Fire from First Principles

5
A design guide t o building fire safety
Third edition

Paul Stollard and John Abrahams

Spon Press
Taylor&Francis Group

LONDON AND NEW YORK

Contents

Authors vii

Introduction 1

1 Theory
1.1 Fire science 4
1.2 Fire safety design 12
-
2 Prevention
2.1 Ignition prevention 22
2.2 Fuel limitation 29
2.3 Fire safety management 33

3 Communication
3.1 Detection 35
3.2 Comprehension/analysis 40
3.3 Alarm 42
3.4 Signs andJire notices 45

4 Escape
4.1 Occupancy 50
4.2 Travel distances 56
4.3 Rescue 65
4.4 Escape lighting 66

5 Containment
5.1 Passive measures: structural protection 70
5.2 Passive measures: compartmentation 77
5.3 Passive measures: envelope protection 83
5.4 Active measures 86
vi Contents

6 Extinguishment
6.1 Manual firefighting 96
6.2 Auto-suppression 98
6.3 Fire service facilities aid access 100

7 Assessment
7.1 Methodology 105
7.2 Hospitals 109
7.3 Public sector dwellings 113
7.4 Workplaces 118
7.5 Canals 119
7.6 Audits 122
7.7 Assessors 125

8 Information
8.1 Introduction 128
8.2 Legislation in Great Britain 128
8.3 Northern Ireland legislation 139
8.4 British Standards and International Standards 140
8.5 Guidance 147
8.6 Consultancy and advisory services 157
8.7 Glossary o f i r e terms 159

Index
 Index

Page numbers printed in bold type refer to figures; those in italic to tables. References
to entries in the glossary of terms are indicated by an asterisk (*) following the page
number.

Acceptability, of safety levels 17, 159" public sector dwellings 113-1 8

Access rooms 59,59 three-part approach 105, 106
Active containment 69, 86, 159" workplaces 118-19
pressurization 86-8, 163" Assessment sheets
smoke venting 88-94, 164" canal tunnels 121
see also Passive containment hospitaIs 112
Acts of Parliament 129 public sector dwellings 117
see also Legislation; and spec@ Acts Assessors 125-7
of Parliame~zt Association for Specialist Fire Protection
Addressable systems, of fire detection 40, 158
41-2,42, 159" Atrium buildings 151, 152
Advisory services 157-9 Audit 33, 1 2 2 4 , 159"
Air conditioning cathedrals 122, 1 2 3 4
BS 5720: Code of Practice for hospitals 122, 124
Mechanical Ventilation and Air and management structure 122
Conditioning in Buildings 145 Auto-suppression 98-100, 159"
and venting 93 carbon dioxide 99-100
Airlocks 83, 86 cost 99
Alarm systems, see Fire alarm; Fire-alarm deluge systems 99
systems drenchers 99
Alternating sprinkler systems 98, 159" dry powder 100
Animal Liberation Front 28-9 equivalency 100
Appraisal, see Assessment foam 100
Approved Documents/Guides 129, 131, water spray systems 99
132 see also Sprinklers
Arson, see Fire-raising
Assessment 104-22, 159" Backdraught 8
canal tunnels 119-22, 125 Basements 132
compensation sheets, hospitals 113, Benchmarks 108-9
114 hospitals 111-13
EEC directives 104 Bradford City football stadium 17, 50, 53
..
fire precautions 107-8 Break glass (manual) call points 36, 162"
fire risks 20, 105-7, 137 Brick 10
hospitals 109-13 and containment 77
methodology 105 Bridgeheads 100,101, 160"
166 Index

British Fire Protection Systems Cathedrals

Association 158 audits 122, 123-4
British Standards (BS) 16, 140-7 emergency plans 123-4
DD240 (Draft for Development), fire precautions 123
quantitative fire safety engineering fires in 23,24, 123
20 hazards 123
see also under specijic subject repair and replacement policies 124
headings Ceilings, interior finishes 31-2
British Standards Institution (BSI) 140 CERTlFIRE 159
British Waterways, canal tunnels 119-22, Chairs, stacking 32
125 charring, of wood 74, 75
Bromochlorodifluoromethane (BCF) 96 Chip-pans 24
Bromotrifluoromethane (BTM) 96 Cinematograph Act 1985 137
Building Act 1984 130 Circulation routeslareas 36, 49
Building contents 32-3 Coatings, BS 8202: Coatings for Fire
Building fabric 29-32 Protection of Building Elements 147
Building materials 9-10, 29-32 Collapse, of buildings 7 1-3
characteristics 29-30 Combustibility 30, 160"
fire resistance 26, 30, 74-7 Combustion 4-5, 160"
I S 0 standards 142 products of 9
Building Regulations 18-19, 20-1 Communication 14, 15, 3 5 4 8 , 160"
administration of 131-2 Communication systems
Approved Documents 131, 132 guidance 148
England and Wales 130 requirements of 35
Building Regulations and Fire Safety, see also Detection; Fire alarm;
Procedural Guida~zce135 Fire-alarm systems; Fire notices;
Building (Scotland) Act 1959 133 Signs
Building services 26 Compartment fires 6,7,10
Building Standards (Scotland) Regulations size of enclosure 11
133 Compartment floors 78, 160"
Buildings Compartment walls 160"
interior finishes 3 1-2 doors/ducts through 78
lines of defence 27-8,28 subcompartment walls 164"
see also Dwellings; Hotels; Compartmentation 13, 60, 69, 77-83,
Non-dwellings; Structural elements; 160"
Theatres and travel (escape) distance 78, 82
Burning brands 83,84, 160* Compartments 160"
Bus garages 39 numbers of 78
Bush fires, France 50 protection time 60
size 78, 81, 81, 82
Cables, BS 6387: Specification for subcompartments 60, 80,80, 164*
Performance Requirements of Cables Competence
Required to Maintain Circuit of assessors 125-7
Integrity under Fire Conditions 146 definition 125
Cairo Sheraton hotel 43 Computers
Call points, manual (break glass) 36, BS 6266: Code of Practice for Fire
162* Protection for Electronic Data
Canal tunnels, assessment 119-22, 125 Processing Installations 146
Carbon dioxide (CO,) 12 LPC recommendations 151
in auto-suppressi& 99-100
-- -- -- __ smoke modelling 39,54 -
as extinguishing agent 95, 96 Concrete
Carbon monoxide 11, 12 BS 81 10: Structural Use of Concrete
Carelessness 24-5, 26 146
 Index 167

fire resistance 76 Door wedges 78

heat resistance 9 Doors
spalling 76 in compartment walls 78
Conduction 6,7, 160" see also Fire doors
Construction sites, LPC guide 151 Drenchers 99
Consultancy services 157-9 Dry powder 9, 95, 96
Containment 15, 68-94, 160" in auto-suppression 100
as 'fail safe' tactic 68 Dry risers 100-1, 160%
see also Active containment; Passive Dry sprinkler systems 98, 160"
containment Ducts 78
Convection 6,7, 160" optical duct sensors 40
Conventional.systems, of fire detection Dwellings
40-1,41, 160" assessment factors 115-16 \
Cooking appliances 23, 24 assessment of public sector dwellings
Cooling (decay) period 8, 9 113-18
Crime concealment 27 assessment sheet 117
Crowd management, in escape 52 BS 5446: Specification for Components
of Automatic Fire Alarm Systems for
Decay (cooling) period 8, 9 Residential Premises 144
Deluge systems 99 fires during night 43
Department of Education, fire safety guide fires in 5 , 6
154 ignition sources 23, 23
Detection 35-40 injury statistics 12, 13
automatic, while building unoccupied lower standards of fire safety 17
36 in multiple occupation 138
BS 5445: Components of Automatic public sector housing research in Wales
Fire Detection Systems 145 113, 115-18
BS 5839: Fire Detection and Alarm smoke detectors 50-1
Systems in Buildings 145-6
flame detectors 38-9 Earthquakes 23-4
heat detectors 37-8 Educational buildings 154
ionization detectors 37, 162" EEC directives 104, 135
light detectors 38-9 hospitals 109
manual detection 35-6 Egress 49, 160"
optical beam detectors 39 v. refuge 64
optical detectors 37, 162-3" Electrical fires 95, 95, 96, 99
optical duct sensors 40 see also Cables
point detectors 39 Electrical installation 26
smart detectors 42 Emergency lighting 66, 160"
smoke detectors 37, 38, 43, 50-1 BS 5266: Emergency Lighting 143
smoke sampling 40 Emergency plans, cathedrals 123-4
thermal turbulence detectors 39 Empire Palace theatre, Edinburgh 60
see also Fire-alarm systems Enactments 129
Diffusion flames 5, 160" Enclosed spaces, see Compartment fires
Disabled people Entertainment premises 137-8
escape 53-4 discothkques 50, 52, 66, 138
escape design guidance 149 Summerland Leisure Centre, Isle of
lifts for 65 Man 28,31,54-5
refuge 63, 65 see also Sports grounds; Theatres
rescue 49, 65 Envelope protection 69-70,83-5, 160"
Discothkques, fires in 50, 52, 66, 138 Equivalency 18, 160"
Dissipation 74 of auto-suppression 100
from steel 75-6 Escape 14, 15,49-67, 160"
168 Index

basic strategies 49 Fairfield Old People's Home, Edwalton

Building Regulations 130, 132, 133 51
crowd management 52 Familiarity occupants with
escape (travel) distance 56-65, 78, 82, 54-5
164" Fast response (residential) sprinklers 99
escape times 60 Fatalities
stage 1 (out of room of origin) 57,59, causes 11
61-2, 164" see also Fire statistics
stage 2 (out of compartment of origin) Final exit 65, 161*
57, 60-2, 63, 164" , Financial gain, fires started for 27
stage 3 (out of the floor of origin) 57, Fire 161%
63, 64-5, 164" Fire alarm 42-3
stage 4 (final escape at ground level) coded messages 43
57,65, 164" for fire services 44
stages of 57-65 for occupants 43
from windows 66 for staff 43
see also Evacuation types of 43
Escape lighting 66-7, 161" Fire-alarm systems
European Council, see EEC directives actuating other systems 44
European Federation of Fire Separating addressable systems 40, 41-2, 42,
Element Producers 159 159"
Evacuation BS 5446: Specification for Components
phased 57-9,58, 152, 163" of Automatic Fire Alarm Systems for
progressive horizontal evacuation 63, Residential Premises 144
64, 68, 163" BS 5839: Fire Detection and Alarm
strategy 43, 48 Systems in Buildings 145-6
vertical 64, 65 commissioning 42
see also Escape conventional systems 40-1,41, 160"
Exits fire-alarm panels 40, 44
BS 5725: Emergency Exit Devices 145 LPC design rules 150
final exit 65, 161- manual (break glass) call points 36,
minimum numbers of 63 162"
minimum widths 63 microprocessors in 40, 41,42
signs 45,45 purpose, life safetylproperty protection
Extinguishers 95-6, 97 35
Extinguishing agents 9 research report 149
in auto-suppression systems 98-100 see also Detection; Fire alarm
BS 6535: Fire Extinguishing Media Fire blankets 97
146 BS 6575: Specification for Fire
carbon dioxide (CO,) 95, 96 Blankets 146
dry powder 9,95, g6 Fire brigade services, see Fire services
foam 95,95, 108 Fire Certificates 133-5
halogenated hydrocarbons (halons) 9, Fire Certificates (Special Premises)
96 Regulations 1976 137
types and suitability of 95-6 guides on standards required for 134
water 9, 95, 95 FIRECODE documents, healthcare
Extinguishment 15, 95-103, 161" premises 152
Fire Extinguishing Trades Association Fire detection, see Detection
159 Fire doors 81-3, 161%
see also Auto-suppression;-Firelightin& ..--BS 8214: Code-oLF!ractice for Fire

equipment; Fire services Door Assemblies with Non-Metallic

Leaves 147
Fabrics 32 Fire engineering 161 "
 Index 169

Fire engineering approach, to fire safety design issues 107-8

design 19-20 hotels and boarding houses 134
Fire engineers management issues 108
groups 126 passive, guide 149
Institution of Fire Engineers (IFE) 126, sports grounds 134
158 see also Workplaces
Fire Extinguishing Trades Association Fire Precautions Act 1971 19, 51, 104,
159 118, 133-5
Fire extinguishment, see Extinguishment Fire Precautions (Places of Work)
Firefighting equipment Regulations 135-6
auto-suppression systems 98-100 Fire prevention, see Prevention
BS 3 169: Specification for First-Aid Fire propagation 29, 30, 161X
Reel Hoses for Fire-Fighting Fire protection 161*
Purposes 143 BS 1635: Graphic Symbols and
BS 5306: Fire Extinguishing Abbreviations for Fire Protection
Installations and Equipment on Drawings 143
Premises 143-4 BS 8202: Coatings for Fire Protection
BS 6575: Specification for Fire of Building Elements 147
Blankets 146 certification of products and services,
fire blankets 97, 146 CERTIFIRE 159
hand-held 97 LPC design guide 150-1
hose reels 97-8, 143 PD 6512: Use of Elements of Structural
manual 96-8 Fire Protection 145
signs 45-7 structural 69, 70-7, 164*
see also Fire hydrants; Fire services; Fire Protection Association (FPA) 150
Sprinklers Fire-raising, deliberate 27-9
Fire growth 6-9 Fire Research Station (FRS) 147-9
Fire growth curve 6, 8, 161" books, reports and digests 148-9
Fire hazards 106, 107, 161* consultancy 148, 158
cathedrals 123 information papers 149
hospitals 110 Fire resistance 73-4, 161%
warning signs 45, 46 brick 77
Fire hydrants building material 26, 30, 74-7
BS 750: Specification for Underground and building type 71, 72
Fire Hydrants and Surface Box concrete 76
Frames and Covers 143 definition 73
BS 5041: Fire Hydrant Systems glass 77
Equipment 143 methods of improving 74
Fire load 29, 161* steel 75-6
Fire modelling 149 wood 74,75
Fire notices 47,48 Fire risk 161*
see also Signs assessment 20, 105-7, 137
Fire point 5, 161" balanced by fire precautions 106, 108
Fire precautions 161* design issues 107
assessment 106, 107 management issues 107
balancing risks 106, 108 minimization 12
BS 5588: Code of Practice for Fire Fire Safety and Safety at Places of Sport
Precautions in the Design of Act 1987 135
Buildings 16, 144-5 Fire safety components 13, 16, 161*
BS 9999: Fire Precautions in Buildings Fire safety design 12-2 1
16, 145 acceptability 17
categories, in hospitals 111 communication 14, 15, 35-48, 160*
cathedrals 123 equivalency 18, 100, 160*
170 Index

fire engineering approach 19-20

-
Small Ignition Source on Textile
firefighting operations, safety of 14 Floor Coverings 143
risk minimization 12 Floors, timber 148
safety principles P3 Foam
trade-off 18 in auto-suppression 100
traditional 18-19, 164% combustion-modified 32
see also Containment; Escape; as extinguishing agent 95,95
Extinguishment; Prevention polyurethane 12, 32
Fire safety management 33-4 Forest fires 24
Fire safety objectives 13, 14, 15, 162" Framework directive, EEC 104, 135
Fire safety tactics 13, 14-16, 162% Fuel, arrangement of 10
Fire safety training 33, 36, 55 Fuel limitation 22, 29-33, 162"
Fire science 4-12 building contents 32-3
Fire separation 36 building fabric 29-32
Fire services Fuel load 10, 71, 162*
access for 101-3, 131, 132 Furnishings 32
bridgeheads 100, 101, 160" Furniture
calls to 44 BS 5852: Fire Tests for Furniture 146
facilities 100-1, 131, 132 BS 7176: Specification for Resistan'ce
rising mains 100-1, 163" to Ignition of Upholstered Furniture
see also Fire hydrants 146
Fire severity 23 BS 7177: Specification for Resistance
Fire size 91 to Ignition of Mattresses, Divans and
Fire spread 9, 9 Bed Bases 146
to adjoining properties 69, 83-5 for healthcare premises 153
Building Regulations 130-1, 132
external 149 Gaming Act 1968 137
speed of 50 Georgian-wired glass 77
surface spread of flame 30, 164% Glass
Fire statistics 5 fire resistance 77
fatalitieslinjuries 5, 6, 12, 13 Georgian-wired 77
ignition sources 12, 13, 23 laminated 77, 162"
by location 5, 6 toughened 77, 164"
spread 9, 9 Glass and Glazing Federation 159
Fire stops 78, 162" Glossary of terms 159-64*
Fire strategy 33-4 BS 4422: Glossary of Terms Associated
Fire tests with Fire 143
BS 476: Fire Tests on Building Growth period 6 , 8
Material and Structures 140-2 Guidance, for designers 147-57
BS 6336: Guide to Development
and Presentation of Fire Tests Halogenated hydrocarbons (halons) 9, 96
and their use in Hazard Assessment Hazards, see Fire hazards
146 Health and Safety at Work Act 1974
I S 0 standards 142 136-7
Flame 5, 162* Healthcare premises
Flame detectors 38-9 FIRECODE documents 152
Flame flicker 38, 39 see also Health Technical Memoranda;
Flame retardancy 26, 31, 32 Hospitals
Flammable limits 5, 162* Health Technical Memoranda (HTMs)
Flashover 8, 8, 162" ---
--p -- 109,-111, 124, 136, 152-3
Flash point 5, 162" assessment record sheet 112
Floor coverings, BS 4790: Method of compensation sheet 114
Determination of the Effects of a Heat 9-11
 Index 171

BS 7346: Components for Smolie and Inner rooms 58, 60

Heat Control Systems 146 Institute of Building Control 136
dissipation 74, 75-6 Institution of Fire Engineers (IFE) 126,
heat transfer 6, 7 158
threats from 68, 69 Insulation 73,73, 74, 162*
Heat detectors 37-8 for steel 75
'rate of rise' detectors 38 Insurance
Hillsborough football ground, Sheffield property protection priority 19
52-3 repair v. rebuilding 70
Hose reels 97-8 Insurance frauds 27
BS 3169: Specification for First-Aid Integrity 73, 73, 162*
Reel H ~ s e sfor Fire-Fighting Interior finishes 31-2
Purposes 143 International Organization for
Hospitals Standardization (ISO) 140, 142
assessment 109-13 Intumescent Fire Seals Association 159
assessment record sheet 112 Intumescents 75, 162*
audits 122, 124 glass 77
balances and benchmarks 111-13 Ionization detectors 37, 162"
compensation sheets 113, 114
DoHSS assessment guidance document King's Cross, London 31
109
EEC directives 109 Laboratories, LPC recommendations 151
FIRECODE guidance documents 152 Laminated glass 77, 162*
fire precautions assessment 110-1 1 Layering (stratification), of smoke 88-9,
hazards 110 163*
Nucleus hospitals 152-3 Legislation 128-39
and refuge 68 as disaster response 17
risk assessment 110 existing buildings 129
secure units, escape v. security 54 local 138-9
see also Health Technical Memoranda new buildings 129
Hotels, fires in 43, 44, 5 1 Northern Ireland 139
Hotels and boarding houses, fire specific buiIding types and activities
precautions 134 138
Houses, see Dwellings see also specific Acts of Parliament
Human carelessness 24-5, 26 Licensing Act 1964 137
Hydrogen chloride 12 Life safety v. property protection 14, 19,
Hydrogen cyanide 12 35
Lifts 65
Ignitability 29, 30, 162* protected 100
Ignition 4-6, 162* Light 9
classification 22-3 Light detectors 38-9
deliberate fire-raising 27-9 Lighting
human carelessness 24-5, 26 emergency lighting 66, 143, 160*
natural phenomena 23-4 escape lighting 66-7, 161"
technological failures 25-6 Lightning 23, 24
Ignition prevention 22-9, 162* BS 6651: Code of Practice for
Ignition risk 22, 162* Protection of Structures against
Ignition sources 12, 13, 23, 162* Lightning 146
dwellings 23, 23 Lightning-conductor systems 24
non-dwellings 23,23,25 bell-tent protection 24
1nfra-red detectors 38, 39 Loadbearing capacity 71-3,73, 162*
Injuries, causes 12,13 London, additional fire safety regulations
Inlet air 92-3 132
172 Index

London District Surveyors Association see also Active containment; Fire

152 resistance
Loss Prevention Certification Board 150 Passive surveillance 28, 36
Loss Prevention Council (LPC) 150 Phased evacuation 57-9,58, 152, 163"
advisory services 158 Photoluminescent paint 67
publications 150-1 Place of safety 163"
Plastics 3 1-2
Maintenance manuals 26, 33 Point detectors 39
Manual (break glass) call points 36, Polypropylene 32
162" Polyurethane foam 12, 32
MGM hotel, Las Vegas 44 Powder, see Dry powder
Microprocessors, in fire-alarm systems Pre-action sprinkler systems 99, 163"
40, 41, 42 Precautions, see Fire precautions
Mobility, of occupants 53-4 Pre-mixed flames 5, 163%
Pressurization 86-8, 163"
National Approval Council for Security Prevention 14, 15, 163"
Systems 150 fuel limitation 22, 29-33, 162"
Natural phenomena, causing ignition ignition prevention 22-9, 162"
23-4 separating ignition risks from life risks'
Neutral plane 93, 93, 162" 25,33
NHS Estates 152-4 spread to adjoining properties 69, 83-5
Nitrogen oxides 12 Prisons, escape v. security 54
Non-dwellings Proban 32
fires in 5, 6 Progressive horizontal evacuation 63,64,
ignition sources 23, 23, 25 68, 163"
injury statistics 12, 13 Property protection v. life safety 14, 19,
Northern Ireland, legislation 139 35
Protected lifts 100
Occupancy characteristics 50 Protected routes 80
and building type 55-6 Protected shafts 80, 163"
Occupancy load factor 51-2,52, 162" Protection, see Fire protection
Occupants Pyran 77
escape strategy 50 Pyrobel 77
familiarity with building 54-5 Pyrostop 77
and fire alarm 43 Pyroswiss 77
mobility 53-4 Pyrovatex 32
numbers of 51-3
response to fire 55 Radiation 6, 7, 163"
sleeping risk 50-1 Re-cycling (re-setting) sprinkler systems
Optical beam detectors 39 99, 163"
Optical detectors 37, 162-3" Reel hoses, see Hose reels
Optical duct sensors 40 Refuge 49, 63, 68, 163"
Oroglass 31 v. egress 64
Oversizing 74 hospital design 68
Oxygen 4-5,9, 10 Regulations 129
see also Building Regulations
Paint, photoluminescent 67 Rescue 49, 65-6
Passive containment 69-70, 163" Residential care premises, fire precaution
compartmentation 13, 59, 69, 77-83, guidance 136, 153
160" -
Residential premises
envelope pr06~cfion-69~70~8~3~5;-1-6~* B S 54T6 Spe-Eific~nTofoiComponents
protection of structural elements 70-3 of Automatic Fire Alarm Systems for
structural protection 69, 70-7 Residential Premises 144
 Index 173

smoke detectors 50-1 Smoke reservoirs 90, 90-2, 163*

see also Dwellings Smoke sampling 40
Response of occupants to fire 55 Smoke venting 88-94, 164*
Rising mains 100-1, 163" Smokers' materials 23, 24
Risk, see Fire risk Smoking areas 25
Roof Smouldering 8
collapse of 71-3 Society of Fire Prevention Engineers 126
as source of burning brands 83, 84 Society of Fire Safety Engineers 126
Room fires, see Compartment fires Sodium bicarbonate 96
Rose and Crown, Saffron Walden 51 Soot 164"
Rubbish fires 25, 26 Spontaneous ignition temperature 5, 164"
Sports grounds
Sacrificial timber 74, 163- Bradford City football stadium 17, 50,
Schools, fires in 27 53
Scotland, legislation and standards 129, fire precautions 134
133 Hillsborough football ground, Sheffield
Security systems, National Approval 52-3
Council for Security Systems 150 Sprinklers 11, 16, 98-9, 164*
Severity of fires 23 alternating systems 98, 159"
Shafts, protected 80, 163" dry systems 98, 160"
Signs 45-7 fast-response (residential) 99
BS 5378: Safety Signs and Colours and fire size 91
144 LPC installation rules 150
BS 5499: Fire Safety Signs, Notices mathematical model 149
1 and Graphic Symbols 144 mounting of heads 99
fire notices 47, 48 pre-action systems 99, 163"
Six-Nine Discothkque, La Louvikre 66 re-cycling (re-setting) systems 99,
Skip fires 25,26 163"
Sleeping risk 50-1 and smoke venting 9 3 4 9 4 , 98
Smart detectors 42 wet systems 98, 164*
1 Smoke 9, 11-12, 163% Stability 73,73
appearance 11 Stable phase 8, 8-9
I BS 7346: Components for Smoke and Stacking chairs 32
Heat Control Systems 146 Staff training, see Training
l constituents 11 Staircases, pressurization 88, 163*
deaths from 11 Stairs, BS 5395: Stairs, Lobbies and
I density 11-12 Walkways 144
smoke logging 16 Standards, see Benchmarks; British
l
stratification/layering 88-9, 163" Standards; International Standards;
threats from 68, 69 and under spec$c subject headings
toxicity 12 Stansted Airport Terminal building 53-4
visibility in 12, 30 Stardust Disco, Dublin 50, 52, 138
i Smoke control 86
design principles 149
pressurization 86-8, 163"
Statutory Instruments 129
Steel
BS 5950: Structural Use of Steelwork
smoke venting 88-94, 164" in Buildings 146
I Smoke curtains 89-90,90, 163" fire resistance 75-6
I Smoke detectors 37, 38, 43 heat dissipation 75-6
dwellings and residential premises heat effect on 9
50-1 insulation for 75
Smoke load 10,29,30, 163- in reinforced concrete 76
Smoke modelling 39, 54 Steel Construction Institute (SCI),
Smoke obscuration 30, 163" publications 155-6
174 Index

Storage space 25, 32-3 Upstands 91

Stratification (layering), of smoke 88-9,
163" Vandalism, maliciouslcasual 27
Structural elements 3 1, 164" Ventilation 89
collapse of rooflupper storeys 7 1-3 BS 5720: Code of Practice for
guidelines 148 Mechanical Ventilation and Air
protection 69, 70-3 Conditioning in Buildings 145
Structural protection 69, 70-7, 164% and fire growth 8, 10
Subcompartments 80,80, 164* mechanical v. natural 92, 92
protection time 60 and pressurization 87, 87
walls 164* ' shopping centres, design principles
Summerland Leisure Centre, Isle of Man 148-9
28, 31, 54-5 Ventilation-controlled fires 10
Surface spread of flame 30, 164" Ventilation systems 44
Surveillance, passive 28, 36 Venting, see Smoke venting
Visibility, in smoke 12, 30
Taunton sleeper fire 55 Volcanoes 24
Technological failure, causing ignition
'
25-6 Wales, public sector housing research
Television, closed-circuit 28 113, 115-18
Terrorist attack 28-9 Walls
Textbooks 156-7 external 83-5
Textiles, for healthcare premises 153 interior finishes 3 1-2
Theatre Act 1968 137 test results and recommendations 148
Theatres, Empire Palace, Edinburgh 60 unprotected areas 83, 164"
Thermal turbulence detectors 39 see also Compartment walls
Timber 9-10 Warehouses 32-3
BS 5268: Code of Practice for the Water
Structural Use of Timber 143 as extinguishing agent 9, 95, 95
floors, fire resistance guidance 148 hose reels 97-8, 143
sacrificial timber 74, 163* Water spray systems 99
test certificates 155 Wet risers 101, 164"
see also Wood Wet sprinkler systems 98, 164*
Timber Research and Development Windows
Association (TRADA), publications in rescue opportunities 66
154-5 size and shape 10
Toughened glass 77, 164" Wood 74,75
Trade associations 158-9 Wood Information Sheets (WIS) 155
Trade-offs 18,106, 164" see also Timber
Training Woolworth's, Manchester 12, 32, 66
fire safety training 33, 36, 55 Workplace directive, EEC 104, 135
hand-held equipment 97 Workplaces
Travel (escape) distance 56-65, 164* assessment 118-1 9
and compartmentation 78, 82 fire precautions 134
Triangle of fire 5, 22, 95, 164* Fire Precautions (Places of Work)
Regulations 135-6
Ultra-violet detectors 38
Unprotected areas 83, 164* York Minster 23, 24, 123