies. However, carbon emissions are used as a proxy to represent

environmental quality.

Model 1

where CO2 is the carbon emissions per capita, i represents the cross-sections (1….16), t

is the time period (1990 to 2018), α 0 represents constant term of the model and ε is the

error term of the model. The β 1 , β 2 , β 3 , β 4 , β 5 represent the coefficient of economic

growth (Y ), energy use ( ENG ), education ( EDU ), information and communication

technology ( ICT ), and financial development ( FD), respectively.

Model 2

In the second model, we add the interaction term between education and ICT (

lnEDU i ,t∗lnICT i ,t ¿ . The β 6 represents the coefficient of the interaction term.

Model 3

In the third model, we add the interaction term between FD and ICT ( lnFDi , t∗lnICT i , t ¿.

The β 7 represents the coefficient of the interaction term.

16
Following the recent policy discourse on the growth-environment nexus (e.g., Shahbaz et

al., 2020, Zhao et al., 2021), the present study has adopted the target and explanatory

model parameters at level, not at growth. Moreover, the SDG 13 talks about the carbon

emissions in its absolute form, and hence, considering the model parameters in growth

form might not comply with the specifications provided by the United Nations. It might

appear that the said specification might lead to estimation issues. In the beginning of

Section 4, this issue has been addressed using the multicollinearity statistics.

3.2. Data collection

The list of Asian countries includes Bangladesh, Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia,

Iran, Japan, South Korea, Malaysia, Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka,

Thailand, and Vietnam. As of 2018, these countries account for nearly 52% of the total

GDP and 72% of the total CO2 emissions in Asia (World Bank, 2021). Hence, results

obtained from this sample can be representative of the Asian economies. This study

excludes other Asian countries due to the unavailability of data. The empirical analysis

includes carbon emissions (in metric tons), economic growth (constant 2010 US dollar)

energy consumption (kg of kilo equivalent), education (secondary school enrollment), FD

(domestic credit provided to the private sector (% of GDP)). As the current series of GDP

is influenced by price inflation, we use the constant series (2010 US dollar) of GDP to

measure the true growth of our data series, i.e., adjusting for the effects of price inflation.

Furthermore, we converted all the variables into a natural logarithmic form. Log-

linear conversion of data produces more efficient and consistent results compared to

simple-linear transformation. This also allows for interpreting results directly as

elasticities.

17
 The interpretations of estimated coefficients are explained through point elasticities.

Studies have used different proxies to measure ICT penetration. For instance, mobile

phones, internet banking, and e-commerce are a few variables. Due to differences in the

proxies used, the results and recommendations vary. A majority of the proxies were used

individually or in aggregate form, including mobile cellular subscriptions (per 100

people), fixed broadband subscriptions (per 100 people), and fixed telephone

subscriptions (per 100 people). Unlike existing studies, this paper uses a weighted ICT

index by using the above-mentioned three proxies to measure ICT indicators. The authors

constructed this ICT index with the help of a principal component analysis (PCA) for

selected Asian countries. The

Table 1 Principal Components Analysis

Eigenvalues: (Sum = 3, Average = 1)
Cumulative Cumulative
Number Value Difference Proportion Value Proportion

1 2.080862 1.42364 0.6936 2.080862 0.6936

2 0.657221 0.395304 0.2191 2.738083 0.9127
3 0.261917 --- 0.0873 3 1
Eigenvectors (loadings):
Variable PC 1 PC 2 PC 3

NFBS 0.63648 -0.05545 -0.7693

NFTS 0.559453 -0.65341 0.509963
NMCS 0.530947 0.754967 0.384864

Ordinary correlations:

NFBS NFTS NMCS

NFBS 1
NFTS 0.662014 1
NMCS 0.598141 0.345294 1
table 1 presents the results of PCA.

18
3.3. Econometric methods

To carry out the empirical exercise, the methodological schema must be elucidated,

outlining the methods applied in the study. Given the increasing economic complexity in

the global scenario, it can be concluded that the countries under consideration are aligned

with each other within a geopolitically collaborative space. Therefore, we analyzed the

cross-sectional dependence between the model parameters. This analysis indicates the

applicability of unit root tests of the first or second generation. In this study, we applied

the unit root tests of the second generation; the cross-sectional dependence test confirmed

the results. The root unit tests give us the order of integration among the variables while

also disclosing their stationary properties. When their integration properties are observed,

the long-term coefficients of the variables are evaluated using cointegration. This can be

achieved in two steps: First, establish the long-term association between variables in the

presence of cross-sectional dependence. Second, assess the variables' long-term

coefficients. Considering that we are interested in evaluating the correct policy measures

to address the research issue, it is necessary to address the bi-directionality of the policy

measures and use heterogeneous causality testing in this pursuit. That is the study's broad

methodological schema. The specifics of the experiments are recorded in subsequent

subsections.

3.3.1 Cross-sectional dependence test

Studies have suggested that the consistency and soundness of the empirical results

derived from panel data rely on the test applications used to explore data properties.

Therefore, it is important to assess the panel data for unit root properties and the state of

19
dependence in cross-sectional sets of observations. To explore the reliable association

between variables, a cross-sectional dependency test is important. This is because panel

data exhibit a state of correlation, due to the impact of regional and international

integration levels. Considering that results obtained in the presence of cross-sectional

dependence would be biased and inconsistent for use in further policy formulations, this

study has employed a cross sectional test proposed by Pesaran (Phillips and Sul, 2003).

This is followed by a Lagrange multiplier (LM) test, which explores panel cointegration

status. Breusch and Pagan (1980) proposed that the LM test has strong significance for

panel estimation, as the test handles the resampling issues of parametric as well as non-

parametric data sets. Theoretically, the Pesaran test intuitively overcomes the problem of

panel data when the number of observations (N) and time series (T) share magnitudes of

the same orders. However, we have estimated the following equation for the empirical

estimation of the Pesaran test (CD):

√ (∑ ∑ )
N −1 N
2T
CD= ρij
N ( N−1) i=1 j=i+1

Here, the cross-sectional errors estimated from the correlation level of countries i and j

are represented by ρij . However, the following equation of the Lagrange multiplier test

has been employed to assess the cross-sectional dependence regarding period t and

dimensions i in the panel data:

y ¿ =α i+ β i x ¿ +ε ¿

This equation has been used to derive null and alternative hypotheses. A null hypothesis

exhibits that data is independent of the existence of cross-sections. However, the

alternative hypothesis exerts the existence of cross-section dependencies in the data.

20
3.3.2. Panel unit root test

This study preferred to apply second-generation unit root tests to explore the

stationary properties of panel data. This is because second generation tests are

unswerving when used to assess cross sectional dependence. Particularly, we have used

cross-sectional augmented IPS (CIPS) and cross-sectional augmented ADF (CADF). This

is because they are relatively reliable tests, compared to first-generation unit root tests

results. This is because first-generation unit root tests tend to be ineffective when cross-

sectional dependence exists (Dogan and Seker, 2016). The IPS cross-section augmented

unit root test can be applied through the following equation:

n
Δ x ¿ =α ¿ + β i x i ,t −1+ ρT ∑ θij Δ xi , t− j+ ε ¿
j =1

The null hypothesis derived from this equation exerts that each used time series is non-

stationary. This equation has been proposed by Pesaran (2007), who used ∆ to estimate

the equation by setting it as the difference operator. However, the series of analyzed

variables ( x ¿ ¿ has been used both at difference, as well as at level. Moreover, the

intercept term has been represented by α, and T represents the time trend in the data; ε ¿

denotes the error term. However, the Schwarz information criterion (SIC) method has

been used to determine the lag length.

3.3.3. Lagrange Multiplier bootstrap cointegration test

This study has used the Lagrange Multiplier (LM) bootstrap cointegration method

developed by Westerlund and Edgerton (2007) to assess cointegration among variables in

the presence of heterogeneity cross-sectional dependence in the panel data. The

developers of this method have suggested following equation for estimation:

21
 The αi and βi are alpha and beta that are estimated with the help of fully modified

form of alpha and beta. The LM bootstrap test's null hypothesis is that panel data exhibits

cointegration between variables. This test performs well with a small sample size and is

generally adequate, as it allows for both cases (between and within) of cross-sectional

unit dependence. Additionally, the LM bootstrap test aids in accounting for variability

and cross-sectional dependence in the technique for estimating cointegration between

variables.

3.3.4. Long-run estimation

Next, we investigate the long-run elasticities. Literature has reported various

econometric techniques that can be used to find elasticities. However, considering their

benefits, we preferred to apply the continuously updated and fully modified (CUP-FM)

method and continuously updated and bias-corrected (CUP-BC) methods, as proposed by

Bai et al. (2009). They have suggested following model to estimate the long run

estimations:

Here, this is the estimated coefficient obtained by repeatedly conducting Fully

Modified Least Squares (FM-OLS) on the residuals from the preceding step until

complete convergence occurs. The initial estimators are assigned according to F and will

22
remain assigned until final convergence occurs. The first estimator is called continuously

updated-fully modified (CUP-FM), and the second estimator is called continuously

updated-bias corrected (CUP-BC), and both of these estimators are updated constantly

until complete convergence occurs. When employed in conjunction with exogenous

regressors, these estimators offer unbiased and accurate findings. Additionally, these

estimators are resilient when dealing with mixed components of I (1)/I (0). Even in the

absence of endogeneity, because these tests employ FM-OLS estimators, they can

estimate consistent findings.

These methods are more effective in panel estimations, as they control the cross-

sectional dependence and unobserved non-linearity. Further, to cater to serial correlation

and endogeneity problems, this study organized the CUP-BC estimator. Similarly, the

CUP-FM estimator keeps the model parameters intact by limiting their distribution.

Furthermore, the model parameters are continuously updated (CUP) with the help of

iterations as soon they reach the convergence point.

3.3.5. Exploration of causality direction

Researchers and practitioners consider that an effective policymaking process relies

heavily on the relationship between variables. Relying on long-run estimations can

provide information about the association among variables, but these do not give any

insight into the directional relationship. Literature has employed the Dumitrescu and

Hurlin (DH) causality test, introduced by Dumitrescu and Hurlin (2012), to explore the

causality direction between variables. This study follows the same test for three potential

reasons. First, the DH causality test is effective in cases of unobserved heterogeneity.

Secondly, the test uses a vector autoregressive (VAR) structure on stationary data. Third,

23
the DH causality test can effectively explore the causal relationship between cross-

sectional variables' cross-sections by running separate regressions on all cross-sectional

sets

4 Results

As the independent variables signify economic development, theoretically there is a

possibility of association between them. This association might lead to the problem of the

multicollinearity, which can consequentially lead to spurious results. Hence, before

starting the empirical analysis, it is essential to check for the multicollinearity in the data.

The variance inflation factor (VIF) test outcomes reported in Table 2 suggests that the

data to be free from the possible multicollinearity issues. This warrants the concurrent

presence of the independent variables in the empirical model. Based on the results of this

preliminary diagnostic test, the empirical analysis can be started.

Table 2. Multicollinearity test results

Variables VIF √VIF Tolerance R2

lnGDP 2.16 1.47 0.4630 0.5370
lnENG 2.31 1.52 0.4329 0.5671
lnEDU 1.88 1.37 0.5319 0.4681
lnICT 1.46 1.21 0.6849 0.3151
lnFD 1.49 1.22 0.6711 0.3289

This study starts the empirical analysis by examining the Cross-sectional

dependence in the data. The estimated results by CD tests are presented in Table 3. The

significance level of all study variables implies that cross-sectional dependence exists

among the variables.

Table 3. Cross-sectional Dependence tests result

Variables Breusch-Pagan LM Pesaran scaled LM Pesaran CD

lnCO2 2159.226*** 131.6315*** 34.46492***
lnGDP 3283.105*** 204.1775*** 57.28593***
lnENG 1950.696*** 118.1709*** 32.65315***

24
 lnEDU 2201.745*** 134.3760*** 44.89157***
lnICT 3259.963*** 202.6837*** 57.06349***
lnFD 1440.787*** 85.25645*** 16.05407***
Note: ¿∗¿ p <0.01; ¿∗p<0.05 ; ¿ p<0.1.

Cross-sectional dependence enables us to choose such unit root tests, which also

cater to cross-sectional dependence. Thus, we used CIPS and CADF tests to measure the

stationary properties. The estimated results of the unit root test (see Table 4) show that all

series of subject panel data sets are stationary at first difference and contain unit root at

level.

Table 4. Second-generation Unit root tests result

CIPS CADF
Variables Level First-Difference Level First-Difference
lnCO2 -1.532 -4.518*** -1.601 -3.448***
lnGDP -1.815 -3.941*** -1.861 -3.941***
lnENG -1.967 -4.651*** -1.848 -3.492***
lnEDU -1.873 -3.644*** -2.110 -3.489***
lnICT -2.076 -3.419*** -2.537 -3.787***
lnFD -2.124 -4.630*** -2.313 -3.847***
Note: ¿∗¿ p <0.01; ¿∗p<0.05 ; ¿ p<0.1.

After knowing the study variables' unit root properties, the next step is to find

cointegration among the variables. This study used the LM bootstrap Cointegration test to

accomplish this objective. The results presented in Table 5 reveal cointegration among

education, carbon emissions, energy demand, ICT and FD in the presence of economic

growth as a control variable. The results reject the null hypothesis, which states that there

is no-long run cointegration. Insignificant statistics of the LM test indicate the presence

of a long-run relationship between the cross-sectional variables.

Table 5. LM bootstrap Cointegration test results

lm statistic robust p-value

LM bootstrap test 19.138 0.910

25
 After finding the cointegration among variables, the next step is to find long-run

elasticity. This study used Cup-BC and Cup-FM to find the long-run elasticities. The

results have been explained through three different models, as depicted in Table 6 and the

model diagnostics are reported in Appendix 2. The results show that a one percent

increase in economic growth fosters an extra 0.2776% of carbon emissions in the long

run. During the previous twenty years, Asian economies have witnessed a drastic surge in

economic activities. However, they have only been able to attain sustainable economic

growth by rapidly expanding their fossil fuels consumption. The rise in the use of fossil

fuels was evidenced by the rise in activities and economic growth of these Asian

countries. However, at the same time, fossil fuels increased the level of pollution in these

countries. As these economies are fossil fuel-based, the increase in pollution is also

therefore obvious. Asian countries produce the largest proportion of environmental

pollution in the world. Many authors have reported similar results (between these two

variables) in different countries. For example, Zaidi et al. (2019) reported for OECD

countries. Zafar et al. (2019) reported for G7 and N11 countries. However, Lee (2013)

and Ahmed, Rehman, & Ozturk (2017) reported a negative relationship between

economic growth and emissions for G20 and south-Asian countries.

Table 6. Panel long-run tests result

Model-1 Model-2 Model-3
CUP-FM CUP-BC CUP-FM CUP-BC CUP-FM CUP-BC
lnGDP 0.277*** 0.301*** 0.294*** 0.308*** 0.296*** 0.336***
(3.2002) (3.5421) (3.2448) (3.3860) (3.5091) (4.1224)
lnENG 0.644*** 0.638*** 0.627*** 0.629*** 0.581*** 0.539***
(11.2379) (11.009) (10.8931) (10.7976) (9.8671) (9.0212)
lnEDU 0.267*** 0.277*** 0.240*** 0.259*** 0.239*** 0.240***
(4.6826) (4.9199) (3.8849) (4.3845) (3.7598) (3.7883)
lnICT -0.026 ***
-0.027*** -0.023 ***
-0.016*** -0.011 ***
-0.022***
(10.2225) (10.0823) (2.3455) (2.5541) (7.4359) (8.0156)
lnFD -0.039*** -0.029*** -0.042*** -0.030*** -0.022*** -0.022***
(3.8404) (4.4404) (3.5931) (4.2786) (4.9836) (4.4900)

26
 lnEDU*lnICT -0.005*** -0.006***
(5.2715) (4.9266)
lnFD*lnICT 0.029*** 0.039***
(7.7645) (6.6204)
Note: ¿∗¿ p <0.01; ¿∗p<0.05 ; ¿ p<0.1. t-statistics are presented in the parenthesis.

The estimated results indicate that even a one percent incremental rise in energy

consumption will foster nearly 0.6442% more carbon emissions. This result also supports

earlier findings that Asian countries are the largest energy consumers and carbon emitters

globally. The positive coefficient of energy consumption is significantly higher than other

variables. This implies that energy consumption is the main reason for increasing

emissions in the Asian region. As the major energy sources of Asian countries are fossil

fuels, these nations by definition will consume conventional fuels to cater for their energy

needs. Increases in oil, coal and gas consumption reflect the rising economic activities

and economic growth of Asian countries. On the dark side, however, such consumption

also increases the level of pollution in these countries. The primary reason for the

increasing gas rate is the industrial utilization of oil, coal and gases. Asian countries also

face the same economic challenges as those being faced by other developing countries.

The biggest challenge is achieving economic growth with minimum damage to the

environment. Rising emissions not only increase environmental pollution but also

negatively affect human health. Rural people in Asian countries need to be educated

about environmental degradation. They should be provided green loans for improving

their energy demand green equipment requirements. Similarly, the role of urban

populations is very important in transforming economies from using conventional energy

sources to employing clean energy sources. Similar results are reported by Ali, Abdullah,

27
& Azam (2017) for Malaysia, and Zaman & Moemen (2017) for countries with different

income levels.

In line with existing literature, this study has found a significantly positive

association between education and emissions. Estimated results verify environmental

deterioration due to education. As the education level increases by one percent, the Asian

region experiences a 0.2674% proliferation in carbon emissions. This result confirms

that, when education improves, the level of economic activities also increases. With the

increase in vocational opportunities, energy demands also increase. As the primary

energy sources of Asian countries are nonrenewable fossil fuels, any increase in energy

consumption negatively affects the environmental quality (Hill and Magnani, 2002).

Our findings imply that ICT decreases the carbon emissions in the Asian region,

with the results confirming that a 1% increase in ICT rentals results in a -0.0268%

decrease in carbon emissions. Though small (but significant) effects have been estimated

for ICT in terms of the impact on environmental pollution, it has been found that Asian

economies experience improved air quality due to increases in ICT penetration. However,

different indicators of ICT have been considered as general ICT penetration effects. In

this study, Internet has been used as a separate measure of ICT and found a significantly

bad impact of Internet on environmental quality. During the previous two decades, ICT

has changed the working of different sectors in Asia. For example, the online shopping

trend has boomed, the use of smartphones has accelerated, and shoppers' traveling costs

have lowered significantly. When most of the population buys via the Internet, they do

not need to go to markets. Therefore, they can save the traveling costs and reduce the

28
traffic on the roads. This reduction of vehicle traffic means a corresponding reduction in

nonrenewable energy use in that country.

The modernization of the ICT sector is very helpful in developing energy-efficient

products that curtail emission levels. ICT is not only helpful for the energy sector but also

FD in the country. Although the ICT cost (e.g., electricity cost) can be considered an

incremental burden on governments, its benefits are far greater than its cost. For example,

rural populations can easily access finance without visiting banks or financial institutions.

They can save ample time through online banking and shopping etc. and thus, pressure of

urbanization can also be avoided. ICT has brought about a revolution in the field of

digital finance and e-commerce. Therefore, the role of ICT in environmental

sustainability cannot be ignored. Amri et al. (2019) reported an insignificant relationship

between ICT and emissions in Tunisia. A negative relationship between ICT and

emissions in China was reported by Zhang & Liu (2015), Ozcan & Apergis (2018) for

emerging countries, Sinha (2018) for India, and Chien et al. (2021) for BRICS countries.

A result worth noting is that Asian economies experienced a -0.0396% decline in

emissions per one percent of FD. These Asian countries allocate sufficient funds to

support the organizations that help achieve emissions reductions. Furthermore, these

countries are willing to increase their investment in renewable energy sources that can

reduce fossil fuels in Asian countries. As suggested by Tamazian et al. (2009), financial

openness and liberalization may induce more foreign direct investment and R&D

projects. FD is the largest contributor to green investment and environmental quality.

Likewise, Blanford (2009) concluded that investment in R&D could improve energy-

efficient technologies that can lower emissions. Negative results have been reported

29
between FD and Omri et al. (2015) for MENA countries and Kuwait. However, a positive

relationship is suggested by Boutabba (2014b) for India and by Shahzad, Kumar, Zakaria,

& Hurr (2017) for Pakistan.

The interaction term between education and ICT has a negative relationship with

carbon emissions. This relationship states that when education increases, the level of ICT

also increases. Therefore, education provides leverage to the ICT sector in terms of

controlling carbon emissions. Due to improvements in education and ICT sectors, more

focus is being given to environmentally friendly technologies. More awareness programs

are being arranged to improve environmental quality. Education, blended with ICT

knowledge, increases the R&D level in a country, which can then be utilized to minimize

carbon emissions. Asian countries possess a good percentage of education and ICT

sectors that can be used as the backbone to the transformation of economies following

sustainable development goals.

The interaction term between FD and ICT has a positive relationship with carbon

emissions. This relationship states that when FD is increased through large-scale ICT

equipment, the levels of energy consumption and carbon emissions also accelerate.

Increasing investment in ICT infrastructure boosts the energy sector significantly but can

also deteriorate the environment. From a policy perspective, investment should be kept

high, but the proportion of nonrenewable energy used should be minimized. The

availability of financial resources to ICT sectors will help control carbon emissions in

Asian countries.

30
 The next step is to find the panel causality to know the direction of long-run

relationships. This study used Pairwise Dumitrescu and Hurlina, (2012) panel causality

test to attain this objective. The test results are shown in Table 7.

Table 7. Pairwise Dumitrescu and Hurlin (2012) panel causality test results

∆lnCO2 ∆lnY ∆lnENG ∆lnEDU ∆lnICT ∆lnInFD

∆lnCO2 4.7739*** 3.1755*** 3.0839*** 4.4701*** 1.8158***
(0.000) (0.001) (0.0020) (0.000) (0.0694)
∆lnY 2.3075** 7.8579*** 3.9531*** 6.4802*** 2.9683***
(0.0210) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.0030)
∆lnENG 4.5155*** 0.5167 3.1039*** 10.8872*** 3.8861***
(0.000) (0.6053) (0.0019) (0.000) (0.000)
∆lnEDU 1.3266 5.9941*** 3.4425*** 10.9993*** 2.8691***
(0.1846) (0.000) (0.0006) (0.000) (0.0041)
∆lnICT 6.4579*** 4.7667*** 8.6441*** 10.5028*** 7.3366***
(0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000)
∆lnFD 4.5161*** 3.3212*** 2.1292** 3.8787*** 6.1406***
(0.000) (0.0009) (0.0332) (0.000) (0.000)
Note: ¿∗¿ p <0.01; ¿∗p<0.05 ; ¿ p<0.1.

This study finds that carbon emissions and economic growth have a bidirectional

association by applying the DH causality test. Balsalobre-Lorente and Leitã (2020) found

unidirectional relationship between income and emissions level. A feedback link exerts a

significant association (at a 1% significance level) between energy use and carbon

emissions. Zafar et al. (2019b) found similar results for OECD countries. However, a

Granger casual association exists between education levels and carbon emissions and

these results are not consistent with Zafar et al. (2020). A study has found a bidirectional

link between ICT and CO2 emissions. Ulucak et al. (2020) reported a unidirectional

relationship between ICT and CO2 emissions for BRICS countries.

Similarly, bidirectional and significant links have been found between FD and

emissions; FD affects emissions at 1%, and carbon emissions affect FD at a 10%

significance level. Similar results stated by Zaidi et al. (2019) for Asia Pacific Economic

31
Cooperation countries. However, the growth hypothesis stands firm for GDP and energy

use for our panel data. Nevertheless, this study's results support the literature that states a

bidirectional-positive association exists between education and economic growth. Zafar

et al. (2021) also stated a bidirectional-positive relationship between both variables. This

study finds that ICT and economic growth have positive Granger causality in Asian

economies and our results are matched with Ozcan and Apergis (2018). Likewise, FD

and economic growth have maintained a positive bidirectional relationship. Ozcan and

Apergis (2018) stated similar results for emerging countries. This study adds to the

existing literature by maintaining that economic growth increases when economies

experience ICT expansion and access to financial resources. Considering that the cost of

growth is reflected as an increase in input demand, so energy resource demand rises in

line with increases in ICT expansion to attain economic growth. In summary, awareness

and the experiential learning process accelerated by the education rate increment directly

affect economic activities like FD and ICT penetration. In addition, residual effects occur

in the form of emission increments.

Lastly, as the empirical model does not control for country- and time-fixed effects,

the fixed effects regressions are carried out for Model 1, 2, and 3. This estimation

exercise might act as a viable robustness check of the long run coefficient estimation. The

test results reported in Table 8 demonstrates that the outcomes of the three empirical

models using country- and time-fixed effects are robust, as the magnitudes and signs of

the coefficients are not varying. Moreover, the F-statistics of the models denote the

significance of the models.

Table 8. Robustness check results with country- and time-fixed effects

32
 Model-1 Model-2 Model-3
lnGDP 0.253** 0.347* 0.249** 0.279*** 0.267** 0.282*
(6.32) (4.03) (3.22) (5.11) (-2.54) (-2.11)
lnENG 0.793*** 0.795*** 0.795*** 0.787*** 0.744*** 0.690***
(11.39) (11.60) (11.29) (11.30) (9.48) (8.71)
lnEDU 0.267* 0.286* 0.174** 0.157*** 0.165** 0.134***
(1.82) (1.79) (2.19) (9.24) (2.75) (7.95)
lnICT -0.152*** -0.146*** -0.193** -0.119*** -0.159*** -0.101***
(-8.24) (-10.59) (-2.16) (-2.67) (-2.79) (-4.56)
lnFD -0.167*** -0.131*** -0.166*** -0.133*** -0.173*** -0.138***
(-8.05) (-6.20) (-7.78) (-6.22) (8.16) (-6.50)
lnEDU*lnICT -0.048* -0.071***
(-2.19) (5.32)
lnFD*lnICT 0.021*** 0.041***
(8.34) (2.57)
Constant -2.096*** -2.214*** -2.115*** -2.168*** -1.907*** -1.903***
(-12.14) (-11.48) (-10.47) (-10.50) (-8.57) (-8.40)

Fixed effect Country Year Country Year Country Year

R-square 0.8796 0.8939 0.8803 0.8933 0.8700 0.8853
F-statistics 314.48*** 61.91*** 311.40*** 60.01*** 312.94*** 61.10***

Note: ¿∗¿ p <0.01; ¿∗p<0.05 ; ¿ p<0.1. t-statistics are presented in the parenthesis.

5 Discussion of results

By far, the study outcomes are reported and individual components of the outcomes

are analyzed. Now, to obtain a wholesome picture of the scenario, it is necessary to

discuss all the segments of the study outcomes together. This study outcome reveals the

unsustainability of the countries' economic growth patterns while revealing the possible

drivers of this ecologically unsustainable economic growth trajectory. The unsustainable

economic growth pattern of these nations is exerting a negative environmental

externality, and this externality is being caused by the major driver of this growth, i.e.,

energy consumption pattern. Given the fact that these countries are majorly dependent on

the fossil fuel-based energy solutions, consumption of energy generated from these

sources will eventually deteriorate the environmental quality by increasing the level of

33
CO2 emissions in the ambient atmosphere. This very energy consumption pattern also

reveals that priority of the policymakers in these nations is to attain economic growth,

even at the cost of environmental quality, and hence, this policy objective will be

reflected in the other drivers of economic growth, as well. As the nations are treading

along the rising economic growth trajectory, it can be assumed that the growth prospects

of the nations might create job opportunities at various levels, and this job prospect will

encourage the educational attainment. Now, this education is likely to be more growth-

oriented compared to development-oriented, as the future labor force will be adding

towards the economic growth of these nations. Driven by the myopic pro-growth policy

agenda, the prospective labor force will be creating an unintentional tradeoff between

growth and development, and their unintended and policy-probed lack of environmental

awareness might add to the ambient air pollution problem. This argument is reflected by

the study outcomes.

While saying this, it also needs remembering that the world has ushered in the era of

fourth Industrial Revolution, and so as these countries. Therefore, the economic growth

trajectory being attained by these nations will be more dependent on the technological

innovations, which are dominated largely by the ICT solutions. As these solutions are

more capital-intensive and less labor-intensive, hence these solutions will eb able to

internalize the negative environmental externalities exerted by the economic growth

trajectory itself. Moreover, usage of automation technologies has enabled these nations to

achieve energy efficiency, which has reduced the consumption of fossil fuel-based energy

solutions, and therefore, the consequential CO2 emissions have been reduced. Now, in

order to implement these solutions, proper channelization of funds is necessary, and the

34
policymakers need to make use of the financial institutions and instruments for this

purpose. The finances mobilized for catalyzing the research and development activities,

as well as the renewable energy exploration projects, so that these nations can achieve the

energy security, which is a predominant problem in these nations. Hence, the economic

growth trajectory being projected by the financial development is also expected to

internalize the negative environmental externalities exerted by the economic growth

trajectory.

Saying this, it is also essential to mention that the financial development channels

utilized in these nations are also aligned with the pro-growth policy agenda, and only

driven by the global pressure of attaining the SDG objectives, the focus of financial

mobilization is undergoing a transformation. Hence, majority of the financialization is

still driven towards making the technological solutions more labor-intensive and less

energy efficient. Moreover, the renewable energy generation in the Asian countries is still

at a nascent stage, and the application of ICT is largely seen as a service enabler of

manufacturing activities. Hence, the financial mobilization in presence of the ICT

development can yet to have a positive impact on the environmental quality, whereas the

financialization of renewable energy projects has already started. Therefore, the

interaction between financial development and ICT development is exerting pressure on

the environmental quality, and this is occurring majorly because of the existing

financialization channels towards supporting the service-enabling role of ICT for the

manufacturing services. At the same time, the rising environmental concern among the

citizens is getting reflected in the newly formed ICT service providers, which are aimed

at improving the energy efficiency of the existing production processes, and thereby,

35
internalizing the negative environmental externalities. Owing to this reason, the

interaction between educational attainment and ICT development exerts a positive

environmental externality.

While saying this, it needs to be mentioned that the discussion of the results is based

on the prevailing economic growth trajectory of the Asian countries, and hence, the

factors leading to exertion of negative environmental externality in majorly considered in

the empirical model. Alongside discussing the results, an extension of the model

outcomes can be discussed in view of the policy instruments with the potential of

internalizing negative environmental externalities. From a developmental perspective,

consideration of the economic welfare could have provided additional insights for

controlling the emissions level. In this regard, the Index of Sustainable Economic

Welfare and Genuine Progress Indicator could have been the suitable policy instruments,

which could have given a clear roadmap about internalizing the negative environmental

externalities. Under the influence of these policy instruments, impacts of financial

development and ICT on environmental degradation could have been more prominent, as

these instruments can cover the broad aspects of sustainability, i.e., social, economic, and

environmental aspects. However, in keeping with the scope of the environment-oriented

research objective of the present study, these dimensions are kept outside the scope of the

study. Saying this, given the multifaceted dimensions of these policy instruments, the

tangential policy implications can be drawn based on the expected impact of these

instruments.

6 Conclusions and policy implications

36
 This study has explored the determinants of carbon emission in Asian economies.

Using several relevant control variables, this study has suggested significantly positive

impact of energy demand on carbon emissions. Considering the decentralized electricity

generation option might further reduce the cost of electricity by reducing the transmission

losses, and at the same time, the overall environmental impact of the energy generation

and distribution might be reduced. In this way, the ICT development process might

complement the decentralized electricity generation systems for exerting additional

positive environmental externality.

A significant contribution of ICT expansion through using green energy would

contribute in carbon emissions reduction in Asian countries. By investing in ICT

infrastructure, Asian economies can increase economic contribution of industrial and

transportation and services sectors. The implementation of ICT-based solutions, the

supply side aspect of ICT development needs to be discussed. Development and

implementation of ICT-based solutions require energy consumption, and this cost of

energy being the operational cost of ICT development, it needs to be borne by the end-

users. Therefore, bringing energy efficiency in production processes and drifting towards

capital-intensive solutions might reduce the burden of electricity cost on the end-users.

An important aspect of the findings is negative association between financial

development and carbon emission. It suggests that availability of financial resources

facilitate quality input mix that results in low carbon emission and higher productivity.

Financial development breaks the vicious circle of low investment -low productivity.

Furthermore, access to funds facilitates research, education and foreign capital inflow. It

has been observed that access to financial resources fosters industrialization and

37
innovation, Asian economies can benefit through following financial openness and

liberalization models suggested by Neo-Classical growth models. Growing trade

contribution by Asian economies suggest the need of policy intervention to improve

production of clean energy that would help reducing cost of production and depreciation

of human and physical capital.

The findings reveal a positive relationship between education and carbon emissions.

This study suggests that education leads to an expansion of ICT innovation, however,

insignificant contribution of education in production of green energy has deteriorating

environmental quality and increasing carbon emissions in Asia. The theoretical

interpretation for the role of education in climate focuses on innovation, research and

development. It can be suggested that investing in research to explore optimal low

carbon emitting forms of available energy resources, fossil fuels and other energy mix

would increase the marginal returns of industrial capital in Asian economies. Asian

countries have risen education rates and the fastest increasing ICT infrastructure in the

world. These countries can effectively utilize their manpower to further boost growth

rates and improve the environmental quality. Asian countries should increase awareness

campaigns surrounding environmental sustainability.

The limitation of this study lies in data and time constraints. Asia majorly consists of

developing countries where data of all the variables is not available/reported. Therefore,

selected Asian countries have been taken. We recommend to study some other panels on

the same lines with considering financial inclusion and renewable energy consumption in

the model.

38
 Acknowledgements
This paper is partly supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No.
71871146), Guangdong Special Support Program for Young Top-notch Talent in Science
and Technology Innovation (No. 2019TQ05L989), Natural Science Foundation of
Guangdong Province (No. 2021A1515011777), Research Platforms and Project in
Ordinary Universities of Education Department of Guangdong Province(No.
2020WTSCX079), the Planning Project of Philosophy and Social Science in Shenzhen
(No. SZ2020D017) and the MOE (Ministry of Education in China) Project of Humanities
and Social Science (No. 18YJA630090).

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Appendix 1: Summary of reviewed literature

Author(s) Context Variables Method(s) Results

ICT-Environmental Quality Nexus
 Eastern region: ICT negatively
affects CO2
 Driscoll-Kraay  Central region: ICT negatively
29 Chinese
estimation affects CO2
Zhang and Liu (2015) provinces (2000- CO2 emissions, ICT output
 Feasible General Least  Western region: ICT positively
2010)
Squares affects CO2
 All regions: ICT positively affects
CO2
CO2 emissions per capita, ICT Index
(number of fixed telephone
subscribers per 100 inhabitants,
116 developing and
mobile cell phone subscribers per
26 developed ICT-CO2 association is inverted U-
Añón et al. (2017) 100 inhabitants, PC owners per 100 Driscoll-Kraay estimation
countries (1995- shaped
inhabitants, percentage of
2010)
individuals using internet and fixed-
broadband subscribers per 100
inhabitants)
Non-interactive regressions:
ICT does not affect CO2 emissions
CO2 emissions per capita, CO2 from
44 sub-Saharan
liquid fuel, Mobile phone Two-step Generalized Interactive regressions:
Asongu et al. (2018) African countries
subscriptions per 100 people, Method of Moments  ICT positively affects CO2 emissions
(2000-2012)
Internet penetration per 100 people  Mobile phone penetration negatively
affects CO2 emissions from liquid
fuel
44 sub-Saharan CO2 emissions per capita, Mobile
Two-step Generalized
Asongu (2018b) African countries phone subscriptions per 100 people, ICT positively affects CO2 emissions
Method of Moments
(2000-2012) Internet penetration per 100 people
Danish et al. (2018) Next 11 countries CO2 emissions per capita, Mobile Mean Group estimators ICT positively affects CO2 emissions

47
 phone subscriptions per 100 people,
(1990-2014)
Internet penetration per 100 people
20 emerging
Ozcan and Apergis CO2 emissions per capita, Internet
economies (1990- Mean Group estimators ICT negatively affects CO2 emissions
(2018) penetration per 100 people
2015)
Tunisia (1975- CO2 emissions per capita, Autoregressive-Distributed ICT has insignificant impact on CO2
Amri et al. (2019)
2014) Investments in ICT Lag emissions
 Agriculture: ICT has insignificant
impact on CO2 emissions
Dehghan and CO2 emissions per capita, real ICT Dynamic Ordinary Least  Industry: ICT positively affects CO2
Iran (2002-2013)
Shahnazi (2019) capital stock per capita Squares  Transportation: ICT negatively
affects CO2
 Services: ICT negatively affects CO2
32 African
CO2 emissions per capita, Internet
Shobande (2021) countries (2000- Fixed effect model, FGLS  ICT positively affects CO2 emissions
penetration (per 100 people)
2016)
ICT goods exports (denoted by ICT)
26 measured in % of exports good,
Anser et al. (2021) European countries carbon dioxide emission intensity Panel quantile regression  ICT positively affects CO2 emissions
(2000-2017) (denoted by CO2) measured in kg/oil
equivalent energy use.
CO2 emissions per capita, Mobile
43 countries (2002- 2-step System Generalized
Chatti (2021) phone subscriptions per 100 people,  ICT positively affects CO2 emissions
2014) Method of Moments
Internet penetration per 100 people
CO2 emissions per capita, Mobile
Tunisia (1970- Logistic smooth transition  ICT negatively affects CO2
Managi et al. (2021) phone subscriptions per 100 people,
2018) regression emissions
Internet penetration per 100 people
Financial Development-Environmental Quality Nexus
CO2 emissions per capita, ratio of
Jalil and Feridun liquid liabilities to GDP, ratio of the Autoregressive-Distributed Financial development negatively
China (1953-2006)
(2011) private sector loans to the nominal Lag affects CO2 emissions
GDP
CO2 emissions per capita, domestic
Indonesia Autoregressive-Distributed Financial development negatively
Shahbaz et al. (2013a) credit to the private sector as share of
(1975Q1-2011Q4) Lag affects CO2 emissions
GDP

48
 CO2 emissions per capita, domestic
South Africa Autoregressive-Distributed Financial development negatively
Shahbaz et al. (2013b) credit to the private sector as share of
(1965-2008) Lag affects CO2 emissions
GDP
CO2 emissions per capita, domestic
Malaysia (1971- Autoregressive-Distributed Financial development negatively
Shahbaz et al. (2013c) credit to the private sector as share of
2011) Lag affects CO2 emissions
GDP
CO2 emissions per capita, domestic
Autoregressive-Distributed Financial development positively
Boutabba (2014a) India (1971-2008) credit to the private sector as share of
Lag affects CO2 emissions
GDP
12 MENA CO2 emissions per capita, domestic
Generalized Method of Financial development negatively
Omri et al. (2015) countries (1990- credit to the private sector as share of
Moments affects CO2 emissions
2011) GDP
CO2 emissions per capita, money and
quasi-money, liquid liabilities as a
share of GDP, domestic credit to the
Pakistan (1985Q1- Nonlinear Autoregressive- Financial development positively
Shahbaz et al. (2016) private sector as a percentage of
2014Q4) Distributed Lag affects CO2 emissions
GDP, stock market capitalization,
stock market traded value, stock
market turnover
CO2 emissions per capita, domestic
credits by the banking sector as share
of GDP, domestic credits to the
private sector as share of GDP, broad
Katircioğlu and Turkey (1960- Dynamic Ordinary Least Financial development has mixed
money supply as share of GDP, ratio
Taşpinar (2017) 2010) Squares impacts on CO2 emissions
of commercial bank assets to central
bank assets plus commercial bank
assets, liquid liabilities as share of
GDP
30 Chinese
Huang and Zhao CO2 emissions per capita, non-state Financial development has mixed
provinces (2000- Input-Output analysis
(2018) credit to nominal GDP impacts on CO2 emissions
2014)
CO2 emissions per capita, domestic
Salahuddin et al. Kuwait (1980- Autoregressive-Distributed Financial development has no
credit to the private sector as share of
(2018) 2013) Lag significant impact on CO2 emissions
GDP
CO2 emissions per capita, share of Autoregressive-Distributed Financial development positively
Bass et al. (2019) Russia (1990-2016)
loans provided to the energy sector Lag affects CO2 emissions

49
 18 Central and  Dynamic Seemingly
Eastern European CO2 emissions per capita, financial Unrelated Regression Financial development positively
Saud et al. (2019)
countries (1980- development index  Fully Modified Ordinary affects CO2 emissions
2016) Least Squares
Province level data
Financial development index and  FMOLS and Financial development negatively
Zhao and Yang (2020) for China (2001–
carbon emissions DOLS affects CO2 emissions
2015)
Carbon emissions (CO2) is estimated
based on seven different fossil fuel  Cross-sectionally
burning such as natural gas, coke, augmented
30 provinces of Financial development positively
Shen et al. (2021) coal, kerosene, fuel oil, diesel and autoregressive
China (1995-2017) affects CO2 emissions
gasoline and cement production, distributed lags (CS-
domestic credit provided to the ARDL)
private sector.
 CO2 emissions per capita , (i)
Financial system deposits to GDP;
88 developing (ii) Domestic credit provided by
Khan and Ozturk countries (2000– financial sector (% of GDP); (iii) Financial development negatively
 System GMM method
(2021) Domestic credit to private sector (% affects CO2 emissions
2014) 
of GDP); (iv) Total Bank deposits to
GDP (%); (v) Liquid liabilities (M3)
as % of GDP
CO2 emissions per capita, domestic
 Panel quantile Financial development negatively
Zafar et al. (2021) APEC (1990-2018) credit to the private sector as share of
regression test affects CO2 emissions
GDP
CO2 emissions per capita , domestic
42 countries (1990-  Panel regression (Fixed Financial development negatively
Xu et al. (2021) credit to private sector by banks (%
2018) and random effect) affects CO2 emissions
of GDP)
Education- Environmental Quality Nexus
Gangadharan and CO2 emissions, secondary school Education positively affects CO2
51 countries (1998) Cross-sectional Regression
Valenzuela (2001) enrolment ratio emissions
Managi and Jena 16 Indian states SO2 emissions, NO2 emissions, SPM  Ordinary Least Square  Education negatively affects SO2
(2008) (1991-2003) emissions, persons who have passed  Fixed Effect Regression emissions
at least matriculation  Dynamic Generalized  Education positively affects NO2
Method of Moments emissions

50
  Education positively affects SPM
emissions
14 Latin American  Fixed Effect Regression
Sapkota & Bastola CO2 emissions per capita, Average Education positively affects CO2
countries (1980-  Random Effect
(2017) years of total schooling of age 15 + emissions
2010) Regression
CO2 emissions per capita, total
Balaguer & Australia (1950- Autoregressive-Distributed Education-CO2 emissions association
number of students at graduate and
Cantavella (2018) 2014) Lag follows inverted U-shaped form
postgraduate levels
CO2 emissions per capita, secondary
school enrolment for general
education, secondary school
Pakistan (1971- Autoregressive-Distributed Education negatively affects CO2
Bano et al. (2018) enrolment for vocational education,
2014) Lag emissions
human capital index based on
average year of education and
estimated outcomes
United State of
Autoregressive-Distributed Education negatively affects ecological
Zafar et al. (2019) America (1970- Ecological footprint, human capital
Lag footprint
2015)
Continuously updated fully
CO2 emissions per capita, secondary modified (Cup-FM)" and
Education negatively affects CO2
Zafar et al. (2020) OECD (1990-2015) education enrolment gross as a proxy "continuously updated bias
emissions
for education corrected (Cup-BC)"
estimation methods
CO2 emissions per capita, secondary
Panel quantile regression Education negatively affects CO2
Zafar et al. (2021) APEC (1990-2018) education enrolment gross as a proxy
test emissions
for education
Continuously updated fully
Top remittance CO2 emissions per capita, secondary modified (Cup-FM)" and
Education positively affects CO2
Zafar et al. (2021) receiving countries education enrolment gross as a proxy "continuously updated bias
emissions
(1986-2017) for education corrected (Cup-BC)"
estimation methods
Education expenditure as a proxy for Education negatively affects CO2
Zaman et al. (2021) China (1991-2015) ARDL method
education, carbon emissions emissions

Appendix 2: Model diagnostics results

51
 Diagnostic tests Eq. (1) Eq. (2) Eq. (3)
Heteroskedasticity 0.24 0.68 0.59
(Breusch and Pagan, 1979) (0.6244) (0.4090) (0.4441)
Normality 0.72 0.43 0.32
(Jarque and Bera, 1987) (0.2553) (0.2497) (0.2643)
Serial Correlation 0.76 0.91 0.56
(Wooldridge, 2002) (0.4680) (0.9534) (0.4951)
Omitted Variable Bias 1.23 1.66 1.15
(Ramsey, 1969) (0.2986) (0.1742) (0.3302)
Endogeneity Bias 0.27 0.16 0.24
(Durbin, 1954; Wu, 1973; Hausman, 1978) (0.9981) (0.9867) (0.9997)
p-values are within parentheses

Graphical Abstract

52