1.2a Uncertainties and Errors

MEASURING THE CIRCUMFERENCE OF EARTH
How do you think

Eratosthenes of Syene
managed to do it?
LESSON OBJECTIVES
1.2.1 State the fundamental units in the SI system

1.2.2 Distinguish between fundamental and derived
units and give examples of derived units.
1.2.3 Convert between different units of quantities
1.2.4 State units in the accepted SI format.
1.2.5 State values in scientific notation and in multiples
of units with appropriate prefixes.
A road sign in UK
Can you identify the 4 different units in this sign?
4
WHAT’S THE PRICE OF UNIT MIX-UP?
Can be as costly as
$125 million!
Loss of Mars Climate

Orbiter in 1999
NATURE OF SCIENCE
Since the 18th century, scientists have sought to

establish common systems of measurements to
- facilitate international collaboration across
science disciplines
- ensure replication and comparability of
experimental findings
THE FUNDAMENTAL SI UNITS
SI = Système Internationale d‟Unités or International System of Units
For definition of these units, check out

http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Units/current.html
TOK
To what extent does having a common standard approach

to measurement facilitate the sharing of knowledge in
physics?
Scientific collaboration is able to be truly global without the
restrictions of national borders or language due to the
agreed standards for data representation.
An improvement in apparatus and instrumentation, such as
using the transition of cesium-133 atoms for atomic clocks,
has led to more refined definitions of standard units.
THE DERIVED UNITS
Derived Unit Measures Broken down into basic units

hertz (Hz) frequency s-1
newton (N) force kg m s-2
pascal (Pa) pressure kg m-1 s-2
joule (J) energy or work kg m2 s-2 Notice how
watt (W) power kg m2 s-3 multiple
coulomb (C) electric charge As units are
expressed?
volt (V) electric potential kg m2 s-3 A-1
weber (Wb) magnetic flux kg m2 s-2 A-1
magnetic flux
tesla (T) kg s-2 A-1
density
ohm (Ω) resistance kg m2 s-3 A-2
Becquerel (Bq) activity s-1
REVISION OF SI UNITS
http://www.bipm.org/en/measurement-units/
CONVERSION BETWEEN DIFFERENT UNITS
Be comfortable converting between different

units of quantities.
1. What is 80 km h-1 in m s-1?
22 m s-1
2. What is 3.4 kWh of energy in joules?

1.2 x 107 J
PREFIXES
peta- P 1015 1 000 000 000 000 000
tera- T 1012 1 000 000 000 000
giga- G 109 1 000 000 000
mega- M 106 1 000 000
kilo- k 103 1000
hecto- h 102 100
deka- da 10 10
- - - -
deci- d 10-1 0.1
centi- c 10-2 0.01
milli- m 10-3 0.001
micro- µ 10-6 0.000 001
nano- n 10-9 0.000 000 001
pico- p 10-12 0.000 000 000 001
femto- f 10-15 0.000 000 000 000 001
LESSON OBJECTIVES
1.2.6 Describe and give examples of random and systematic errors

1.2.7 Distinguish between precision and accuracy
1.2.8 Explain how the effects of random errors may be reduced
Errors in Measurements
 Errors are inherent in all measurements.
 An error is the difference between a measured
value of a physical quantity and its true value
 Errors can arise due to the occurrence of one or
more of the following factors:
 fluctuating environmental factor
 limitation of measuring instrument
 limitation of observer
 poor experimental technique
Systematic and Random Errors
 Two classifications of errors: random or

systematic
 A good experiment yields measurements
which have small systematic and random
errors
Random and Systematic Error
Frequency True
1 Mean Value
Systematic
Error
0 Measured Value
Random
Error
Random Errors
 Random errors are errors of measurements in
which the measured quantities stray from the
mean value with varying magnitudes and
different signs.
 The magnitudes and signs of the deviation are not
fixed.
 Random errors can only be minimized (but not
eliminated) through various approaches.
How to reduce some typical
Random Errors
 1. Take timings for a large number of
oscillations (so that the timing exceeds 20 s) to
find the period of oscillation.
 2. Measure the diameter of a wire at different
positions and calculate its average.
 3. For each value of potential difference (p.d.)
established across a device, measure the
corresponding current passing through it twice
– first when p.d. is increased across the range,
and second when p.d. is decreased. Then, take
the average of the current values.
Random Errors
 4. Use aids such as a plane mirror or a set square
when reading a scale to minimize parallax error.
 5. Place the pointer of instrument as close to the
scale as possible to minimize parallax error.
 6. Drawing a graph of best fit from data points
collected from the experiment.
Systematic Errors
 Systematic errors are errors of measurements in
which the measured quantities are displaced from
the true value by a fixed magnitude and constant
sign.
 Such errors when identified can be eliminated to
obtain the true value of a measured quantity.
How to eliminate some typical
Systematic Errors
 1. Adjust the instrument to remove its zero
error before measurement (e.g: electronic
mass balance).
 2. Determine the zero error in the instrument
and account for it by subtracting from the
measured value (e.g. micrometer
screwgauge).
 3. Use electronic sensors such as photogates
coupled with dataloggers to capture data, so
as to overcome limitation due to human
reaction time.
Systematic Errors
 4. Consider the background count rate when
taking radioactive measurements to eliminate
zero error.
 5. Plot a graph for the data points collected
from the experiment. If the graph does not
cut through the origin as expected, the value
of the y-intercept may represent the
magnitude of the systematic error.
Accuracy and Precision
 Accuracy is a measure
of how close the
measured value is to
the true value.
A highly accurate
measurement has a
small systematic error. True
Value
 Precision is a
measure of how
close with which
the measurements
agree with each
other.
 A precise set of
experimental data
contains small
random error
(smaller spread of
values).
 Precision can also refer to the extent of
sensitivity of a given measuring
instrument to obtain the readings of a
physical quantity.
 E.g. A ruler yields a less precise reading
as compared to a pair of vernier calipers
when measuring the diameter of the test-
tube. A ruler reads up to 1 mm while the
calipers reads up to 0.1 mm.
Practice
 Four riflemen fired five rounds each at their respective target boards
and the following results were achieved. The bull‟s eye is marked at
the true origin for all four plots while “” represents each mark made
on the board. Which set of results best represents shots made with
high precision but a large systematic error?
Solution
A B

  
 
 
 
C D

 
 

 


Practice
Four students each made a series of
measurements of acceleration of free fall g.
Which student obtained a set of precise but
inaccurate results?
Student Results, g / m s-2
A 9.81 9.79 9.84 9.83
B 9.81 10.12 9.89 8.94
C 9.45 9.21 8.99 8.76
D 8.45 8.46 8.50 8.41
Solution
 ‘Precise but inaccurate’ readings are required
 (also means small random error but large systematic
error)
 True value of g is taken as 9.81 m s-2
Student Mean Spread Accuracy Precision
A 9.82 0.05  
B 9.69 1.18  
C 9.10 0.69  
D 8.46 0.09  
 Hence student D obtained a set of precise but inaccurate
results.
Homework
1. Read Physics Guide (2016)
- Practical Work and Internal Assessment
(Pg 142-147)
2. Prepare Investigation 1 to be held next

Tue
3. LoggerPro (Click the „‟Help‟‟ tab)

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MEASURING THE CIRCUMFERENCE OF EARTH

How do you think

1.2.1 State the fundamental units in the SI system

Loss of Mars Climate

Since the 18th century, scientists have sought to

For definition of these units, check out

To what extent does having a common standard approach

Derived Unit Measures Broken down into basic units

Be comfortable converting between different

2. What is 3.4 kWh of energy in joules?

1.2.6 Describe and give examples of random and systematic errors

 Two classifications of errors: random or

Student Mean Spread Accuracy Precision

2. Prepare Investigation 1 to be held next

3. LoggerPro (Click the „‟Help‟‟ tab)

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