Variations in Psychological Attributes

Variability is a fact of nature and individuals are no exception hence

within and across the species also, there are individual variations.
This is termed as Individual differences.
In psychology this term is defined as:
Individual differences refer to distinctiveness and variation amongst
people's characteristics and behaviour patterns.
1. Many psychologists believe they are influenced by our
Personal Traits.
2. Some believe that they are based on situational factors, known
as Eg. People of different personal traits behaving alike in
front of aggressive boss.

Psychological Attributes:
These attributes are involved in simple phenomena like 'time taken to
react to a stimulus' to 'highly global concept like Happiness'. It is
difficult to count and specify psychological attributes which can be
assessed.
Hence any attribute will be said to exist in a person if it can be
measured/assessed in a scientific may.
Assessment of Psychological Attributes:
Assessment is the first step of understanding the attributes. It is the
measurement of psychological attributes of individuals and their
evaluation, often using multiple methods as standards of comparison.
The assessment may be Formal or Informal:
Informal· e.g. If we say Harish is dominant.
Based on our perception and assessment of Dominance, without
applying any formal technique to measure. Hence this type of
assessment will vary the results from one assessor to another,
depending on their opinions and will be open to subjective interpretation
and huge variation.
 Formal- This is when we use a defined technique or measuring
standards to assess any attribute without letting our own perception
change the assessment. Its objective, standardized and organized.
The formal assessment also involves measurement of an attribute with
respect to its application in a situation.
e.g. If Harish is assessed as dominant , some interventions might be
needed to effect a change in his behaviour while dealing with his teams
at work etc
Main Domains of Psychological Attributes:
Psychological attributes are not linear or unidimensional. They are
complex and expressed in dimensions.
If you want to have a complete assessment of a person, you will need to
assess how s/he functions in various domains or areas... such as
Cognitive, Social, Emotional etc.
Some of the domains of these attributes are:
1. Intelligence- It is the global capacity to understand, think
rationally and use available resources effectively in a
situation/challenge. It repr,esents general Cognitive
competence/ability.
2. Aptitude- Individual's underlying potential for acquiring skills.
Aptitude assessment helps predict what an individual will be
able to do if given proper environment and training. E.g.
training a person with good language aptitude can help him
become a good writer.
3. Interest- It's individual's interest / preference to engage in a
particular activity. Assessment of interest may help in
deciding that in which occupation/activity an individual would
be comfortable and happy/satisfied.
4. Personality- Relatively enduring characteristics that make a
person distinct from others. This test tells us how a person is
likely to behave in future- Dominant, submissive, moody
withdrawn or emotional.
5. Values- Enduring Beliefs about an ideal mode of behaviour. A
set of standard rules, guidelines which a person follows to
live his life.This would help assess what kind of decisions a
person would make in a specific situation..e.g. political,
religious, social & economics.
Several methods are used for Psychological assessment.

1. Psychological Test- is an objective and standardized test to

measure any of the individual's psychological attributes­
mental, behavioural, aptitude etc as mentioned above. g.
Clinical diagnosis, guidance, personnel selection, placement
and training.
2. Interview- involves seeking information on a one on one basis
by a counsellor from the client. g. Door to door salesmen
surveying about a product, journalists from important political
people, employer while selecting employees use this
technique to assess.
3. Case Study- is a detailed study of a person in terms of his/her
psychological attributes by collecting history, wide amount of
data using interview, observation, and questionnaire of
Psychological tests methods. To assess any of the attributes
to draw learnings. eg - case study of an eminent leader to
learn about his personality; aptitude and values etc.
4. Observation- employing systematic, organized and objective
procedure to record behavioural phenomena occurring
naturally in real time. Observation methods are useful to study
real events, situations however their interpretation can be
subjective and in little control of the observer. g. studying
Mother Child relationship by watching them objectively for a
certain duration.
5. Self-report- It s a method in which an individual provides
factual information about himself or opinions, beliefs etc.

Such information can be obtained by Interviews, questionnaires or tests.

Intelligence:

Intelligence is the key attribute employed to know how individuals are

different from each other.

Psychological definition is very different from the common definition of

intelligence.
Common Definition: Mental alertness, ready wit, quickness to learn and
grasp and ability to understand relationships.
Oxford Definition: Power of Perceiving, Learning, Understanding and
Knowing
 3. Products- Form in which information is processed by
respondent.

His theory has 6X5X6 = 180 cells

Theory Multiple Intelligence:
Howard Gardner: Intelligence is not .a single entity, rather distinct type of
intelligences exist. They are independent of each other but do work
together at times to find solution to a problem. (MISLLB) to remember
Gardner studied extremely talented people and arrived on eight types of
intelligences:
Linguistic (production and use of language skills): Such people are
word-smart, articulate, poets & writers.
Logical-Mathematical (Scientific thinking & Problem solving): Think
Logically, critically, abstract reasoning, symbols & mathematical problem
solving. Scientists, mathematicians who won nobel prize.
Spatial ( Visual images & Patterns): Forming, using, transforming mental
images. Pilots, sailors, sculptors, painters, architects, interior decorators,
surgeons.
Musical ( Sensitivity to rhythm & sound pattern): Produce, create and
manipulate music patterns.
Bodily-Kinaesthetic ( using body flexibly & creatively): Athletes,
dancers, sportsmen, gymnasts , surgeons etc.
Interpersonal ( awareness of one's own feelings, motives &
desires):Using their knowledge about their strengths, limitations and
using this awareness effectively to relate to others. Human existence,
finer sensibilities regarding their identity, meaning of life.
Philosophers, spiritual leaders.
Naturalists: ( sensitivity towards the natural world): Awareness of
relationship with the natural world. Beauty of flora, fauna, ecology.
Hunters, farmers, tourists, botanists, environmentalists, animal activists.
Trlarchlc Theory of Intelligence:
Robert Sternberg (1985): Intelligence is Ability to adapt, to shape and
select environment to accomplish one's goals and those of
society/culture.
3 basic types of intelligence:
1. Componential- Analysis of information to solve problems.
Such people think analytically and critically. This intelligence
has 3 components, each serving different function:
2. Knowledge acquisition-Learn, encode, combine & compare
information ( Find stage)
3. Meta component: Control. evaluate, monitor. plan ( cognitive
processing- analyse & solve stage)
4. Performanc.e components: Action, actually executing the
planned task ( Operational skill- transfer stage)
5. Experiential Intelligence: Using past experiences creatively to
solve new problems. Such people make new discoveries and
inventions. They have the ability to filter crucial information for
a given situation.
6. Contextual Intelligence: This intelligence involves the ability to
deal with environmental demands. The manifestation needed
to adjust to the situation. Street smart, Business sense. Such
people adapt to the environment or modify environment as per
their needs and hence are more successful.

PASS Model of intelligence: (Planning, Attention Arousal and

Simultaneous- Successive model)- by J.P. Das, Jack Naglieri, Kirby
Arousal/Attention: Arousal helps in paying attention to the stimuli. Too
much or too little arousal with interfere with the attention. E.g Teacher
informs you about the upcoming test, which stimulates you to attend to
the chapters. Arousal helps you in focusing your attention to reading.
learning, revising.
Simultaneous & successive progressing: Simultaneous processing
allows you to perceive the relationship between various concepts and
integrate them into meaningful patterns. Relationship among abstract
flgures.. eg. Solving Jigsaw puzzles.
Successive processing takes place when you remember things
sequentially. Learning digits, alphabets etc.
Planning: It is an essential part of the intelligence. After the information
is attended to and processed, planning is activated. It allows us to think
of possible courses of action need to be implemented to reach the target
and evaluate their effectiveness.
In case the plan doesn't work this part of intelligence also help review
the gaps and device alternate plan.
Individual Differences in Intelligence:

The study conducted on Identical/fraternal twins, siblings, brought up

together or in different environment helps us establish the fact that the
factors that influence intelligence are:
Nature- Heredity, genes

Nurture- Environment. nutrition

Research showed: Correlation of Intelligence of diff samples as follows:

• Identical Twins reared together correlate almost 0.9
• Identical twins, separated in childhood correlate 0.72
• Fraternal twins reared together correlate 0.6
• Siblings reared together correlate 0.5
• Siblings reared apart correlate about 0.25
• Adopted children display intelligence more similar to
biological parents than adoptive ones. However studies also
report that as adopted children grow their intelligence moves
closer to adoptive parents.

Hence. there is a general consensus amongst psychologists that

Intelligence is a product of complex interaction of heredity (Nature) and
environment (Nurture).
Assessment of Intelligence:

1905, Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon - made the first successful
attempt to measure intelligence.
MA· Mental Age- It's a measure of intellectual development relative to
people of same age.
CA- Chronological Age- It's the biological age from birth.
If MA is higher than CA, the person is considered bright and more
intelligent.
If MA=CA. then it is considered average intelligence.
If MA<CA, The person is called retarded as per Binet and Simon.
Intelligence Quotient: 1912, William Stem, German Psychologist: IQ

IQ= Mental Age divided by Chronological age and Multiplied by 100.

IQ= MA/CA X100
100 is the multiplier to avoid value in decimals.
So if MA=CA, IQ is 100
For value> 100, it means the child's mental age is higher by those points
than chronological age. And for values <100, considered low IQ.
Usually distribution over the population follows a bell curve:

IQ range description %age population

Above 130- Very superior 2.2
120-130- Superior 6.7
110-119- High Average 16.1

90-109- Average 50
80-89- Low average 16.1
70-79 Borderline 6.7
Below 70 Intellectually disabled 2.2

Variations of Intelligence:
Intellectual Deficiency
Is defined as significantly sub average general intellectual functioning with
deficit in adaptive behaviour and man ifested during the development
period.

This impacts 3 features as captured in the definition:

1. Sub- average intellectual functionality.- Slower in grasp than
children of same age.
2. Adaptability of adapt and deal with environment effectively. (
Independently holding job and family}
3. Manifestation- during developmental period.
Severity of above is dependent on the different levels of IQ deficiency.
Mild- IQ 55-70 , Moderate- IQ 35-55, Severe IQ· 20-35 & Profound IQ< 20
Depending on the range, some people can be trained and educated with
special care and those on the other extreme may live a dependent life
throughout.
Intellectual Giftedness
High performance due to outstanding potential with IQ> 130.
Can be assessed from Talent and Giftedness.
Usually these terms are used interchangeably, however there is a
difference:
Giftedness- Exceptional general ability shown in superior performance in
a wide variety of areas.
Talent- is a narrower term and refers to remarkable ability in a specific
field ( e.g. spiritual, social, aesthetic, etc..). Highly talented people are
also called Prodigies.
It is- combination of high ability, high creativity and high commitment.
Important characteristics of gifted children:
• Advanced logical thinking, questioning and problem solving.
• High speed in processing information.
• Superior generalization and discrimination ability
• Advance original and creative thinking
• High level intrinsic motivation, self esteem.
• Independent and non-conformist thinking
• Preference for solitary academic activities.

Type of Intelligence tests:

Individual or Group tests:
Individual Tests Group Tests
1 Administered to one person at a Administered to several
time persons simultaneously
2 Administrator to establish rapport No opportunity to be familiar
with the subject & be sensitive to with the subject
his/her feelings, moods,
expressions.
3 In this tests subjects are allowed In this they seek written
to answer orally/written answers usually in a multiple
form/manipulate objects as per choice.
tester's instructions

Verbal, Non-verbal or performance tests:

An intelligence test may be fully verbal, fully written or fully
performance based, or it may consist of a mixture of each category.
Verbal- requires verbal responses either orally or in written form. Can be
administered only to literate people.
Non- Verbal- Tests use pictures or illwstrations. In these subjects
examine an incomplete pattern and choose from figures to complete the
pattern.
Can be administered to any culture group or illiterate people.
E.g Raven's Progressive Matrices {RPM).
Performance Tests: Require subjects to manipulate objects and other
materials to perform a task. Written language is not necessary. So can
be administered to persons with low literacy and any culture.
e.g. Koh's block design containing wooden blocks.
Intelligence in Indian Tradition:
Unlike the western view, which particularly focuses on cognitive
parameters, following competencies are identified as facets of
intelligence in the Indian tradition:
• Cognitive capacity: ( Sensitivity to context. understanding,
discrimination. problem solving, effective communication)
• Social competence: ( respect of social order, commitment to
elders, the young and the needy , concern about others
perspectives)
• Emotional competence: ( Self regulation, self monitoring of
emotions, honesty, politeness, good conduct and
self-evaluation)
• Entrepreneurial competence: (commitment. persistence,
patience, hard work, vigilance, goal-directed )
Emotional Intelligence: The notion of emotional intelligence broadens
the concept of intelligence as it considers that Intelligence includes
emotions.
This encompasses- Appraisal, expression and regulation of emotions.
It is the Feeling side of intelligence. A good IQ/Scholastic record is not
enough to be successful in life. Even 'the people who are most
successful in academics face problems in managing their personal life.
Psychologists refer to this as a lack of emotional intelligence.
It is represented as EQ.
Salovey & Mayer first defined EQ as- The ability to monitor one's own
and other's emotions and discriminate them to use them to guide one's
thinking and actions.
Characteristics of the people with high EQ:
• Perceive and be sensitive to your feelings and emotions.
• Sensitive to observing others' emotions by noting their body
language, voice, tone & facial expressions.
• Use emotions and thoughts while solving problems and
taking decisions.
• Understand the nature and intensity of emotions and their
powerful influence.
• Control on emotlons/feelirngs while dealing with others to
achieve peace and harmony.

Aptitude:
Mental ability in a special/particular field is referred as Aptitude.
Aptitude is also- Ability to acquire some specific knowledge and skill
after training.

People with similar intelligence- IQ differ widely in acquiring certain type

of skills.
They can be good in different areas/subjects.
This means people can have aptitude of different fields with similar
measure of intelligence.
Difference between Aptitude & Interest:
Aptitude is the potential to perform any activity/task
Interest is the preference for performing certain activity.
To excel in any field, a person needs to have both Aptitude and Interest.
Measuring Aptitude:
There are several types of Aptitude tests largely available in two forms:
1. Independent (specialised) aptitude tests. - Mechanical,
clerical, numerical, tests for specialized fields.
2. Multiple (generalized) aptitude tests. - Exist in the form of test
batteries. Differential Aptit, ude test ( DAT). General aptitude
test battery (GATB). Armedl services vocational aptitude
battery (ASVAB ) are well known.

DAT is commonly used in educational settings. consisting eight

specialized subtests- Verbal, Numerical, Abstract, Clerical speed and
accuracy, Mechanical, Space, Spellings and Language tests. ( common
test)

Creativity and Intelligence:

Creativity is a phenomenon whereby something new and somehow
valuable is formed. The created item may be intangible (such as an idea.
a scientific theory, a musical composition or a joke) or a physical object
(such as an invention, a literary work or a painting).
There are differences in the potential for creativity across individuals and
the manner in which Creativity is expressed.
Creativity can be expressed in writing, dance, poetry, science and so on.
Manifestation of creativity can be seen in a poem, painting, new
chemical process. an innovation of law, a breakthrough in science in
preventing a disease.
Names of some highly creative persons in the history: Tagore, Einstein,
C.V.Raman. Ramanujan etc. for their outstanding contribution.
The definition of creativity has broadened and it includes ordinary people
in creative occupations like Pottery, carpentry, cooking etc.
Variation in potential for creativity:
Creativity is determined both by Heredity and Environment.
Limit of the creative potential are set by heredity and Environmental
factors help stimulate the development of creativity. Environmental
factors such as motivation, commitment, family support, peer influence,
training n opportunities to polish skills really help enhance the realisation
of true creative potential.
Creativity and Intelligence:
Intelligence is the overall ability to understand, analyse and adapt in
different situations. It is a brain function which helps individuals to
perform and excel in multiple domains. Creativity is the ability to use
intelligence in order to churn out something unique and novel in a
specific field.
Thus a person who has the ability to learn faster, reproduce accurately is
considered intelligent more than creative until he /she devices new ways
of learning and doing.
Terman in 1920 found that Person with high IQ were not necessarily
creative.( He s just a faster computer/processor).
And creative ideas can come from persons who did not have very high
IQ. Ability to think differently.
The relationship between Intelligence and creativity is positive. All
creative abilities require a minimum level of intelligence to acquire
knowledge, capacity to comprehend!, retain and retrieve.
e.g. to express creativity in writing, one must possess adequate
language skills and to express creativity in creating new laws of science,
one must have to intelligence to acquire basic knowledge of the subject.
Creativity test are open ended and involve making a person think of
different answers to the questions and problems. They give freedom to
individuals to go in different direction and freedom to use their
imagination and express in original ways.