168 Linear and Quadratic Functions

change in outputs
change in inputs
Example 3.1.7. The revenue of selling x units at a price p per unit is given by the formula R = xp.
Suppose we are in the scenario of Examples 3.1.5 and 3.1.6.

1. Find and simplify an expression for the weekly revenue R as a function of weekly sales, x.
2. Find and interpret the average rate of change of R over the interval [0, 50].
3. Find and interpret the average rate of change of R as x changes from 50 to 100 and compare
that to your result in part 2.
4. Find and interpret the average rate of change of weekly revenue as weekly sales increase from
100 PortaBoys to 150 PortaBoys.

Solution.

1. Since R = xp, we substitute p(x) = −1.5x + 250 from Example 3.1.6 to get

R(x) = x(−1.5x + 250) = −1.5x2 + 250x

2. Using Definition 3.3, we get the average rate of change is

∆R R(50) − R(0) 8750 − 0
= = = 175.
∆x 50 − 0 50 − 0

Interpreting this slope as we have in similar situations, we conclude that for every additional
PortaBoy sold during a given week, the weekly revenue increases $175.
3. The wording of this part is slightly different than that in Definition 3.3, but its meaning is to
find the average rate of change of R over the interval [50, 100]. To find this rate of change,
we compute
∆R R(100) − R(50) 10000 − 8750
= = = 25.
∆x 100 − 50 50
In other words, for each additional PortaBoy sold, the revenue increases by $25. Note while
the revenue is still increasing by selling more game systems, we aren’t getting as much of an
increase as we did in part 2 of this example. (Can you think of why this would happen?)
4. Translating the English to the mathematics, we are being asked to find the average rate of
change of R over the interval [100, 150]. We find
∆R R(150) − R(100) 3750 − 10000
= = = −125.
∆x 150 − 100 50

This means that we are losing $125 dollars of weekly revenue for each additional PortaBoy
sold. (Can you think why this is possible?)
3.1 Linear Functions 169

We close this section with a new look at difference quotients, first introduced in Section 2.2. If
we wish to compute the average rate of change of a function f over the interval [x, x + h], then we
would have

∆f f (x + h) − f (x) f (x + h) − f (x)
= =
∆x (x + h) − x h
As we have indicated, the rate of change of a function (average or otherwise) is of great impor-
tance in Calculus.7

7
So, we are not torturing you with these for nothing.
170 Linear and Quadratic Functions

3.1.1 Exercises
1. Find both the point-slope form and the slope-intercept form of the line with the given slope
which passes through the given point.
√ √
(a) m = 17 , P (−1, 4) (c) m = −5, P ( 3, 2 3)
√
(b) m = − 2, P (0, −3) (d) m = 678, P (−1, −12)

2. Find the slope-intercept form of the line which passes through the given points.

(a) P (0, 0), Q(−3, 5) (c) P (5, 0), Q(0, −8)

(b) P (−1, −2), Q(3, −2) (d) P (3, −5), Q(7, 4)

3. Water freezes at 0◦ Celsius and 32◦ Fahrenheit and it boils at 100◦ C and 212◦ F.

(a) Find a linear function F that expresses temperature in the Fahrenheit scale in terms of
degrees Celsius. Use this function to convert 20◦ C into Fahrenheit.
(b) Find a linear function C that expresses temperature in the Celsius scale in terms of
degrees Fahrenheit. Use this function to convert 110◦ F into Celsius.
(c) Is there a temperature n such that F (n) = C(n)?

4. A salesperson is paid $200 per week plus 5% commission on her weekly sales of x dollars.
Find a linear function that represents her total weekly pay in terms of x. What must her
weekly sales be in order for her to earn $475.00 for the week?
5. Find all of the points on the line y = 2x + 1 which are 4 units from the point (−1, 3).
6. Economic forces beyond anyone’s control have changed the cost function for PortaBoys to
C(x) = 105x + 175. Rework Example 3.1.5 with this new cost function.
7. In response to the economic forces in the exercise above, the local retailer sets the selling
price of a PortaBoy at $250. Remarkably, 30 units were sold each week. When the systems
went on sale for $220, 40 units per week were sold. Rework Examples 3.1.6 and 3.1.7 with
this new data. What difficulties do you encounter?
8. Legend has it that a bull Sasquatch in rut will howl approximately 9 times per hour when it is
40◦ F outside and only 5 times per hour if it’s 70◦ F . Assuming that the number of howls per
hour, N , can be represented by a linear function of temperature Fahrenheit, find the number
of howls per hour he’ll make when it’s only 20◦ F outside. What is the applied domain of this
function? Why?
9. (Parallel Lines) Recall from Intermediate Algebra that parallel lines have the same slope.
(Please note that two vertical lines are also parallel to one another even though they have
an undefined slope.) In the exercises below, you are given a line and a point which is not on
that line. Find the line parallel to the given line which passes through the given point.
3.1 Linear Functions 171

(a) y = 3x + 2, P (0, 0) (b) y = −6x + 5, P (3, 2)

10. (Perpendicular Lines) Recall from Intermediate Algebra that two non-vertical lines are per-
pendicular if and only if they have negative reciprocal slopes. That is to say, if one line has
slope m1 and the other has slope m2 then m1 · m2 = −1. (You will be guided through a proof
of this result in the next exercise.) Please note that a horizontal line is perpendicular to a
vertical line and vice versa, so we assume m1 6= 0 and m2 6= 0. In the exercises below, you are
given a line and a point which is not on that line. Find the line perpendicular to the given
line which passes through the given point.

(a) y = 31 x + 2, P (0, 0) (b) y = −6x + 5, P (3, 2)

11. We shall now prove that y = m1 x + b1 is perpendicular to y = m2 x + b2 if and only if

m1 · m2 = −1. To make our lives easier we shall assume that m1 > 0 and m2 < 0. We can
also “move” the lines so that their point of intersection is the origin without messing things
up, so we’ll assume b1 = b2 = 0. (Take a moment with your classmates to discuss why this is
okay.) Graphing the lines and plotting the points O(0, 0) , P (1, m1 ) and Q(1, m2 ) gives us
the following set up.

O x

The line y = m1 x will be perpendicular to the line y = m2 x if and only if 4OP Q is a right
triangle. Let d1 be the distance from O to P , let d2 be the distance from O to Q and let d3
be the distance from P to Q. Use the Pythagorean Theorem to show that 4OP Q is a right
triangle if and only if m1 · m2 = −1 by showing d21 + d22 = d23 if and only if m1 · m2 = −1.
172 Linear and Quadratic Functions

12. The function defined by I(x) = x is called the Identity Function.

(a) Discuss with your classmates why this name makes sense.
(b) Show that the point-slope form of a line (Equation 3.2) can be obtained from I using a
sequence of the transformations defined in Section 2.5.

13. Compute the average rate of change of the given function over the specified interval.

(a) f (x) = x3 , [−1, 2] (d) f (x) = x2 , [−3, 3]

1 x+4
(b) f (x) = , [1, 5] (e) f (x) = , [5, 7]
x x−3
√
(c) f (x) = x, [0, 16] (f) f (x) = 3x2 + 2x − 7, [−4, 2]

14. Compute the average rate of change of the given function over the interval [x, x + h]. Here
we assume [x, x + h] is in the domain of each function.

(a) f (x) = x3 x+4

(c) f (x) =
x−3
1
(b) f (x) = (d) f (x) = 3x2 + 2x − 7
x

15. Explain:
3.1 Linear Functions 173

3.1.2 Answers
1.
174 Linear and Quadratic Functions

√ √
(a) y − 4 = 17 (x + 1) (c) y − 2 3 = −5(x
√ − 3)
y = 71 x + 29
7 y = −5x + 7 3
√
(b) y + 3 =√ − 2(x − 0) (d) y + 12 = 678(x + 1)
y = − 2x − 3 y = 678x + 666

2. (a) y = − 35 x (c) y = 58 x − 8
(b) y = −2 (d) y = 94 x − 47
4

3. (a) F (C) = 59 C + 32
(b) C(F ) = 59 F − 160
9
(c) F (−40) = −40 = C(−40).

4. W (x) = 200 + .05x, She must make $5500 in weekly sales.

5. (−1, −1) and 11 27

5 , 5
2 43
8. N (T ) = − 15 T+ 3
Having a negative number of howls makes no sense and since N (107.5) = 0 we can put an
upper bound of 107.5◦ on the domain. The lower bound is trickier because there’s nothing
other than common sense to go on. As it gets colder, he howls more often. At some point
it will either be so cold that he freezes to death or he’s howling non-stop. So we’re going to
say that he can withstand temperatures no lower than −60◦ so that the applied domain is
[−60, 107.5].

9. (a) y = 3x (b) y = −6x + 20

10. (a) y = −3x (b) y = 61 x + 3

2

23 − (−1)3 32 − (−3)2
13. (a) =3 (d) =0
2 − (−1) 3 − (−3)
1
−1 1 7+4 5+4
− 5−3 7
(b) 5 1 = − (e) 7−3
=−
5
√ − 1 √ 5 7−5 8
16 − 0 1 (3(2)2 + 2(2) − 7) − (3(−4)2 + 2(−4) − 7)
(c) = (f) = −4
16 − 0 4 2 − (−4)

14. (a) 3x2 + 3xh + h2 −7

(c)
−1 (x − 3)(x + h − 3)
(b) (d) 6x + 3h + 2
x(x + h)
3.2 Defining Functions (Word Problems) 175

3.2 Defining Functions (Word Problems)

Example 3.2.1. Suppose you have two numbers which add to 12.

(i) If one of the numbers is 2, what is the sum of the squares of the two numbers?
Solution: If one of the numbers is 2, then the other number must be 12 − 2 = 10. Each of their
squares would be 22 = 4 and 102 = 100. So the sum of their squares would be 22 + 102 , which is
104.
(ii) If one of the numbers is x, then find a function f (x) for the sum of the squares of the two
numbers.
Solution: If one of the numbers is x, then the other number must be 12 − x. Each of their squares
would be x2 and (12 − x)2 . So the sum of their squares would be f (x) = x2 + (12 − x)2 .
Example 3.2.2. The sum of two numbers is 12. Find a function f (x) which computes the sum of
the cubes of the two numbers, where x is one of the two numbers.
Solution: If x is one of two numbers which add to 12, then the other number must be 12 − x. So
their cubes would be x3 and (12 − x)3 , making

f (x) = x3 + (12 − x)3 .

To find a function it helps to remember the following facts:

p
I The distance between (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) is (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 .

 
x1 + x2 y1 + y2
I The midpoint between (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) is , .
2 2

I A rectangle with dimensions l and w

w
has area l·w

and perimeter 2l + 2w . `

I A right triangle with dimensions b and h √

b2 + h2
has area 1 h
2 bh

√ b
and hypothenuse b2 + h2
176 Linear and Quadratic Functions

I A circle with radius r has area πr2 r

and circumference 2πr

I A rectangular box with dimensions l, w, and h

has volume l·w·h

and surface area 2lw + 2lh + 2hw . h w

The surface area with no top is lw + 2lh + 2wh . `

r
Example 3.2.3. A square of side s is inscribed inside a circle of radius r. s
r

(i) Find a formula for the diameter of the circle in terms of r.

Solution: The diameter of a circle is twice the length of the radius. So d = 2 · r.
(i) Find a formula for the length of the side of the square in terms of the diameter, then the radius.

Solution: Using the Pythagorean theorem, we find that

d2 = s2 + s2 = 2s2

We can solve for the side length to get

d s
d2
s2 =
2
r √
√ d2 d2 d s
s2 = = √ =√
2 2 2
d
s =√
2
√ √
(Note that s2 = s and d2 = d because s and d represent distances and distances are always
positive) Now, we can find the side length in terms of the radius:
√ √
d (2r) (2r) 2 2r 2 √
s= √ = √ = √ ·√ = = r 2.
2 2 2 2 2
3.2 Defining Functions (Word Problems) 177

(iv) Find a function P (r) which computes the perimeter of the inscribed square as a function of
the radius r.
Solution: The perimeter of a square is P = 4s, and using what we found s to be above, we get
√ √
P (r) = 4s = 4(r 2) = 4 2 · r.

(v) Find a function A(r) which computes the area of the inscribed square as a function of the
radius r.
Solution: The area of a square is A = s2 , and using what we found s to be above, we get
√ √
A(s) = s2 = (r 2)2 = r2 ( 2)2 = 2r2
√
Example 3.2.4. Let f (x) = x.
(i) Find the function d(a), which computes the distance from the point (1, 0) to the point on the
graph of y = f (x) whose x-coordinate is a.
Solution: To find this function, we need to convert this statement into a mathematical expression,
so 

d(a) = the distance from the point (1, 0) to the point
 on the graph of y = f (x) whose x-coordinate is a.

To find the distance between two points, we need to know the coordinates of the two points, then
we can use the distance formula. We know one point is (1, 0). The other point is on the graph
√
y = f (x) = x and has x-coordinate equalling a. Then the y-coordinate for that point would be
√ √
y = f (a) = a, making the second point be (a, a).
y
√
(a, a)

x
(1, 0) a

Now, our function is

√
d(a) = the distance from the point (1, 0) to the point (a, a).

We can use the distance formula to express this distance and get that
q √ p p p
d(a) = (1 − a)2 + (0 − a)2 = (1 − a)2 + a = 1 − 2a + a2 + a = 1 − a + a2 .

(ii) Find a function A(a) which computes the area of a triangle whose vertices are (0, 0), (a, 0),
and (a, b), where (a, b) is on the graph of y = f (x).
178 Linear and Quadratic Functions

y
√
(a, a)

x
(1, 0) a

Solution: To compute the area of a triangle, we must use the formula

1
A = (base) × (height)
2
Using the picture, we can determine that

base = a, height = b

So the formula for the area is

1
A = ab.
2
Now, we need to reduce this formula to a single variable a. So we must find a relationship between
a and b (an equation) which we can solve for b and substitute. As in part (i) the point (a, b) lies
√ √
on the graph of y =√f (x) = x, it must be so that b = f (a) = a. This is our relationship. Now
we can substitute ( b) in for b in our area equation to find area completely in terms of a:

1 √ 1 √
A(a) = a( a) = a a.
2 2
Example 3.2.5. You own land along side a river, which you intend to fence. You have 400 feet of
fence which you intend to fence three sides of a rectangular plot, allowing the river to compose the
final side.

(i) If the side parallel to the river is to be 100 feet, find the area of the resulting plot of land.
Solution: If we use all of the fencing, then we would use
100 feet along the side parallel to the river. Of the remaining
300 feet (400 − 100) we can split it in half and put 150 feet 150
( 400−100
2 ) on each side. This would make the enclosed area
be
A = 100 × 150 = 15000 100
3.2 Defining Functions (Word Problems) 179

(ii) Let x be the length of fence parallel to the river. Find the function A(x) which computes the
area of the enclosed rectangular area.

Solution: To find the area of this rectangular

region, we start with the equation for the area of
a rectangle. Let x and y be the dimensions of the y
rectangle as depicted. Then
x
A = x · y.
To make A be a function of x, we need to be able to compute y in terms of x. Notice in the example
before, to figure out the value of y, we first figured out how the fence was being allocated. There
are two lengths of y and a length of x which would be needing fence, and if we use all of the fence,
this means that
x + 2 · y = 400

If we solve for y, we find that

2y = 400 − x
1
y = 2 (400 − x)

Using this computed value for y in terms of x, we can substitute in the equation for area to get
 
1 1 1
A = A(x) = x · (400 − x) = x · (200 − x) = 200x − x2 .
2 2 2

Example 3.2.6. A piece of wire which is 20cm long is to be cut in to two smaller wires.

(i) If one length is 8cm (and thus the other is 12cm) and each is bent into the shape of a square,
what would be the enclosed area?
Solution: One needs to recognize that the cut
length of wire becomes the perimeter of the re-
sulting shape. If the perimeter of the first square
is 8cm, then the side length would be one fourth
of 8cm, or 2cm. So the area of the first square
would be 22 = 4cm2 . The second square will
have perimeter 12cm, which means its side length
would be 3cm, so its area would be 32 = 9cm2 . 2cm
So the total area enclosed in both squares would 3cm
be 9 + 4 = 13cm2 .

(ii) Let x be one of the cut wire lengths. Find the function A(x) which computes the enclosed area
if each length of wire is shaped into a square.
180 Linear and Quadratic Functions

Solution: If one of our cut lengths is x, then

the other must be 20 − x. If the piece of length x
is shaped into a square, that means the square’s
perimeter is x. So its side length is x4 . Thus its
enclosed area would be
 x 2 x 2
= .
4 16
The other piece is of length 20 − x, meaning the
square into which it is shaped will have a side
length of 20−x = 5 − x4 . So the enclosed area of 1
4
2 4x
this square would be 5 − 14 x . This means that 1
4 (20 − x)
the total enclosed area by both squares (A(x))
would be

x2 1 2
 
A(x) = + 5− x .
16 4
(iii) Let x be one of the cut wire lengths. Find the function B(x) which computes the enclosed
area if each length of wire is shaped into a circle.
Solution: Here, if the wire of length x is shaped
into a circle, then its circumference is x. So its
radius for the first circle can be determined by
x
2πr = x, so r = . This means the area of this
2π x 2
circle would be π . Similarly, the area of
2π
20 − x 2
 
the second circle is computed to be π . x 20−x
2π 2π 2π
So the area function B(x) would be

20 − x 2 x2 + (20 − x)2
 x 2  
B(x) = π +π = .
2π 2π 4π

(Try to simplify to this!)

Example 3.2.7. An open-top box is created by taking a 8 × 12 in2 piece of cardboard and cutting
squares from the corners, then folding up the sides.
3.2 Defining Functions (Word Problems) 181

(i) If you cut out 2 × 2 squares from each corner, what would be the volume of the resulting box?
Solution: If we cut out squares of side length 2, then the lengths which become the length and
width of the base become 8 − 2(2) = 4in and 12 − 2(2) = 8in. The resulting height of the box is
the same as the cut length, 2in. So the volume of this box would be

Volume = 2 × 4 × 8 = 64in3 .

2
2
4 4
8

(ii) Let x be the length of the side of a cut-out square. Find the function V (x) which computes
the resulting volume of the box.
Solution: To compute the volume of this box, we need to know the length, width, and height
in terms of x. As noted above, the height would be precisely x. The way we computed our other
dimensions above is to subtract twice x from each of the original dimensions, so our length would
be 12 − 2x and the width would be 8 − 2x. Therefore, the volume of this box would be

V (x) = x(12 − 2x)(8 − 2x).

x
x
8 − 2x 8 − 2x
12 − 2x

12 − 2x

3.2.1 Exercises
3.2.2 Answers
182 Linear and Quadratic Functions

3.3 Quadratic Functions

You learned about quadratic equations in Intermediate Algebra. In this section, we review those
equations in the context of our next family of functions: the quadratic functions.

Definition 3.4. A quadratic function is a function of the form

f (x) = ax2 + bx + c,
where a, b, and c are real numbers with a 6= 0. The domain of a quadratic function is (−∞, ∞).

Example 3.3.1. Graph each of the following quadratic functions. Find the zeros of each function
and the x- and y-intercepts of each graph, if any exist. From the graph, determine the domain and
range of each function, list the intervals on which the function is increasing, decreasing, or constant
and find the relative and absolute extrema, if they exist.

1. f (x) = x2 − 4x + 3. 2. g(x) = −2(x − 3)2 + 1.

Solution.
1. To find the zeros of f , we set f (x) = 0 and solve the equation x2 − 4x + 3 = 0. Factoring
gives us (x − 3)(x − 1) = 0 so that x = 3 or x = 1. The x-intercepts are then (1, 0) and (3, 0).
To find the y-intercept, we set x = 0 and find that y = f (0) = 3. Hence, the y-intercept is
(0, 3). Plotting additional points, we get
y
8

−1 1 2 3 4 5 x
−1

f (x) = x2 − 4x + 3

From the graph, we see the domain is (−∞, ∞) and the range is [−1, ∞). The function f
is increasing on [2, ∞) and decreasing on (−∞, 2]. A relative minimum occurs at the point
(2, −1) and the value −1 is both the relative and absolute minimum of f .
3.3 Quadratic Functions 183

2. Note that the formula for g(x) doesn’t match the form given in Definition 3.4. However, if we
took the time to expand g(x) = −2(x − 3)2 + 1, we would get g(x) = −2x2 + 12x − 17 which
does match with Definition 3.4. When we find the zeros of g, we can use either formula, since
both are equivalent. Using the formula which was given to us, we get

g(x) = 0

−2(x − 3)2 + 1 = 0

−2(x − 3)2 = −1

1
(x − 3)2 = divide by −2
2
r
1
x−3 = ± extract square roots
2
√
2
x−3 = ± rationalize the denominator
2
√
2
x = 3±
2
√
6± 2
x = get a common denominator
2

 √   √ 
Hence, we have two x-intercepts: 6+2 2 , 0 and 6−2 2 , 0 . (The inquisitive reader may
wonder what we would have done had we chosen to set the expanded form of g(x) equal to
zero. Since −2x2 + 12x − 17 does not factor nicely, we would have had to resort to other
methods, which are reviewed later in this section, to solve −2x2 + 12x − 17 = 0.) To find
the y-intercept, we set x = 0 and get g(0) = −17. Our y-intercept is then (0, −17). Plotting
some additional points, we get
184 Linear and Quadratic Functions

y
1

−1 −1 1 2 3 4 5 x
−2
−3
−4
−5
−6
−7
−8
−9
−10
−11
−12
−13
−14
−15
−16
−17

g(x) = −2(x − 3)2 + 1

The domain of g is (−∞, ∞) and the range is (−∞, 1]. The function g is increasing on (−∞, 3]
and decreasing on [3, ∞). The relative maximum occurs at the point (3, 1) with 1 being both the
relative and absolute maximum value of g.

Hopefully the previous examples have reminded you of some of the basic characteristics of the
graphs of quadratic equations. First and foremost, the graph of y = ax2 + bx + c where a, b, and
c are real numbers with a 6= 0 is called a parabola. If the coefficient of x2 , a, is positive, the
parabola opens upwards; if a is negative, it opens downwards, as illustrated below.1

vertex

vertex
a>0 a<0

Graphs of y = ax2 + bx + c.

The point at which the relative minimum (if a > 0) or relative maximum (if a < 0) occurs is
called the vertex of the parabola. Note that each of the parabolas above is symmetric about the
dashed vertical line which contains its vertex. This line is called the axis of symmetry of the
parabola. As you may recall, there are two ways to quickly find the vertex of a parabola, depending
on which form we are given. The results are summarized below.

1
We will justify the role of a in the behavior of the parabola later in the section.
3.3 Quadratic Functions 185

Equation 3.4. Vertex Formulas for Quadratic Functions: Suppose a, b, c, h, and k are
real numbers with a 6= 0.

ˆ If f (x) = a(x − h)2 + k, the vertex of the graph of y = f (x) is the point (h, k).
  
b b
ˆ If f (x) = ax2 + bx + c, the vertex of the graph of y = f (x) is the point − , f − .
2a 2a

Example 3.3.2. Use Equation 3.4 to find the vertex of the graphs in Example 3.3.1.
Solution.

1. The formula f (x) = x2 − 4x + 3 is in the form f (x) = ax2 + bx + c. We identify a = 1, b = −4,

and c = 3, so that
b −4
− =− = 2,
2a 2(1)
and  
b
f − = f (2) = −1,
2a
so the vertex is (2, −1) as previously stated.
2. We see that the formula g(x) = −2(x − 3)2 + 1 is in the form g(x) = a(x − h)2 + k. We identify
a = −2, x − h as x − 3 (so h = 3), and k = 1 and get the vertex (3, 1), as required.

The formula f (x) = a(x − h)2 + k, a 6= 0 in Equation 3.4 is sometimes called the standard
form of a quadratic function; the formula f (x) = ax2 + bx + c, a 6= 0 is sometimes called the
general form of a quadratic function.
To see why the formulas in Equation 3.4 produce the vertex, let us first consider a quadratic
function in standard form. If we consider the graph of the equation y = a(x − h)2 + k we see
that when x = h, we get y = k, so (h, k) is on the graph. If x 6= h, then x − h 6= 0 and so
(x − h)2 is a positive number. If a > 0, then a(x − h)2 is positive, and so y = a(x − h)2 + k is
always a number larger than k. That means that when a > 0, (h, k) is the lowest point on the
graph and thus the parabola must open upwards, making (h, k) the vertex. A similar argument
shows that if a < 0, (h, k) is the highest point on the graph, so the parabola opens downwards,
and (h, k) is also the vertex in this case. Alternatively, we can apply the machinery in Section 2.5.
The vertex of the parabola y = x2 is easily seen to be the origin, (0, 0). We leave it to the reader
to convince oneself that if we apply any of the transformations in Section 2.5 (shifts, reflections,
and/or scalings) to y = x2 , the vertex of the resulting parabola will always be the point the graph
corresponding to (0, 0). To obtain the formula f (x) = a(x − h)2 + k, we start with g(x) = x2
and first define g1 (x) = ag(x) = ax2 . This is results in a vertical scaling and/or reflection.2 Since
2
Just a scaling if a > 0. If a < 0, there is a reflection involved.
186 Linear and Quadratic Functions

we multiply the output by a, we multiply the y-coordinates on the graph of g by a, so the point
(0, 0) remains (0, 0) and remains the vertex. Next, we define g2 (x) = g1 (x − h) = a(x − h)2 . This
induces a horizontal shift right or left h units3 moves the vertex, in either case, to (h, 0). Finally,
f (x) = g2 (x) + k = a(x − h)2 + k which effects a vertical shift up or down k units4 resulting in the
vertex moving from (h, 0) to (h, k).
To verify the vertex formula for a quadratic function in general form, we complete the square
to convert the general form into the standard form.5

f (x) = ax2 + bx + c
 
b
= a x2 + x + c
a

b2 b2
   
b
= a x2 + x+ 2 +c−a complete the square
a 4a 4a2
2
4ac − b2

b
= a x+ + factor; get a common denominator
2a 4a
b


Comparing this last expression with the standard form, we identify (x − h) as x + 2a so that
b 2 2
h = − . Instead of memorizing the value k = 4ac−b b 4ac−b


2a 4a , we see that f − 2a = 4a . As such,
we have derived the vertex formula for the general form as well. Note that the value a plays the
exact same role in both the standard and general equations of a quadratic function − it is the
coefficient of x2 in each. No matter what the form, if a > 0, the parabola opens upwards; if a < 0,
the parabola opens downwards.
Now that we have the completed square form of the general form of a quadratic function, it is
time to remind ourselves of the quadratic formula. In a function context, it gives us a means to
find the zeros of a quadratic function in general form.

Equation 3.5. The Quadratic Formula: If a, b, c are real numbers with a 6= 0, then the
solutions to ax2 + bx + c = 0 are
√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x= .
2a

3
Right if h > 0, left if h < 0.
4
Up if k > 0, down if k < 0
5
Actually, we could also take the standard form, f (x) = a(x − h)2 + k, expand it, and compare the coefficients of
it and the general form to deduce the result. However, we will have another use for the completed square form of the
general form of a quadratic, so we’ll proceed with the conversion.
3.3 Quadratic Functions 187

Assuming the conditions of Equation 3.5, the solutions to ax2 + bx + c = 0 are precisely the
zeros of f (x) = ax2 + bx + c. We have shown an equivalent formula for f is

b 2 4ac − b2
 
f (x) = a x + + .
2a 4a
Hence, an equation equivalent to ax2 + bx + c = 0 is

b 2 4ac − b2
 
a x+ + = 0.
2a 4a
Solving gives

2
4ac − b2

b
a x+ + = 0
2a 4a

b 2 4ac − b2
 
a x+ = −
2a 4a
"   #
b 2 b2 − 4ac
 
1 1
a x+ =
a 2a a 4a

b 2 b2 − 4ac
 
x+ =
2a 4a2

r
b b2 − 4ac
x+ = ± extract square roots
2a 4a2
√
b b2 − 4ac
x+ = ±
2a 2a
√
b b2 − 4ac
x = − ±
2a 2a
√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x =
2a
In our discussions of domain,
√ we were warned against having negative numbers underneath the
2
square root. Given that b − 4ac is part of the Quadratic Formula, we will need to pay special
attention to the radicand b2 − 4ac. It turns out that the quantity b2 − 4ac plays a critical role in
188 Linear and Quadratic Functions

determining the nature of the solutions to a quadratic equation. It is given a special name and is
discussed below.

Definition 3.5. If a, b, c are real numbers with a 6= 0, then the discriminant of the quadratic
equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 is the quantity b2 − 4ac.

Theorem 3.1. Discriminant Trichotomy: Let a, b, and c be real numbers with a 6= 0.

ˆ If b2 − 4ac < 0, the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 has no real solutions.

ˆ If b2 − 4ac = 0, the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 has exactly one real solution.

ˆ If b2 − 4ac > 0, the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 has exactly two real solutions.

The proof of Theorem 3.1 stems from the position of the discriminant in the quadratic equation,
and is left as a good mental exercise for the reader. The next example exploits the fruits of all of
our labor in this section thus far.

Example 3.3.3. The profit function for a product is defined by the equation Profit = Revenue −
Cost, or P (x) = R(x) − C(x). Recall from Example 3.1.7 that the weekly revenue, in dollars, made
by selling x PortaBoy Game Systems is given by R(x) = −1.5x2 + 250x. The cost, in dollars, to
produce x PortaBoy Game Systems is given in Example 3.1.5 as C(x) = 80x + 150, x ≥ 0.

1. Determine the weekly profit function, P (x).

2. Graph y = P (x). Include the x- and y-intercepts as well as the vertex and axis of symmetry.

3. Interpret the zeros of P .

4. Interpret the vertex of the graph of y = P (x).

5. Recall the weekly price-demand equation for PortaBoys is: p(x) = −1.5x + 250, where p(x)
is the price per PortaBoy, in dollars, and x is the weekly sales. What should the price per
system be in order to maximize profit?

Solution.

1. To find the profit function P (x), we subtract

P (x) = R(x) − C(x) = −1.5x2 + 250x − (80x + 150) = −1.5x2 + 170x − 150.


3.3 Quadratic Functions 189

2. To find the x-intercepts, we set P (x) = 0 and solve −1.5x2 + 170x − 150 = 0. The mere
thought of trying to factor the left hand side of this equation could do serious psychological
damage, so we resort to the quadratic formula, Equation 3.5. Identifying a = −1.5, b = 170,
and c = −150, we obtain

√
−b ±b2 − 4ac
x =
2a
p
−170 ± 1702 − 4(−1.5)(−150)
=
2(−1.5)
√
−170 ± 28000
=
−3
√
170 ± 20 70
=
3
 √   √ 
We get two x-intercepts: 170−20 3
70
, 0 and 170+20 70
3 , 0 . To find the y-intercept, we set
x = 0 and find y = P (0) = −150 for a y-intercept of (0, −150). To find the vertex, we use
the fact that P (x) = −1.5x2 + 170x − 150 is in the general form of a quadratic function and
170
appeal to Equation 3.4. Substituting a = −1.5 and b = 170, we get x = − 2(−1.5) = 170
3 .
170 14000


To find the
y-coordinate of the vertex, we compute P 3 = 3 and find our vertex is
170 14000
3 , 3 . The axis of symmetry is the vertical line passing through the vertex so it is the
line x = 1703 . To sketch a reasonable graph, we approximate the x-intercepts, (0.89, 0) and
(112.44, 0), and the vertex, (56.67, 4666.67). (Note that in order to get the x-intercepts and
the vertex to show up in the same picture, we had to scale the x-axis differently than the
y-axis. This results in the left-hand x-intercept and the y-intercept being uncomfortably close
to each other and to the origin in the picture.)

y
4000

3000

2000

1000

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 x

3. The zeros of P are the solutions to P (x) = 0, which we have found to be approximately
0.89 and 112.44. Since P represents the weekly profit, P (x) = 0 means the weekly profit
is $0. Sometimes, these values of x are called the ‘break-even’ points of the profit function,
since these are places where the revenue equals the cost; in other words we gave sold enough
190 Linear and Quadratic Functions

product to recover the cost spent to make the product. More importantly, we see from the
graph that as long as x is between 0.89 and 112.44, the graph y = P (x) is above the x-axis,
meaning y = P (x) > 0 there. This means that for these values of x, a profit is being made.
Since x represents the weekly sales of PortaBoy Game Systems, we round the zeros to positive
integers and have that as long as 1, but no more than 112 game systems are sold weekly, the
retailer will make a profit.

4. From the graph, we see the maximum value of P occurs at the vertex, which is approximately
(56.67, 4666.67). As above, x represents the weekly sales of PortaBoy systems, so we can’t
sell 56.67 game systems. Comparing P (56) = 4666 and P (57) = 4666.5, we conclude we will
make a maximum profit of $4666.50 if we sell 57 game systems.

5. In the previous part, we found we need to sell 57 PortaBoys per week to maximize profit.
To find the price per PortaBoy, we substitute x = 57 into the price-demand function to get
p(57) = −1.5(57) + 250 = 164.5. The price should be set at $164.50.

We conclude this section with a more complicated absolute value function.

Example 3.3.4. Graph f (x) = |x2 − x − 6|.

Solution. Using the definition of absolute value, Definition 0.2, we have


 − x2 − x − 6
, if x2 − x − 6 < 0
f (x) =
 x2 − x − 6, if x2 − x − 6 ≥ 0

The trouble is that we have yet to develop any analytic techniques to solve nonlinear inequalities
such as x2 − x − 6 < 0. You won’t have to wait long; this is one of the main topics of Section 3.4.
Nevertheless, we can attack this problem graphically. To that end, we graph y = g(x) = x2 − x − 6
using the intercepts and the vertex. To find the x-intercepts, we solve x2 − x − 6 = 0. Factoring
gives (x − 3)(x + 2) = 0 so x = −2 or x = 3. Hence, (−2, 0) and (3, 0) are x-intercepts. The y-
b −1
intercept is found by setting x = 0, (0, −6). To find the vertex, we find x = − 2a = − 2(1) = 12 , and

2
y = 12 − 12 − 6 = − 25


4 = −6.25. Plotting, we get the parabola seen below on the left. To obtain
points on the graph of y = f (x) = |x2 − x − 6|, we can take points on the graph of g(x) = x2 − x − 6
and apply the absolute value to each of the y values on the parabola. We see from the graph of g
that for x ≤ −2 or x ≥ 3, the y values on the parabola are greater than or equal to zero (since the
graph is on or above the x-axis), so the absolute value leaves this portion of the graph alone. For
x between −2 and 3, however, the y values on the parabola are negative. For example, the point
(0, −6) on y = x2 − x − 6 would result in the point (0, | − 6|) = (0, −(−6)) = (0, 6) on the graph of
f (x) = |x2 − x − 6|. Proceeding in this manner for all points with x-coordinates between −2 and
3 results in the graph seen above on the right.
3.3 Quadratic Functions 191

y
7 y 7
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1

−3−2−1 1 2 3 x −3−2−1 1 2 3 x
−1 −1
−2 −2
−3 −3
−4 −4
−5 −5
−6 −6

y = g(x) = x2 − x − 6 y = f (x) = |x2 − x − 6|

If we take a step back and look at the graphs of g and f in the last example, we notice that to
obtain the graph of f from the graph of g, we reflect a portion of the graph of g about the x-axis.
We can see this analytically by substituting g(x) = x2 − x − 6 into the formula for f (x) and calling
to mind Theorem 2.4 from Section 2.5.

 −g(x), if g(x) < 0
f (x) =
 g(x), if g(x) ≥ 0

The function f is defined so that when g(x) is negative (i.e., when its graph is below the x-axis),
the graph of f is its refection across the x-axis. This is a general template to graph functions
of the form f (x) = |g(x)|. From this perspective, the graph of f (x) = |x| can be obtained by
reflection the portion of the line g(x) = x which is below the x-axis back above the x-axis creating
the characteristic ‘∨’ shape.
192 Linear and Quadratic Functions

3.3.1 Exercises
1. Graph each of the following quadratic functions. Find the x- and y-intercepts of each graph,
if any exist. If it is given in the general form, convert it into standard form. Find the
domain and range of each function and list the intervals on which the function is increasing
or decreasing. Identify the vertex and the axis of symmetry and determine whether the vertex
yields a relative and absolute maximum or minimum.

(a) f (x) = x2 + 2 (e) f (x) = 2x2 − 4x − 1

(b) f (x) = −(x + 2)2 (f) f (x) = −3x2 + 4x − 7

(c) f (x) = x2 − 2x − 8 (g) f (x) = −3x2 + 5x + 4

1
(d) f (x) = −2(x + 1)2 + 4 (h) 6 f (x) = x2 − x−1
100

2. Graph f (x) = |1 − x2 |

3. Find all of the points on the line y = 1 − x which are 2 units from (1, −1)

4. With the help of your classmates, show that if a quadratic function f (x) = ax2 + bx + c has
two real zeros then the x-coordinate of the vertex is the midpoint of the zeros.

5. Assuming no air resistance or forces other than the Earth’s gravity, the height above the
ground at time t of a falling object is given by s(t) = −4.9t2 + v0 t + s0 where h is in meters, t
is in seconds, v0 is the object’s initial velocity in meters per second and s0 is its initial position
in meters.

(a) What is the applied domain of this function?

(b) Discuss with your classmates what each of v0 > 0, v0 = 0 and v0 < 0 would mean.
(c) Come up with a scenario in which s0 < 0.
(d) Let’s say a slingshot is used to shoot a marble straight up from the ground (s0 = 0) with
an initial velocity of 15 meters per second. What is the marble’s maximum height above
the ground? At what time will it hit the ground?
(e) Now shoot the marble from the top of a tower which is 25 meters tall. When does it hit
the ground?
(f) What would the height function be if instead of shooting the marble up off of the tower,
you were to shoot it straight DOWN from the top of the tower?

6. The International Silver Strings Submarine Band holds a bake sale each year to fund their
trip to the National Sasquatch Convention. It has been determined that the cost in dollars
of baking x cookies is C(x) = 0.1x + 25 and that the demand function for their cookies is
p = 10 − .01x. How many cookies should they bake in order to maximize their profit?
6
We have already seen the graph of this function. It was used as an example in Section 2.4 to show how the
graphing calculator can be misleading.