Anthropology 1: Introduction to Physical Anthropology Final Exam Study

Guide
Professor Kindon

1. What are Darwin’s three postulates (in complete sentences)? What did
Darwin call his idea?

Darwin’s 3 Postulates

1) The ability for a populate to grow is infinite, but an environment’s ability

to support the population is finite.

2) Organisms within population vary, and this variation affects the ability of
organisms to survive and reproduce.

3) These variations are transmitted from parents to offspring.

2. What is the difference between genotype and phenotype? On which of

these does natural selection act?

A genotype is a genetic trait, while a phenotype is a physical trait that is visibly

noticeable. As for natural selection, it tends to favor the phenotypical traits, but
it can also change the genotypes depending on the environment.

3. How does Mendel’s work explain how variation is maintained in

populations?

Mendel discovered hidden alleles through his famous peas experiment -

recessive traits may not appear physically in a population for several
generations, only to suddenly appear again when the right combination of
alleles occurs.

4. Why do Physical Anthropologists study primates?

Physical anthropologists study primates as a way to connect reasoning

homology as reasoning by analogy.

5. What is the primary determinant of reproductive success for female

 primates? For male primates? Why are they different?
Female primates - When food is available, as her reproductive success is
related on how healthy their offspring will be.

Male primates - When mates are available, as a males’ reproductive fitness is

infinite, while a female’s is finite.

6. What are the different types of social groups primates organize themselves
into, and how does the organization of the social group affect competition
and sexual selection?

Monogamous - one male, one female - lower competition and more selective

One male, multi female - more competition and sexual selection for the males

Multi male, multi female - males are similar in size to females

7. What are the main hypotheses explaining primate intelligence and what is
some of the evidence supporting the
different hypotheses?

Ecological Intelligence Hypothesis; this is an idea that suggests that a primate’s

intelligence is what helps them survive in their current environment.

8. What is the Theory of Mind? Do primates have a Theory of Mind? What

kinds of evidence allow us to answer
this question?

Theory of Mind is the ability to separate one’s own mental state from that of
others. This starts in humans at around 3 years old, while it is not commonly
seen in chimpanzees, for instance.

9. Why is our current understanding of the nature of hominid evolution

incomplete and subject to change?

We only have a limited amount of fossils currently, and more are bound to
come up as time progresses. Due to an incomplete fossil record, there are steps
that are taken but within full evidence for what we believe has happened.
10. What are the primary adaptive shifts that we can identify over time in the
hominid lineage?

Bipedal adaptation. Warmer environments tend to favor quadrupedal primates

while cooler environments tend to have bipedal individuals.

11. Why is understanding the nature of environmental and climate change over
the last 7 million years so important to our understanding of hominid
evolution?

Bipedal evolution started as a result of change in environment. 7 MYA the

common environment changed from warm and wet to cold and dry, which was
a harder adjustment for many primates.

12. Who is the earliest known hominid, when was it alive, and where did it live
(the continent is specific enough!)? Why is this particular species
considered part of the hominid lineage?

Sahelanthropus tchadenis, from Africa around 6-7 MYA. The place where the
head connected to the body shifted significantly.

13. What came first – bipedality or large brains? What are some of the theories
as to why bipedality might have been adaptive for the late Miocene
hominids? You should be able to think of at least three. How can we
identify the beginnings of bipedality in the material record?

Bipedality - as it is cooler, safer, and is more efficient for hunting and

gathering.

14. Hominids alive during the Pliocene period (4-2 million years ago) are
currently divided into three different groups: what are these three different
groups, what are some of the characteristics they shared in common, and what
are some of the characteristics that set them apart from one another?

Australopithecine: Ape like face and ape like brain. Over time their brain size
got bigger. 775 by 2.4 mya. Teeth are in between chimpanzee and humans.
Paranthropines: Very big jaws and teeth, specifically molars. Have larger brain
size. Might have been graziers, lived in a large group?
Kenyanthropines: Smaller Brains, Smaller molars, Broad flat face. Recent
identified as a species.

15. Even though we cannot observe ancient hominid social behavior, we can
make some assumptions about how they lived based on their physical
remains. What types of interpretations can we make based on ancient
hominids’ teeth and dentition? What types of interpretations can we make
based on relative degrees of sexual dimorphism?

Based on their teeth we can assume that apes lived in multi-male, multi-female
group because they have large degrees of sexual dimorphism in canine size.
Australopithecine teeth are slightly smaller that apes but still similarly
structured to apes. Might have started to use tools based on the regression in
teeth. Growing up slower so more likely to have a family structure and invest
time in trying to have offspring succeed instead of trying to have lots of mates.
Humans have very weak teeth but make up for it with intelligent ways to
process food before eating.
Other than head, they were similar,
Males-4.8 to 5 ft and 90-110 lbs.
Females-3.6-3.11 ft and 60-77 lbs.
Greater sexual dimorphism then humans.

16. When do the first stone tools appear? What are these first stone tools
called? What important changes in hominid social and subsistence
behavior do anthropologists think the appearance of these tools might be
related to?

The first stone tools appear between 3.3-2.5 mya. General food processors.
Lomekwian and Oldowan. Indicate a higher level of intelligence. Demonstrate
complex cultural behavior

17. How can archaeologists and paleoanthropologists tell whether early

toolmakers were hunters or scavengers? Why is this an important question?

Early tool makers were probably more dependent on on scavenging rather than
hunting, because hunting is hard and time consuming. This is seen through the
animal bones that at the dig sights that were all kinds of bones suggesting they
took what we could get.

18. When do the first members of the Genus Homo appear in the material
record? What are these earliest members of our Genus called, and what are
some of the unique derived characteristics that are associated with them?
What are they the first hominid to do?

2 million years ago, pleistocene aka the "ice age". Homo Ergaster: 1.8 mya.
Larger body size, Slower growth rate, reduced sexual dimorphism, bigger brain
800cc. First to use stone tools.

19. How are Acheulean tools different from earlier stone tool technologies, and
what might they tell us about early Homo mental capabilities and
intelligence?

Appear around 1.6 mya. Much more complex and difficult to make. Very
similar everywhere they are found. Much easier tell apart. Can see that it is a
tool, not just a rock. This kind complex tools needs teaching and
communication to learn how to make.

20. In the Middle Pleistocene it appears that Homo ergaster evolved into Homo
heidelbergensis. What is the key difference that sets heidelbergensis apart
from both ergaster and erectus? What appears to be one of the primary
reasons for the evolution of this difference? What type of tools is
heidelbergensis associated with, and how are they different from earlier
tool technologies?

H. Ergaster - are often classified as members of humans’ genus. H. Eragaster is

also know as the first toolmakers in the Homo genus. Physically they were
larger in size and had a much slower growth rate, reduced sexual dimorphism
and larger brain mass. They originated in Africa around 1.8 million years ago.

H. Heidelbergensis - Like H. Eragaster, H. Erectus originated in Africa, but

they also populated in Western Europe later on (around 800,000 years ago). As
time went on, they showed increased amounts of behavioral development in
their adaptations as well as their brain size.
H. Erectus - They originated in Asia around 1.6 million years ago.

21. Neanderthals display a wide range of unique physical adaptations that were
probably related to what? Why?

Neanderthals’ adaptations were vast and extremely adaptive compared to most

early human species - they had a much larger brain mass as well as better
phenotypical features that helped them adapt to harsher conditions like cold
weather. Their brain capacity often suggested their brains were structured
differently than their modern human counterparts.

22. What kinds of social and cultural behaviors are Neanderthals associated
with?

Neanderthals were some of the first primates to bury their dead as well as care
for their sick and wounded. This was a big indication that Neanderthals
demonstrated great deals of compassion and altruism.

23. Around what time did modern Homo sapiens evolve? What are the two
different main hypotheses about how and where this evolution took place?
What are the key differences between these two hypotheses, and which of
the two seems to be more strongly supported by the evidence we currently
have? What is the strongest evidence that we currently have relating to the
timing and location of the evolution of modern humans?

Homo sapiens began to emerge around the end of the Pleistocene, which was
around 100-50,000 years ago.

Multiregional Hypothesis - This suggests that modern humans evolved from

previous populations of other regions in the world.

Replacement Hypothesis - This suggests that humans evolved from a single

place, with the belief that all humans’ ancestors migrated out of Africa, which
were eventually replaced by all modern humans.

24. What are the two primary sources of diversity among humans? What does it
mean to say that there are often interactions between these sources of diversity?
Genetic and environmental difference are the two primary sources in diversity
among humans. They both act with each other, as one’s genetic makeup can
make things harder to function for one individual while it doesn’t hurt another.

25. How can natural selection explain variation in skin color between different
human populations around the world?

Skin color is an adaptation to balance beneficial and harmful effects of

sunlight. The more an individual is exposed to sunlight, the darker their skin
tone would be. However, some darker tones are due to genetics specifically.

26. Why is the concept of “race” not a biologically meaningful concept?

Explain some of the arguments that help to demonstrate the fact that the “race”
concept has no real biological basis.

Race doesn’t apply to genetic features, as it is often referred to as such.

27. How are genes more like a recipe than a blueprint?

Genes do not determine human behavior instead they shape human behavior.
You can give the same recipe to 20 different cooks, they will make similar
products but there will be some differences.

28. Evolutionary psychology suggests that human brains have evolved to deal
most effectively with what kinds of problems? What is the reasoning behind
this?

The brain evolved to deal with social challenges/situations.

29. According to evolutionary theory, what tend to be the primary underlying

mechanisms that influence human mate choice? Based on this idea, what types
of mates should females most likely be attracted to? What types of mates
should males most likely be attracted to?
Mates choice is designed to enhance reproductive fitness. Mating among close
kin tends to be avoided. There are several mechanisms that prevent inbreeding.
Phenotypic cues
Sexual aversion to people you grow up with: westermarck
effect Cultural Rules
Mates should be able to produce many health children, provide good care for
offspring, willing to invest in children, not likely to be unfaithful.

Females:
Mates that can and will provide resources for offspring
Mates that offer stability and security
Mates that display signs of wealth and maturity

Males:
Prefer younger mates
Prefer mates that display signs of fertility and health
Men are also more concerned about fidelity

30. How does infanticide among human groups differ from infanticide in
primates? What tend to be the primary mechanisms underlying human
infanticide? How is this behavior adaptive?

In groups of primates it is usually a male killing offspring that are not his to
benefit his own offspring. in humans it is males that are related to the offspring
to benefit offspring that are ready exist. This is adaptive because it if the
offspring is going to cost more than it is worth to invest in the child to care for
it.