SPECIJALNA TEORIJA

RELATIVNOSTI
Toni Šćulac

Prirodoslovno Matematički Fakultet u Splitu

Akademska godina 2020/2021
 LECTURES OUTLINE 2

1) Failure of Newtonian mechanics. The Inertia of Energy.

2) Einstein-Lorentz transformations.
3) A Spacetime Invariant. Addition of Velocities.
4) Relativistic Dynamics. Four-Velocity and Four-Momentum.
5) Four-Acceleration. Four-Force.
 RELATIVISTIC DYNAMICS - REMINDER 3

μ
๏ Four-vectors A defined as quantities that transform under Lorentz
transformations Λ(v)
μ 2 μ
๏ Event four-vector defined as X = (ct, x, y, z) with Lorentz invariant norm τ = XμX

๏ Four-velocity defined using Lorentz invariant proper time τ instead of time

μ
μdX
๏ U = = (γc, γvx, γvy, γvz)
dτ
๏ Action defined using Lorentz invariant proper time τ:
x· 2 y· 2 z·2
๏ Relativistic Lagrangian of a free particle derived L = − mc 2
1− 2 − 2 − 2
c c c

๏ Four-momentum derived from Lagrangian and connected to Hamiltonian

(energy):
∂L m x· i μ E
i
๏ p = ·i = = mU i , P = ( , px, py, pz)
∂x 1−
v2 c
c2
 MANDELSTAM VARIABLES 4

๏ The Mandelstam variables are numerical quantities that encode the energy,
momentum, and angles of particles in a Lorentz-invariant fashion way
๏ They are used for scattering processes of two particles to two particles
๏ first introduced by physicist Stanley Mandelstam in 1958

๏ Defined for a A + B → C + D process using particle four-momenta

2 2
๏ s = (PA + PB) = (PC + PC) , square of the center-of-mass energy
2 2
๏ t = (PA − PC) = (PD − PB)
2 2
๏ u = (PA − PD) = (PC − PB)

๏ It can be shown that:

2 2 2 2
๏ s+t+u= mA + mB + mC + mD
 FOUR-ACCELERATION 5

๏ Natural choice given our previous definitions is to define four-acceleration

using Lorentz invariant proper time
dU μ
v ⃗ ⋅ a ⃗ v ⃗ ⋅ a ⃗
μ
A = 2 2
= γ (γ ,γ 2
v ⃗ + a )⃗
dτ c c
๏ in the particle rest frame this simplifies to A = (0, a 0⃗ ), where
μ
a 0⃗ represents
acceleration in the particle rest frame
๏ a 0⃗ is called proper-acceleration
๏ Four-velocity and four-acceleration are always orthogonal
μ
๏ AμU = 0

๏ Lorentz invariant norm of four-acceleration is given as:

μ 6 ( v ⃗ ⋅ a ⃗
2
) 4 2 2
๏ Aμ A = − γ − γ a = − a0
c 2
 FOUR-FORCE 6

๏ Natural choice given our previous definitions is to define four-force using

Lorentz invariant proper time
μ
dP 1 dE
μ
๏ F = = γ( , f )⃗
dτ c dt
dE ⃗
๏ where W = represents work and f classical force vector
dt
μ
๏ Let’s study a Lorentz invariant quantity FμU
μ
๏ if FμU = 0 particle mass is a constant
๏ A force which does not change the rest mass of the object it acts on is called a pure force
๏ The work done by a pure force goes completely into changing the kinetic energy of the particle
dE
= f ⃗⋅ v ⃗
dt
๏ for example, a force exerted on a charged particle by electric and magnetic fields
 TRANSFORMATION OF FORCE 7

๏ The transformation of force f ,⃗ under a change of reference frame, depends on

the velocity of the particle on which it acts.
๏ may also be called the velocity of the ‘point of action of the force’

๏ Let’s suppose force f is acting on a particle with velocity u ⃗ in reference frame

⃗
S. If the observer in reference frame S’ is moving with velocity v in the positive

⃗
x-direction. We ask the question what does the observer in S’ measure as the
force f′ :
f ∥⃗ − 2 W
v
⃗
⃗
๏ f′ ∥ =
c ⃗
, f′ ⊥ =
f ⊥
u v⃗ u v⃗
1− 2 γv(1 − 2 )
c c
f ⃗
๏ is not invariant between inertial reference frames
 PURE FORCE 8

๏ For pure force we have:

f ∥⃗ − ⃗⋅ u )⃗
v
( f
⃗
๏ f′ ∥ =
c2
u v⃗
1− 2
c
๏ in a special case when pure force is parallel to the particle velocity u ,⃗ the force is invariant in
all inertial reference frames that move parallel to u ⃗
๏ the transverse force in another frame is smaller than the transverse force in the rest frame
๏ Suppose that an object is put in tension by forces that are just sufficient to break it in the rest
frame. In frames moving perpendicular to the line of action of such forces, the tension force is
reduced, and yet the object still breaks. Therefore the breaking strength of material objects
is not Lorentz invariant!
⃗ ⃗ ⃗
๏ If f is independent of u , then f′ does depend on u ,⃗ therefore force
independence of velocity is not a Lorentz-invariant property.
๏ It is a problem for Newton’s law of gravitation
 THE TROUTON-NOBLE EXPERIMENT 9

๏ Suppose two opposite charges are attached to the ends of a non-conducting

rod, so that they attract one another
๏ Now consider the situation in a reference frame S′ moving horizontally with
speed v. The rod is Lorentz-contracted horizontally. The force transformation
equations state that in S′ the force is the same in the horizontal direction, but
reduced in the vertical direction
๏ Is there a net torque on the rod?
๏ if it existed, would allow the detection of an absolute velocity,
in contradiction of the Principle of Relativity

๏ The Trouton–Noble experiment was an attempt to

detect motion of the Earth through the luminiferous
aether
 THE TROUTON-NOBLE EXPERIMENT 10

๏ The explanation, provided by Lorentz, is shown in figures (c) and (d), which
indicate the complete set of forces acting on each particle, including the
reaction from the surface of the rod
๏ Action and reaction forces are balanced, in any frame, so there is no torque.
 MOTION UNDER A PURE FORCE 11

๏ For pure-force we have:

d dγ dEk
๏ f ⃗ = (γm u ⃗
) = γm a ⃗ + m u ⃗
, = f ⃗ u⃗
dt dt dt
๏ Important things to notice:
๏ relationship between force and kinetic energy is the same as in classical mechanics
๏ acceleration is not parallel to the force!
๏ Force is defined as a quantity relating primarily to momentum (not velocity).
๏ when a force pushes on a particle moving in some general direction, the particle increases its
momentum components

๏ For example, the component of momentum perpendicular to the force should

not change:
๏ the particle must have velocity so as to reduce the component perpendicular to f to zero
 EXAMPLE 12

๏ Consider an example where the change in momentum from p to pf = p + ft

when a constant force f acts for time t.
๏ The initial velocity is parallel to the initial momentum p, and the final velocity is
parallel to the final momentum pf , but the proportionality constant γ has
changed, because the size of v changed!
๏ As a result the change in the velocity vector is not parallel to the line of action
of the force. Thus the acceleration is not parallel to f.
 CONSTANT FORCE 13

๏ case of motion of a particle subject to a force whose size and direction is

independent of time and position in a given reference frame
๏ for the case where particle is at rest for t=0, the solution is:
ft
v=
f 2t 2
m 2 +
c2

f
๏ Let a0 = be the acceleration of a particle in its
m
instantaneous rest frame
2

( a0 )
2
2 2 2 c
๏ x −c t =

๏ describes hyperbolic motion of a particle in space-time under a constant force

 HYPERBOLIC MOTION 14

๏ If at any event A on the world line one picks the inertial reference frame SA
whose velocity matches that of the particle at A, then the acceleration of the
particle at A, as observed in frame SA, has a value a0, independent of A.
๏ The particle world line is a hyperbola on the diagram, where asymptotes are at
the speed of light.
v
๏ If we introduce rapidity tanh θ = we can calculate
c
c
๏ τ=θ
a0
๏ rapidity can be understood as proper time for hyperbolic motion
c
given in units
a0
๏ hyperbolic motion used in design of linear particle accelerators, where a
constant force is a reasonable first approximation to what can be achieved
 CIRCULAR MOTION 15

๏ Another very simple case is motion at constant speed

๏ happens when the force remains perpendicular to the velocity
๏ An example is the force on a charged particle moving in a magnetic field
⃗f = γm a ⃗ = q v ⃗ × B ⃗
๏ reduces to a Classical mechanics problem up to a factor γ
p = qRB
๏ In particle physics experiments, if the charge of a particle is known, then the
particle’s momentum can be deduced directly from the radius of the track in a
constant perpendicular magnetic field B
๏ For example, for a 100 GeV electron in a 4 Tesla magnetic field R=82.5m
EXAMPLE - THE CMS DETECTOR 16