Forms of Literature

Poetry- Poetry is a form of literature that is composed in a

determined, lyrical arrangement of words that may have various
functions- conveying a thought, describing a scene or telling a story.
Poems can be structured, with rhyming lines and meter. The rhythm
and emphasis of a line is based on its syllabic beats (metrical
structure). Poems can also be in free verse which follows no formal
structure.

A poem can be further divided into stanzas, which are the basic
building blocks of a poem. A stanza is a grouping of lines, similar to
a paragraph in prose. A stanza can be subdivided further into
smaller units based on the number of lines it contains. For example,
a couplet is a stanza with two lines, a quatrain contains 4 lines, etc.

A poem maybe rhyming or non-rhyming. The repletion of end sounds

of two consecutive lines is called rhyming. It adds a musical quality to
a poem. In poetry, imagery is the use of figurative language to
evoke a sensory experience in the reader. When a poet employs
imagery in its poem, it provides the reader with a sight that can be
felt as real as it is seen.
Poems can be of the following types-

 Blank verse. Blank verse is poetry written with iambic

pentameter that does not rhyme. It was popularized in early
modern drama and in the plays of Shakespeare.
 Rhymed poetry. Rhymed poems rhyme by definition,
although their scheme varies. If lines of iambic pentameter
rhyme, they are known as “heroic couplets”.
 Free verse. Free verse poetry is poetry that lacks a consistent
rhyme scheme, metrical pattern, or musical form.
 Epics. An epic poem is a lengthy, narrative form of poetry
based on grand themes, characters and ideals. These long
poems typically detail extraordinary feats and adventures of
characters from a distant past. Epics have certain standards
that must add to the grandeur of its theme & style.
 Narrative poetry. A narrative poem tells a story. It narrates a
tale as if a story was being told in verse e.g Samuel Taylor
Coleridge’s “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner”.
 Ode. An ode is a tribute to its subject, although the subject
need not be dead—or even responsive, as in John Keats’ “Ode
on a Grecian Urn”. Odes are tributes to the given subject. In
ancient Greek literature, they were written in the form of
poems composed in 3 stanzas- strophe, antistrophe and
epode.
 Sonnet. A sonnet is a 14 line lyrical poem, typically (but not
exclusively) concerning the topic of love. It originated in Italy
and was later popularized in the whole of Europe. It has three
popular forms- Petrarchan (ABBAABBA
CDCCDC/CDECDE/CDCDCD); English (ABABCDCDEFEF GG) and
Spenserian (ABABBCBCCDCD EE).
 Pastoral poetry. A pastoral poem is one that concerns the
natural world, rural life, and landscapes. These poems were
popular in ancient Greece, e.g. Pastoral poetry by Theocritus,
and ancient Rome, e.g. Bucolics by Virgil. Elizabethan poets
employed this genre greatly e.g. The Shepheardes Calender by
Edmund Spenser. Pastoral poetry idealizes the natural world
and depicts it in its pure glory & blissful life.
 8. Elegies. An elegy is a poem that is written upon someone’s
death, that usually reflects upon death or loss. Traditionally, it
contains themes of mourning, loss, and reflection. However, it
can also explore themes of redemption and consolation.
 Pastoral elegy- a subgenre of pastoral poetry an elegy. It
meditate on death in the setting of an idyllic rural life. Often,
the pastoral elegy features shepherds. This form of poetry has
several key features, like praise of the dead, the invocation of
 the Muse, expression of grief and the poet's simultaneous
acceptance of death's inevitability and hope for immortality. It
also features procession of mourners and rhetorical questions.
In pastoral elegies, the deceased is often recast as a shepherd
and is surrounded by classical mythology figures, such as
nymphs, fairies, angels etc.
 Lyric poetry. Lyric poetry refers to the broad category of
poetry that concerns feelings and emotion. It expresses the
innermost feelings and emotions of the poet. This
distinguishes it from two other poetic categories: epic and
dramatic. It has a musical quality to it or a tune that is
suggestive to a song. In modern English poetry, it was put into
use in the form of sonnet by William Shakespeare, Edmund
Spenser, etc. but it was best put into use by Romantic poets.
 Ballad. A ballad is a form of narrative verse that can be either
poetic or musical. It typically follows a pattern of rhymed
quatrains. Poets like John Keats & Samuel Taylor Coleridge
utilized it greatly in their poems. It is written in the rhyme
scheme of ABCB with alternating four-stress and three-stress
lines. Ballads were originally folk narrative songs in the oral
culture of story-telling that tell out a story in the form of songs.
They generally described some form of a dramatic event like a
tragic story, a love story, a war, etc. They were later adapted as
a form of poetry.
 Dramatic Monologue- A poem in which an imagined speaker
addresses a silent listener, usually not the reader. The poem is
narrative as it tells a tale and reveals something of the
personality of the speaker. These became highly popular in the
Victorian age by such writers as Robert Browning etc.
 Limerick. A limerick is a five-line poem that consists of a single
stanza, an AABBA rhyme scheme, and whose subject is a
short, concise tale or description. It is humrous poetry of low
comedy. It is written in 5 lines of anapaestic trimeter- a line of
3 metrical feet; 2 unstressed syllables followed by a stressed
 syllable in a foot. Its origin is attributed to “Will You Come up
To Limerick”, an Irish soldiers song of 18 th century.
 Haiku. A haiku is a three-line poetic form originating in
Japan. The first line has five syllables, the second line has
seven syllables, and the third line again has five syllables.
Haikus were highly imagist and were characteristic features of
the Modern Age.
 Acrostic Poetry- a form of poem in which the first letters of
each line form a separate word.
 Villanelle. A nineteen-line French poem consisting of five
tercets and a quatrain (5x3 + 4) with a highly specified internal
rhyme scheme. The first and third lines of the first stanza
repeat alternately in the following stanzas. These two lines
form the final couplet in the quatrain. Originally a variation on
a pastoral, the villanelle has evolved to describe obsessions
and other intense subject matters. E.g. Sylvia Plath's "Mad
Girl's Love Song".
Drama- The term "drama" comes from a Greek word "draō"
meaning "to do / to act". It is a form of literature that is as old as
poetry, though it was initially developed to be performed only. The
enactment of drama is in theatre; it is performed by actors on
a stage before an audience. It centres on action. In ancient Greek
society, Drama was performed in only 2 genres- comedy & tragedy.
Dramatic literature is dramatic form written down so that it can be
read.

It is believed to be centuries old. In English literature, it began as a

form of dramatization of biblical events to attract Christians to
churches on Sunday mass. Later, it went out of church and into
playhouses where Biblical or Christian themes were performed. In
the medieval ages (5th-15th century AD), it is found in 3 forms-
Miracle, Mystery and Morality.

 Miracle plays were based on lives of saints. They were

developed in 10th-11th centuries. Also called Saint’s plays
because they describe the life or martyrdom of a saint. They
were performed at public festivals to enhance their experience.
Almost all surviving miracle plays center on either the
Virgin Mary or St. Nicholas, a 4th-century bishop. They
employed deux ex machine as a trope to depict the saving
powers of the holy figures.
 Mystery plays were based on biblical events performed by
trade professionals. Often they were performed together in
cycles which could last for days. The mystery play developed
into a series of plays dealing with all the major events in the
Christian calendar, from the Creation to the Day of Judgment.
By the end of the 15th century, the practice of acting these
plays in cycles on festival days was established in several parts
of Europe. These plays were performed on a decorated pageant
cart that moved about the city. Mystery plays had 4 known
cycles- York (48), N-Town (42), Chester (25) & Wakefield (32).
  Morality plays were based on Christian themes such as
Patience, Mercy, etc. They were allegorical plays that were
didactic in nature e.g. Everyman & Mankind.

In the Age of Revival (1400-1550), drama went through major

transformation in its form and content. Now it became largely
secular with common themes. Transition drama includes-

 Interludes- a short dramatic piece, especially of a light or

farcical in nature. It was formerly introduced between the
parts or acts of miracle and morality plays or given as part of
other entertainments. In the Age of Revival, it became a form
of standalone drama.
 Farce- It is a boisterous comic dramatic play that uses highly
improbable comic situations, stereotyped characters,
extravagant exaggeration, and violent horseplay.

Modern form of literature began in the Elizabethan Era in England

with the great dramatists like Christopher Marlowe and William
Shakespeare. Today, some recognized forms of drama are the
following-

 Tragedy- Tragedy is a branch of drama that addresses the

sorrowful downfall of a protagonist in a serious manner. The
protagonist in a tragedy is a tragic hero of exalted social status
whose own character flaw (Hamartia) combines with fate to
bring about his ruin. The tragic form was first developed by the
ancient Greeks as a dramatic art. Playwrights like Sophocles
and Euripides wrote tragic dramas. These plays resulted in
catharsis.
 Comedy- It is the opposite of Tragedy; it deals with light matter
of non-serious concern. In it the characters fuss over petty
issues and it invokes laughter and amusement in the audience.
 Romantic Comedy- It is a type of comedy that is based on
themes of love. In it a hero & heroine overcome challenges to
unite in the end and get married. The play ends with nuptial
 celebrations. These were popularized in the times of
Shakespeare.
 Restoration Comedy- It became popular in the Restoration Age
(1660-1700). It focused on social trends and gossips with
repartee scenes. They were highly unsentimental. These plays
appealed to the middle class. Also known as “Comedy of
Manners”.
 Mime- Mime is a theatrical performance where the action of a
story is told through the movement of the body, without the
use of speech. It has its sources back in Ancient Greece,
wherein a single masked dancer called Pantomimus, performed
solo. They are also known as “Dumbshows”. Today, they are
generally performed in black dress and white face.
 Opera- it is a form of drama in which music is a fundamental
component and dramatic roles are taken by singers. It is
composed in collaboration between a composer and
a librettist, the writer of the text. It incorporates acting,
costumes, dance and ballet. The performance is accompanied
by an orchestra or smaller musical ensemble, which since the
early 19th century has been led by a conductor.
 Masque- It is also called masquerade. It began as a form of
courtly entertainment with elements of music, dance,
costumes, revelry, etc. participants used to ear flamboyant
costumes & masks. Masque plays are a form of drama which
became popular in Shakespearean times but was mastered by
Ben Jonson during the Jacobean Era. They involved allegorical
or mythical characters in a scenic setting. Dialogues are in
rhymed verse with musical notes accompanied by songs and
dance performances. E.g. ‘Comus’ by John Milton, ‘The Masque
of Beauty’ by Ben Jonson, etc.
 Closet Drama- It is meant to be read only & not performed.
 Melodrama- Whereas regular plays focus on action, a
melodrama is a dramatic work in which the plot revolves
around a strong emotional appeal; emotionality &
sentimentality takes precedence over action &
 characterization. Characters are primarily flat rather than
round. They developed in the 18th century French romance
dramas & were later popularized in English dramas as well.
They revolved around ethical & moral codes in a family, society
or around an individual.
 Epic Theatre- It is a type of theatrical movement that
popularized in the early to mid-20th century. It was given birth
by the theories of a number of theatre practitioners who
responded to the political climate of the time through the
conception of political dramas. Epic theatre emphasizes the
audience's perspective and reaction to the piece through a
variety of techniques that deliberately cause them to
individually engage in a different way. The purpose of epic
theatre is not to encourage an audience to suspend their
disbelief, but rather to force them to see their world as it is.
Novel- A novel is a long narrative work of prose fiction. It narrates
a story about specific human experiences. It is different from epic
poetry in being prose, although both are narrative tales. It is
different from a short story in being quite lengthy, though both tell a
story. The first specimen of novel in the world is The Tale of Genji by
Murasaki Shikibu, a Japanese noblewoman. It is considered the
world's first classic novel and the pinnacle of Japanese
literature. Written to entertain Japanese aristocratic women, the
novel contains many of the structural elements found in modern
novel—a central character, minor characters, narrative events,
parallel plots, and conflict. In English literature, the trend of novels
began in the 18th century in Augustan Age. Some important
characteristics of a novel are-

 It must be written in prose, as opposed to verse.

 It must have a central character as the protagonist, and other
side characters. Overall it should have many characters.
 It must have a well-specified plot, which is a unique sequence
of events.
 Narration differs based on the different degrees of knowledge
that the narrator possesses or the or different points of view
that the narrator presents- First person narrator, Third Person
Omniscient narrator, etc.
 Of considerable length/word count. There is no specific word
count that automatically makes a work a novel, but in general,
a short novel would be considered a novella, and even shorter
than that would be short fiction.
 A novel is usually divided into individual “chapters” or
episodes”, that help to give a better form and ease of
understanding to the entire plot.
 A novel must possess fictional content; though it could be semi-
fictionalized novels e.g. historical works inspired by true events
or person. Remember, a work of pure non-fiction would not be
classified as a novel.
Irrespective of the time frame or the length of the novel, a novel’s
plot primarily follows the three-act structure-

 The opening chapters will be introductory (Act 1). They will be

concerned with acquainting readers with the main cast of
characters and the world and setting of the story, before a
specific incident, usually referred to as the “inciting incident,”
shakes up the status quo and launches the “real” story.
 Now begins Act 2. From this point, the story will enter a series
of complications as the protagonist pursues some goal,
encountering obstacles and smaller goals along the way.
 At the midpoint of the story, there will often be some major
shift that would be ultimately leading up to the emotional
and narrative climax towards the end of the novel.
 “Act 3” concerns itself with this finale and the fallout.

Novels have many sub-genres. They are-

 Sentimental novel- A sentimental novel or the “novel of

sensibility” is the pioneer form of novels. It is an 18th-century
literary genre which celebrates the emotionality, the
sentimentality & sensibility. Sentimentalism can be read as a
reaction to the overt rationalism of the Augustan Age. These
kinds of novels primarily relied on the emotional response of
the reader as well as the characters. It features scenes of
distress and tenderness to cater to the soft-spots of the heart.
E.g. Pamela by Samuel Richardson.
 Realist novel- Realist novel is a form of fiction that shuns “the
abstract” and focus on narrating things, events and stories as
they take place in the world as we know it. The primary
concern of such novels focus is to truthfully represent the truth
as it is, without over romanticization of facts. This type of
fiction was the prime feature of the Victorian Age (19th
century). Hence, it can be read as a reaction to the over
 sentimentality of the preceding age’s fiction. Some of the best-
known realist authors are Charles Dickens, George Eliot, Mark
Twain, Honoré de Balzac, Fyodor Dostoevsky, etc.
 Historical Novel- Just like its name suggests, historical fiction is
simply a fictional story that takes place at some real, past time
in human history. Some instances of historical fiction involve
fictional (or semi-fictional) stories about actual historical
figures, while others insert wholly original characters into real-
life events. Most famous works of historical fiction are A Tale of
Two Cities, Gone with the Wind, etc.
 Gothic or Horror Novel- These novels comprise of elements of
horror and romanticism along with such supernatural elements
like ghosts, spirits, dragons, draculas, etc. It began in 19th
century with The Castle of Otranto by Horace Walpole (1765).
Its setting is romantic at a far off location like a medieval fort,
castle, ruin or monastery with dark and gloomy setting. E.g.
Frankenstein by Mary Shelley & Mysteries of Udolpho by Ann
Radcliffe, etc.
 Thriller novel- These are occasionally combined with other
genres, most often with mystery or science fiction. The defining
characteristic is that these novels are often designed to induce
a sense of fear, suspense, or psychological horror in the reader.
 Mystery or Crime Novel- Mystery novels revolve around a
crime that must be solved, often a murder but not always. Its
stereotypical format constitutes of a detective—either
professional or amateur—as the protagonist, surrounded by a
group of characters who are generally the suspects. Over the
course of the plot, the detective will go through each evidence,
testimony & alibi to solve the case. Some of the best-known
examples are Sir Arthur Conan Doyle’s Sherlock Holmes novels,
Agatha Christie’s novels, Nancy Drew series, etc.
 Science Fiction- Also known as Sci-Fi. It tends to imagine a
world that’s different because of technology. Early science
fiction included the works of Jules Verne and continued on
through George Orwell’s seminal classics such as 1984. In
contemporary times, science fiction is a highly popular genre.
 Fantasy Novel- Just like sci-fi imagines a world different
because of technology, it imagines a world made different due
to magic or fantastic elements. Some of the best-known novels
include the Harry Potter series and The Lord of the Rings series.
 Romance Fiction- Romance novels have similar themes as the
Romances that existed in the medieval French poetry- the
theme of love at the centre, a beautiful lass, a pining lover,
intense emotions, scenic settings, lofty dialogues, etc. These
novels tell a tale of love with a couple at the center. Today’s
romances are more often than not “required” to have an
optimistic or “happy” ending.
Other important forms of fiction are-
Novella- A novella is a narrative prose fiction that has length
shorter than that of a novel, but longer than most short stories’. The
word derives from the Italian word novella which means a short
story related to true or apparently true events. The novella as a
literary genre began in the early Renaissance Italy,
predominantly from the work of Boccaccio ( The
Decameron 1353). This structure was then imitated by succeeding
authors, notably the French queen Marguerite de Navarre,
whose Heptaméron (1559) included 72 original French tales.

Short Story- A short story is a brief fictional prose narrative that is

shorter than a novel and a novella. It is usually concerned with a
single event conveyed in only one or a few episodes with only a few
characters. It observes economy of setting, concise narrative, and
the omission of a complex plot. But despite its relatively limited
scope, it is able to provide a “complete” or satisfying treatment of its
characters and subject.

Biography- It is an account of a person’s life given by another

writer. If one’s life account is written by oneself, then it is called
autobiography. Various other literary forms can have biographical
elements, even if they’re not entirely biographies. They give out
objective portrayal of a person’s life. Generally, Biographies are
written with the motive to inspire and motivate.

Essay- An essay is a piece of prose that can be analytical,

interpretative, descriptive, critical, etc. The point of view of the
narrative is personal and often limited to a certain perspective.
Essays became highly popular in the 18th century in English literature.
Hence, that age is known as Age of Prose.

Fable- Fable is a literary form that constitutes of such varied

characters as animals, birds, legendary characters, natural
phenomenon, etc. These non-human entities are given human
characteristics to bring home a moral or meaning. Fables are didactic
in nature and can be either prose or verse.

Folk tales- Folk stories or tales are about a person like a saint or a
king or an event. It belongs to a particular geographical region and is
native of it. It can be viewed as a part of oral tradition of storytelling.
It may involve supernatural & larger than life characters.

Myth- A myth is a folk narrative of unknown origin. It belongs to

the oral tradition of storytelling. It has both- fictional and non-
fictional elements. It is generally based on religious or heroic events
or characters. It relies heavily on symbolism.

Parable- It is the same as fable with the only difference that while
fable has non-human characters, Parable has human characters. It is
didactic in nature as well. Its first examples can be seen in The Bible
in the Parables of Jesus. It can be in both forms- Prose or Verse. It is
short in length and often passes on through both oral & written
traditions.