At the most basic level, a “network” is defined as a group of systems interconnected to share

resources. You can find examples of such systems and resources in a social network to share
work experience or personal events or a computer network to share file storage, printer
access, or internet connectivity.

A network connects computers, mobile phones, peripherals, and even IoT (Internet of
Things) devices. Switches, routers, and wireless access points (APs) are the essential
networking basics. Through them, devices connected to your network can communicate with
one another and with other networks, such as the internet, which is a global system of
interconnected computer networks.

Networks carry data in many types of environments, including homes, small businesses, and
large enterprises. Large enterprise networks may have several locations that need to
communicate with each other. You can use a network in your home office to communicate
via the internet to locate information, place orders for merchandise, and send messages to
friends. You can also have a small office that is set up with a network that connects other
computers and printers in the office. Similarly, you can work in a large enterprise with many
computers, printers, storage devices, and servers running applications that are used to
communicate, store, and process information from many departments over large geographic
areas.

A network of computers and other components that are located relatively close together in a
limited area is often referred to as a LAN. Every LAN has specific components, including
hardware, interconnections, and software. WAN communication occurs between
geographically separated areas. It is typically provided by different telecommunication
providers using various technologies using different media such as fiber, copper, cable,
Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL), or wireless links. In enterprise internetworks,
WANs connect the main office, branches, Small Office Home Office (SOHO), and mobile
users.
Listed are some important skills that you will build upon when exploring the functions of
networking:

 Explain the functions, characteristics, and common components of a network.

 Read a network diagram, including comparing and contrasting the logical and
physical topologies.
 Describe the impact of user applications on the network.

The term network is used in many different aspects. Some examples of networks are social
networks, phone networks, television networks, neural networks, and computer networks. A
network is a system of connected elements that operate together. A computer network
connects PCs, printers, servers, phones, cameras, and other devices. A computer network
connects devices that allows them to exchange data with each other, which facilitates
information and resource sharing. In a home, computers allow family members to share files
(such as photos) and print documents on a network printer, televisions can play movies or
other media stored on your computers, and internet-enabled devices can connect to web
pages, applications, and services anywhere in the world.

In the business environment, you have many business operations such as marketing, sales,
and IT. You need to develop applications that allow information to be collected and
processed. Computer systems that collect and process the information need to communicate
with each other to share resources. You also need an infrastructure that supports employees,
who need to access these resources and interact with each other. A network allows multiple
devices such as laptops, mobile devices, servers, and shared storage to exchange information
with each other. There are various components connected to each other that are necessary for
this communication to take place. This infrastructure allows a business to run, lets customers
connect to the business (either through salespeople or through an online store), and allows a
business to sell its products or services. To run normally, a business and its applications rely
on networking technology.

A computer network can exist on its own, independent of other computer networks and it can
also connect to other networks. The internet is an example of many networks interconnected
together. It is global in its span and scope. To operate successfully, interconnected networks
follow standardized rules to communicate. These rules are accepted and adhered to by each
participating network.

Years ago, the internet connected only several mainframe computers with computer
terminals. The mainframe computers were large, and their computing power was considered
enormous (albeit being equivalent to today’s mobile phone). Terminals were simple and
inexpensive devices, which were used only to input data and displayed the results. Teletype is
an example of such a device. The range of devices that connects to the internet has expanded
in last decades. The internet now connects not only laptops, smartphones, and tablets but also
game consoles, television sets, home systems, medical monitors, home appliances, thunder
detectors, environment sensors, and much more. The earlier concept of centralized computing
resources is revived today in the form of computing clouds.
 Computer network engineers design, develop, and maintain highly available network
infrastructure to support the information technology activities of the business. Network
engineers interact with network users and provide support or consultancy services about
design and network optimization. Network engineers typically have more knowledge and
experience than network technicians, operators, and administrators. A network engineer
should constantly update their knowledge of networking to keep up with new trends and
practices.

Users who wish to connect their networks to the internet can acquire access through a service
provider's access network. Service provider networks can use different technologies from
dialup or broadband telephony networks, such as ADSL networks, cable networks, mobile,
radio, or fiber-optic networks. A service provider network can cover large geographical areas.
Service provider networks also maintain connections between themselves and other service
providers to enable global coverage.

Computer networks can be classified in several ways, and then combined to find the most
appropriate one for the implementation.

The distance distinguishes local and remote networks between the user and the computer
networks the user is accessing.

Examples of networks categorized by their purpose would be data center networks and SAN.
Focusing on the technology used, you can distinguish between wireless or wired networks.

Looking at the size of the network in terms of the number of devices it has, there are various
types of networks. Such as small networks, usually with less than ten devices, medium to
large networks consisting of tens to hundreds of devices, and very large, global networks,
such as the internet, which connects thousands of devices across the world.

One of the most common categorizations looks at the geographical scope of the network.
There are LANs that connect devices located relatively close together in a limited area.
Contrasting LANs, there are WANs, which cover a broad geographic area and are managed
by service providers. An example of a LAN network is a university campus network that can
span several collocated buildings. An example of a WAN would be a telecommunication
provider’s network that interconnects multiple cities and states. This categorization also
includes metropolitan-area networks (MANs), which span a physical area larger than LAN
but smaller than WAN, for instance, a city.

Medium-to-large enterprise networks can span multiple locations. Usually, they have a main
office or Enterprise Campus, which holds most of the corporate resources, and remote sites,
such as branch offices or home offices of remote workers. A home office usually has a small
number of devices and is called a small office, home office (SOHO). SOHO networks mostly
use the internet to connect to the main office. The main office network, which is a LAN in
terms of its geographical span, may consist of several networks that occupy many floors, or it
may cover a campus that contains several buildings. Many corporate environments require
the deployment of wireless networks on a large scale, and they use Wireless LAN Controllers
(WLC) for centralizing the management of wireless deployments. Enterprise Campuses also
typically include a separate data center home to the computational power, storage, and
applications necessary to support an enterprise business. Enterprises are also connected to the
internet, and a firewall protects internet connectivity. Branch offices have their own LANs
with their own resources, such as printers and servers, and may store corporate information,
but their operations largely depend on the main office, hence the network connection. They
connect to the main office by a WAN or internet using routers as gateways.

Cisco Enterprise Architecture Model

Networks support the activities of many businesses and organizations and are required to be
secure, resilient, and to allow growth. The design of a network requires considerable
technical knowledge. Network engineers commonly use validated network architecture
models to assist in the design and implementation of the network. Examples of validated
models are the Cisco three-tier hierarchical network architecture model, the spine-leaf model,
and the Cisco Enterprise Architecture model. These models provide hierarchical structure to
enterprise networks, which is used to design the network architecture in the form of layers.
For example, LAN Access and LAN Core, with each layer providing different functionalities.

Note
The words internet and web are often used interchangeably, but they do not share the same
meaning. The internet is a global network that interconnects many networks and therefore
provides a worldwide communication infrastructure. The World Wide Web describes one
way to provide and access information over the internet using a web browser. It is a service
that relies on connections provided by the internet for its function.

The exchange of data within the internet follows the same well-defined rules, called
protocols, designed specifically for internet communication. These protocols specify, among
other things, the usage of hyperlinks and Uniform Resource Identifiers (URIs). The internet is
a base for various data exchange services, such as email or file transfers. It is a common
global infrastructure, composed of many computer networks connected together that follow
communication rules standardized for the internet. A set of documents called RFCs defines
the protocols and processes of the internet.
Components of a Network

A network can be as simple as two PCs connected by a wire or as complex as several

thousand devices that are connected through different types of media. The elements that form
a network can be roughly divided into three categories: devices, media, and services. Devices
are interconnected by media, which provides the channel over which the data travels from
source to destination. Services are software and processes that support common networking
applications in use today.

Network Devices
Devices can be further divided into endpoints and intermediary devices:

 Endpoints: In the context of a network, endpoints are called end-user devices and
include PCs, laptops, tablets, mobile phones, game consoles, and television sets.
Endpoints are also file servers, printers, sensors, cameras, manufacturing robots,
smart home components, and so on. All end devices were physical hardware units
years ago. Today, many end devices are virtualized, meaning that they do not exist as
separate hardware units anymore. In virtualization, one physical device is used to
emulate multiple end devices—for example, all the hardware components that one
end device would require. The emulated computer system operates as a separate
physical unit and has its own operating system and other required software. In a way,
it behaves like a tenant living inside a host physical device, using its resources
(processor power, memory, and network interface capabilities) to perform its
functions. Virtualization is commonly applied to servers to optimize resource
utilization, because server resources are often underutilized when they are
implemented as separate physical units.
 Intermediary devices: These devices interconnect end devices or interconnect
networks. In doing so, they perform different functions, which include regenerating
and retransmitting signals, choosing the best paths between networks, classifying and
forwarding data according to priorities, filtering traffic to allow or deny it based on
security settings, and so on. As endpoints can be virtualized, so can intermediary
devices or even entire networks. The concept is the same as in the endpoint
virtualization—the virtualized element uses a subset of resources available at the
physical host system. Intermediary devices that are commonly found in enterprise
networks are:
1. Switches: These devices enable multiple endpoints such as PCs, file servers,
printers, sensors, cameras, and manufacturing robots to connect to the
network. Switches are used to allow devices to communicate on the same
network. In general, a switch or group of interconnected switches attempt to
forward messages from the sender so it is only received by the destination
device. Usually, all the devices that connect to a single switch or a group of
interconnected switches belong to a common network and can therefore
communicate directly with each other. If an end device wants to communicate
with a device that is on a different network, then it requires "services" of a
device that is known as a router, which connects different networks together.
2. Routers: These devices connect networks and intelligently choose the best
paths between networks. Their main function is to route traffic from one
network to another. For example, you need a router to connect your office
network to the internet. An analogy that may help you understand the basic
function of switches and routers is to imagine a network as a neighborhood. A
switch is a street that connects the houses, and routers are the crossroads of
those streets. The crossroads contain helpful information such as road signs to
help you in finding a destination address. Sometimes, you might need the
destination after just one crossroad, but other times you might need to cross
several. The same is true in networking. Data sometimes "stops" at several
routers before it is delivered to the final recipient. Certain switches combine
functionalities of routers and switches, and they are called Layer 3 switches.
3. APs: These devices allow wireless devices to connect to a wired network. An
AP usually connects to a switch as a standalone device, but it also can be an
integral component of the router itself.
4. WLCs: These devices are used by network administrators or network
operations centers to facilitate the management of many APs. The WLC
automatically manages the configuration of wireless APs.
5. Cisco Secure Firewalls: Firewalls are network security systems that monitor
and control the incoming and outgoing network traffic based on predetermined
security rules. A firewall typically establishes a barrier between a trusted,
secure internal network and another outside network, such as the internet, that
is assumed not to be secure or trusted.
6. Intrusion Protection System (IPS): An IPS is a system that performs a deep
analysis of network traffic while searching for signs that behavior is
suspicious or malicious. If the IPS detects such behavior, it can take protective
action immediately. An IPS and a firewall can work in conjunction to defend a
network.
7. Management Services: A modern management service offers centralized
management that facilitates designing, provisioning, and applying policies
across a network. It includes features for discovery and management of
network inventory, management of software images, device configuration
automation, network diagnostics, and policy configuration. It provides end-to-
 end network visibility and uses network insights to optimize the network. An
example of a centralized management service is Cisco DNA Center.

In user homes, you can often find one device that provides connectivity for wired devices,
connectivity for wireless devices, and provides access to the internet. You may be wondering
which kind of device it is. This device has characteristics of a switch because it offers
physical ports to plug local devices, a router, that enables users to access other networks and
the internet, and a WLAN AP, allowing wireless devices to connect to it. It is all three of
these devices in a single package. This device is often called a wireless router.

Another example of a network device is a file server, which is an end device. A file server
runs software that implements standardized protocols to support file transfer from one device
to another over a network. This service can be implemented by either FTP or TFTP. Having
an FTP or TFTP server in a network allows uploads and downloads of files over the network.
An FTP or TFTP server is often used to store backup copies of files that are important to
network operation, such as operating system images and configuration files. Having those
files in one place makes file management and maintenance easier.

Media
Media are the physical elements that connect network devices. Media carry electromagnetic
signals that represent data. Depending on the medium, electromagnetic signals can be guided
in wires and fiber-optic cables or propagated through wireless transmissions, such as Wi-Fi,
mobile, and satellite. Different media have different characteristics and selecting the most
appropriate medium depends on the circumstances, such as the environment in which the
media is used, distances that need to be covered, availability of financial resources, and so on.
For instance, a satellite connection (air medium) might be the only available option for a
filming crew working in a desert.

Connecting wired media to network devices is considerably eased by the use of connectors. A
connector is a plug, which is attached to each end of the cable. The most common type of
connector on a LAN is the plug that looks like an analog phone connector. It is called an RJ-
45 connector.
To connect the media, which connects a device to a network, devices use network interface
cards (NICs). The media "plugs" directly into the NIC. NICs translate the data created by the
device into a format that can be transmitted over the media. NICs used on LANs are also
called LAN adapters. End devices used in LANs usually come with several types of NICs
installed, such as wireless NICs and Ethernet NICs. NICs on a LAN are uniquely identified
by a MAC address. The MAC address is hardcoded or "burned in" by the NIC manufacturer.
NICs used to interface with WANs are called WAN interface cards (WICs), and they use
serial links to connect to a WAN network.

Network Services
Services in a network comprise software and processes that implement common network
applications, such as email and web, including the less obvious processes implemented across
the network. These generate data and determine how data is moved through the network.

Companies typically centralize business-critical data and applications into central locations
called data centers. These data centers can include routers, switches, firewalls, storage
systems, servers, and application delivery controllers. Similar to data center centralization,
computing resources can also be centralized off-premises in the form of a cloud. Clouds can
be private, public, or hybrid, and they aggregate the computing, storage, network, and
application resources in central locations. Cloud computing resources are configurable and
shared among many end users. The resources are transparently available, regardless of the
user's point of entry (a personal computer at home, an office computer at work, a smartphone
or tablet, or a computer on a school campus). Data stored by the user is available whenever
the user is connected to the cloud.

1.4 Exploring the Functions of Networking

Characteristics of a Network

When you purchase a mobile phone or a PC, the specifications list tells you the important
characteristics of the device, just as specific characteristics of a network help describe its
performance and structure. When you understand what each characteristic of a network
means, you can better understand how the network is designed, how it performs, and which
aspects you may need to adjust to meet user expectations.

You can describe the qualities and features of a network by considering these characteristics:

 Topology: A network topology is the arrangement of its elements. Topologies give

insight into physical connections and data flows among devices. In a carefully
designed network, data flows are optimized, and the network performs as desired.
 Bitrate or Bandwidth: Bitrate measures the data rate in bits per second (bps) of a
given link in the network. This measure is often referred to as bandwidth or speed in
device configurations, which is sometimes thought of as speed. However, it is not
about how fast 1 bit is transmitted over a link—which is determined by the physical
properties of the medium that propagates the signal—it is about the number of bits
transmitted in a second. Link bitrates commonly encountered today are 1 and 10
 gigabits per second (1 or 10 billion bits per second). 100-Gbps links are also not
uncommon.
 Availability: Availability indicates how much time a network is accessible and
operational. Availability is expressed in terms of the percentage of time the network is
operational. This percentage is calculated as a ratio of the time in minutes that the
network is available and the total number of minutes over an agreed period, multiplied
by 100. In other words, availability is the ratio of uptime and total time, expressed in
percentage. To ensure high availability, networks should be designed to limit the
impact of failures and to allow quick recovery when a failure does occur. High
availability design usually incorporates redundancy. The redundant design includes
extra elements, which serve as backups to the primary elements and take over the
functionality if the primary element fails. Examples include redundant links,
components, and devices.
 Reliability: Reliability indicates how well the network operates. It considers the
ability of a network to operate without failures and with the intended performance for
a specified time period. In other words, it tells you how much you can count on the
network to operate as you expect it to. For a network to be reliable, the reliability of
all its components should be considered. Highly reliable networks are highly
available, but a highly available network might not be highly reliable—its
components might operate at lower performance levels. A standard measure of
reliability is the mean time between failures (MTBF), which is calculated as the ratio
between the total time in service and the number of failures. Not meeting the required
performance level is considered a failure. Choosing highly reliable redundant
components in the network design increases both availability and reliability.

For instance, let’s consider a networking device that reboots every hour. The reboot takes 5
minutes, after which the device works as expected. The figure shows the calculations of
availability and reliability.

The availability percentage for one day can be calculated as follows:

 Scalability: Scalability indicates how easily the network can accommodate more
users and data transmission requirements without affecting current network
performance. If you design and optimize a network only for the current conditions, it
can be costly and difficult to meet new needs when the network grows.
  Security: Security tells you how well the network is defended from potential threats.
Both network infrastructure and the information that is transmitted over the network
should be secured. The subject of security is important, and defense techniques and
practices are constantly evolving. You should consider security whenever you take
actions that affect the network.
 Quality of Service (QoS): QoS includes tools, mechanisms, and architectures, which
allow you to control how and when applications use network resources. QoS is
essential for prioritizing traffic when the network is congested.
 Cost: Cost indicates the general expense for the initial purchase of the network
components and any costs associated with installing and maintaining these
components.
 Virtualization: Traditionally, network services and functions have only been
provided via hardware. Network virtualization creates a software solution that
emulates network services and functions. Virtualization solves many of the
networking challenges in today’s networks, helping organizations centrally automate
and provision the network from a central management point.

Each network has both a physical and a logical topology. The physical topology of a network
refers to the physical layout of the devices and cabling. The term node is commonly used
when discussing topology diagrams. For networking topology diagrams, a node is a device.

Two networks might have the same physical topology, but distances between nodes, physical
interconnections, transmission rates, or signal types may differ. A physical topology must be
implemented using media that is appropriate for it. In wired networks, recognizing the type of
cabling used is important in describing the physical topology. The figure represents some of
the physical topologies that you may encounter.

 Bus: In a bus topology, every workstation is connected to a common transmission

medium, a single cable, which is called a backbone or bus. Therefore, each
workstation is directly connected to every other workstation in the network. In
previous bus topologies, computers and other network devices were connected to a
central coaxial cable via connectors.
 Ring: In a ring topology, computers and other network devices are cabled in
succession, and the last device is connected to the first one to form a circle or ring.
Each device is connected to exactly two neighbors and has no direct connection to a
third. When one node sends data to another, the data passes through each node that
lies between them until it reaches the destination.
  Star: The most common physical topology is a star topology. In this topology, there
is a central device to which all other network devices connect via point-to-point links.
This topology is also called the hub and spoke topology. There are no direct physical
connections among spoke devices. This topology includes star and extended star
topologies. In an extended star topology, one or more spoke devices are replaced by a
device with its own spokes. In other words, it is composed of multiple star topologies
whose central devices are connected.
 Mesh: In a mesh topology, a device can be connected to more than one other device.
For one node to reach others, there are multiple paths available. Redundant links
increase reliability and self-healing. In a full mesh topology, every node is connected
to every other node. In partial mesh, certain nodes do not have connections to all other
nodes.

The logical topology is the path which data travels from one point in the network to another.
The diagram depicts the logical topology between PC A and the Server. In this example, data
does not follow the shortest physical path, which would go through two switches. The logical
topology requires data to also travel through the router for the two devices to communicate.
The same could be true for all other end devices. Logical topology would then be a star,
where the router is a central device.

The logical and physical topology of a network can be of the same type. However, physical
and logical topologies often differ. For example, an Ethernet hub is a legacy device that
functions as a central device to which other devices connect in a physical star. The
characteristic of a hub is that it "copies" every signal received on one port to all other ports.
So, a signal sent from one node is received by all other nodes. This behavior is typical of a
bus topology. Because data flow has the characteristics of a bus topology, it is a logical bus
topology.

The logical topology is determined by the intermediary devices and the protocols chosen to
implement the network. The intermediary devices and network protocols both determine how
end devices access the media and how they exchange data.
A physical star topology in which a switch is the central device is by far the most common in
implementations of LANs today. When using a switch to interconnect the devices, both the
physical and the logical topologies are star topologies.

1.6 Exploring the Functions of Networking

Interpreting a Network Diagram

Network diagrams are visual aids in understanding how a network is designed and to show
how it operates. In essence, they are maps of the network. They illustrate physical and logical
devices and their interconnections. Depending on the amount of information you wish to
present, you can have multiple diagrams for a network. The most common diagrams are
physical and logical diagrams. Other diagrams used in networking are sequence diagrams,
which illustrate the chronological exchange of messages between two or more devices.

Both physical and logical diagrams use icons to represent devices and media. Usually, there
is additional information about devices, such as device names and models.

Physical diagrams focus on how physical interconnections are laid out and include device
interface labels (to indicate the physical ports to which media is connected) and location
identifiers (to indicate where devices can be found physically). Logical network diagrams
also include encircling symbols (ovals, circles, and rectangles), which indicate how devices
or cables are grouped. These symbols further include device and network logical identifiers,
such as addresses. These symbols also indicate which networking processes are configured,
such as routing protocols, and provide their basic parameters.

In the example, you can see interface labels" S0/0/0," "Fa0/5," and "Gi0/1." The label is
composed of letters followed by numbers. Letters indicate the type of interface. In the
example, "S" stands for Serial, "Fa" stands for Fast Ethernet, and "Gi" for Gigabit Ethernet.

Devices can have multiple interfaces of the same type. The exact position of the interface is
indicated by the numbers that follow, which are subject to conventions. For instance, the
label S0/0/0 indicates serial port 0 (the last zero in the label), in the interface card slot 0 (the
second zero) in the module slot 0 (the first zero).

zero).

Note:The name Fast Ethernet indicates an Ethernet link with the speed of 100 Mbps.
The diagram also includes the IPv4 address of the entire network given by 192.168.1.0/24.
This number format indicates the network address, 192.168.1.0, and the network's prefix, a
representation of its subnet mask, which is /24. IPv4 addresses of individual devices are
shown as ".1" and ".2." These numbers are only parts of the complete address, which is
constructed by combining the address of the entire network with the number shown. The
resulting address of the device in the diagram would be 192.168.1.1.

1.7 Exploring the Functions of Networking

Impact of User Applications on the Network

The data traffic flowing in a network can be generated by end users or control traffic. Users
generate traffic by using applications. Control traffic can be generated by intermediary
devices or by activities related to the operation, administration, and management of the
network. Today, users utilize many applications. The traffic created by these applications
differs in its characteristics. Usage of applications can affect network performance and, in the
same way, network performance can affect applications. Usage translates to the user’s
perception of the quality of the provided service—in other words, a user experience that is
good or bad. Recall that QoS is implemented to prioritize network traffic and maximize the
user experience.

User applications can be classified to better describe their traffic characteristics and
performance requirements. It is important to know what traffic is flowing in your network
and describe the traffic in technical terms. An example of traffic types found in today’s
network is given in the figure. This knowledge is used to optimize network design.
To classify applications, their traffic, and performance the requirements are described in
terms of these characteristics:

 Interactivity: Applications can be interactive or noninteractive. Interactivity

presumes that a response is expected for the normal functioning of the application for
a given request. For interactive applications, it is important to evaluate how sensitive
they are to delays—some might tolerate larger delays up to practical limits, but some
might not.
 Real-time responsiveness: Real-time applications expect a timely data serving, and
they are not necessarily interactive. An example of a real-time application is like a
football game video streaming (live streaming) or video conferencing. Real-time
applications are sensitive to delay. Delay is sometimes used interchangeably with the
term latency. Latency refers to the total amount of time from the source sending data
to the destination receiving it. Latency accounts for propagation delay of signals
through media, the time required for data processing on devices it crosses along the
path, etc. Because of the changing network conditions, latency might vary during data
exchange: some data might arrive with less latency than other data. The variation in
latency is called jitter.
 Amount of data generated: Some applications produce a low quantity of data, such
as voice applications. These applications do not require much bandwidth, and they are
usually referred to as benign bandwidth applications. Video streaming applications
produce a significant amount of traffic and are termed bandwidth greedy.
 Burstiness: Applications that always generate a consistent amount of data are
referred to as smooth or nonbursty applications. On the other hand, bursty
applications at times create a small amount of data, but they can change behavior for
shorter periods. An example, is web browsing. If you open a page in a browser that
contains a lot of text, a small amount of data is transferred. But, if you start
downloading a huge file, the amount of data will increase during the download.
 Drop sensitivity: Packet loss is losing packets along the data path, which can
severely degrade the application performance. Some real-time applications (such as
Video On Demand) are sensitive to the perceived packet loss when using the network
resources. You can say that such applications are drop-sensitive.
 Criticality to business: This aspect of an application is "subjective" in that it depends
on someone's estimate of how valuable and important the application is to a business.
For instance, an enterprise that relies on video surveillance to secure its premises
might consider video traffic as a top priority, while another enterprise might consider
it totally irrelevant.
One way that applications can be classified is as follows:

 Batch applications: Applications such as FTP and TFTP are considered batch
applications. Both are used to send and receive files. Typically, a user selects a group
of files that need to be retrieved and then starts the transfer. Once the download starts,
no additional human interaction is required. The amount of available bandwidth
determines the speed at which the download occurs. While bandwidth is important for
batch applications, it is not critical. Even with low bandwidth, the download is
completed eventually. Their principal characteristics are:
1. Typically do not require direct human interaction.
2. Bandwidth is important but not critical.
3. Examples: FTP, TFTP, inventory updates.
 Interactive applications: Applications in which the user waits for a response to their
action are interactive. Think of online shopping applications, which are offered by
many retail businesses today. Interactive applications require human interaction, and
their response times are more important than for batch applications. However, strict
response times or bandwidth guarantees might not be required. If the appropriate
amount of bandwidth is not available, then the transaction may take longer, but it will
eventually complete. The main characteristics of the interactive applications are:
1. Typically support human-to-machine interaction.
2. Acceptable response times have different values depending on how important
the application is for the business.
3. Examples: database inquiry, stock exchange transaction
 Real-time applications: Are applications such as voice and video that may also
involve human interaction. Because of the amount of information that is transmitted,
bandwidth is critical. In addition, because these applications are time-critical, a delay
on the network can cause a problem. Timely delivery of the data is crucial. It is also
important that data is not lost during transmission because real-time applications,
unlike other applications, do not retransmit lost data. Therefore, sufficient bandwidth
is mandatory, and the quality of the transmission must be ensured by implementing
QoS. QoS is a way of granting higher priority to certain types of data, such as VoIP.
The main characteristics of the real-time applications are:
1. Typically support human-to-human interaction.
2. End-to-end latency is critical.
3. Examples: Voice applications, video conferencing, and online streaming such
as live sports.

Applications may be required to manage different types of communications. One such

application is the factory-automation application. Factory-automation applications deal with
plant process-related data, such as readings from sensors and alarms, which require
guaranteed delivery times and typically require feedback within a prescribed response time.
On the other hand, the same factory-automation application must also handle certain device
configurations and commercial data, which is not time-critical.