Buildings & Infrastructure Priority Actions for Sustainability

Embodied Carbon
Concrete
Reference: 07762000-RP-SUS-0003

01 | 5 June 2023

This document is a snapshot in time of industry research, opinion, and knowledge. The
information is subject to change as industry progresses and new information comes to light.
This document is to be periodically reviewed and any comments or suggestions are welcomed
via [email protected] and the BIPAS team. BIPAS is a multi-disciplinary group of
engineers within Arup, funded via Arup's internal investment programme. We carry out
research and create resources relating to sustainability, primarily for use within Arup but
shared externally when it is appropriate. Our objective is to address those areas that
engineers engage with on a daily basis, to enable them to address sustainability in an
informed and effective manner.
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Contents

Introduction 1

Lifecycle 2

Stage A 3

Stage B 11

Stage C 11

Stage D 11

Route to Net Zero 12

References 14

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Introduction
Concrete is the most used construction material in the world with approximately 14 billion m3 used
worldwide each year [1]. Up to 90% of the greenhouse gas emissions (GHGs) in the production of concrete
are created in the manufacture of Portland cement [2], which is currently accountable for 8% of all global
emissions, and this is expected to rise by 25% by 2050 [3]. Per kilogram, concrete has a relatively low
embodied carbon and cost compared to steel, whilst also providing high strength and durability, making it an
effective and accessible construction material. Due to the vast quantities of concrete used globally,
reductions in the carbon factors we use can have a significant global impact [4], but efficient design choices
have real potential to be the most effective way of reducing construction's carbon footprint. Note that by
reducing the assumed carbon factors of concrete during early design stages, this reduces the incentive to do
leaner designs.
The greenhouse gas emissions (referred to in this document as ‘carbon’) and the carbon factor (the quantity
of greenhouse gases emitted per kg of material) for concrete can vary depending on raw material extraction,
processing and manufacturing techniques, supplementary cementitious materials, transportation mode and
distance, concrete strength, consistence (workability), and use of water and (super)plasticisers.
We need to understand the carbon emissions associated with the different stages of the concrete manufacturing
process, and work collaboratively with contractors, clients and suppliers to meet increasingly critical carbon
targets to ensure that the impact of our decisions is felt throughout the supply chain.
This document sets out the factors stage by stage that contribute towards the emission of carbon through the
whole life cycle of concrete used for buildings and infrastructure. It will also highlight the potential route to
decarbonising the production of concrete through identifying the carbon journeys of the principal constituents,
which include:
• Portland cement
• Supplementary cementitious materials (additions)
• Aggregates (fine and coarse)
• Admixtures
• Water
Using less material as an industry is fundamental to reducing emissions. At present there are no solutions
that work at an industry, as opposed to project, scale to significantly reduce the carbon intensity of concrete
[5]. This paper aims to provide the reader with information on the status of the industry and best practice, so
that they can understand the impact of their design choices and avoid greenwashing.

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Lifecycle
The stages referred to in this document align with the life cycle assessment referenced in ISO 14040,
whereby Stage A is ‘up-front’, Stage B is ‘in-use’, Stage C is ‘end-of-life’ and Stage D is ‘beyond the
lifecycle’. Figure 1 describes the lifecycle of CEM I fits into Stages A-C, and the approximate proportion of
carbon associated with each.

Figure 1
Life cycle stages for Portland cement concrete into corresponding percentages of carbon emissions [5].

Figure 2 shows an example C30/37 concrete mix broken down into the principal constituents per m3, and
compares mass and embodied carbon (A1-A5) to show the materials with the most significant environmental
impacts. Note that the reinforcement contribution will be dependent on the recycled content of the steel.

100% 6
13 30
80% Rebar [150kg/m³]

60% Chemical admixtures [4 litres]

74 Binder (Cement type CEM I) [340kg/m³]

40% 68
Coarse and fine aggregate [1875kg/m³]
20%
Water [175kg/m³]
0% 7 2
Mass (%) Embodied carbon (%)

Figure 2
C30/37 concrete example mix including only CEM I with no replacements, by mass and embodied carbon, not including mineral
additives [2].

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Stage A
A1 – Raw material extraction

Module A1 includes the carbon emissions associated with extracting and manufacturing each constituent
material of concrete, which includes four main components: cement or cementitious materials, fine
aggregates, coarse aggregates, and water. The A1 emissions for concrete includes the A1-A3 emissions of
extracting and producing each material. Figure 3 shows the breakdown of A1-A5 emissions. A1-A3 for
concrete typically accounts for 75% of the A1-A5 carbon emissions concrete production.

Figure 3
A1-A5 emissions process.

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Aggregates
Aggregates can make up to 70% of the concrete volume, only account for 1-5% of A1-A3 emissions [6].
However, there are wider impacts associated with constrained resource use. They are naturally occurring
materials which require minimal processing, and are often acquired locally [2]. Formation of aggregate is
extremely slow in comparison to the existing demand; this threatens the long-term availability of aggregates
in the future.
Aggregates are sourced as virgin/primary, recycled, or secondary materials:
Virgin/primary aggregates: Naturally occurring aggregates quarried from the land or dredged from the
seabed.
Recycled concrete aggregates: Aggregate resulting from the reprocessing of inorganic material previously
used in construction, such as crushed concrete. Note that CO2e values for recycled aggregates may be higher
than for virgin materials if delivery distances are greater than 15km.
Secondary aggregates: Industrial by-products, such as slag, slate and recycled glass, which are often sourced
locally.
Manufactured carbon sequestering aggregates: Relatively novel technologies utilising industrial wastes
and captured CO2 for manufacturing carbon neutral/negative lightweight aggregates (such as those from
O.C.O Technology [7] or Low Carbon Materials [8]).

Water
Clean, uncontaminated water should be used for mixing and curing concrete. EN 1008:2002 specifies the
requirements for water that are suitable for making concrete. The emissions associated with water in the A1
stage are less than 1% and so are negligible.

Admixtures
Admixtures can be added to the concrete mix during the manufacturing process (A3). By adding certain
admixtures, this can increase the consistence (workability) of a concrete and reduce the amount of water
required in the mix, hence reducing the permeability of the concrete, and increasing the overall strength
without increasing the cement ratio which is carbon intensive [9]. However, by using a plasticising
admixture, not to increase consistence, but to use less water for the required consistence, the cement content
of the concrete can be reduced to maintain an equal water/cement ratio. The concrete will therefore have a
lower embodied carbon but with equal strength and durability. They can also be added to facilitate
environmentally optimised mixes and are generally only added in small amounts.
Environmental Product Declarations (EPDs) for admixtures are provided per kg of admixture, and this may
not reflect differences in the functional performance of each admixture; For example shrinkage-reducing
admixtures include both liquid and powder-based products. Table 1 shows average values of carbon
emissions per kg of various admixture types. Note that admixtures are typically a small contribution to
overall CO2 emissions, but there are other environmental impacts attributed to manufacture and safe storage.
Table 1
kgCO2e/kg of admixture types [8].
Carbon Air entrainer Hardening Plasticiser and Retarder Set Shrinkage Water
Emissions accelerator superplasticiser accelerator reducing resisting
kgCO2e/kg admixture admixtures

Mean value 0.5 2.1 1.8 1.4 1.3 3.0 2.8

Manufacture of Portland cement

The manufacturing stage of Portland cement is the most carbon intensive part of the production of concrete,
with 4-5% of all global GHG emissions coming from cement kilns alone [10]. As seen in Figure 2, for a
typical concrete mix, Portland cement generally consists of 10%-20% of the mass, but can account for 75-
90% of the embodied carbon impact of concrete [2]. The embodied carbon of concrete is therefore
significantly affected by the amount of PC within the mix.

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Material quarrying and transport to cement plant
The manufacture of cement starts at a mine or quarry where
the raw materials are extracted. Calcium rich materials such
as limestone, chalk, and silica, and alumina rich materials
such as clay and shale, are extracted from rock quarries [7].
The widespread abundance of limestone and chalk makes it
a suitable local material to be used in the production of
concrete [8]. The raw material is then transported via truck
to the cement factory. Due to the vast amounts of these
materials necessary for cement production globally (1.6t of
limestone is needed to produce 1t of clinker), it is common
for cement manufacturers to locate their factories near to
the quarries [8]. Mining, quarrying and transport of the raw
materials often accounts for less than 5% of cement related
emissions and could be reduced or eliminated through
electrification of mining operations [9].
Drying and grinding
The individual materials arrive at the cement factory
separately, where they are dried and ground further to
create a fine powder called “meal”. These materials are
individually stored into silos for use later when each
material can be added in the required amounts for different
cement mixes [7]. Electricity used for grinding and moving
materials around the cement plant account for 8-13% of
indirect emissions of cement production [9].
Kiln
Fossil fuels are often used to heat the kiln to over 1400ºC
[2]. CO2 is indirectly emitted in this process which can
account for 30-40% of CO2 emissions of cement production
[2] [9]. The combined raw materials are heated and ground
to form a lumpy substance called clinker. During the
production of clinker, calcium carbonate (CaCO3) is
converted to lime (CaO) which is the primary element of
cement. These carbon dioxide emissions are unavoidable
when producing limestone-based cement [9].
Cement milling and dispatch
Portland cement is then produced by grinding 95% clinker
with 5% gypsum to produce a fine powder [8] [10]. The
cement can then be packaged and dispatched in bags or in Figure 4
bulk quantities. Carbon emissions produced in the manufacture of cement.

Supplementary cementitious materials

Supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) are often the by-products of other industries, replacing the
high carbon Portland cement clinker. Alternatively, they can be used directly in the clinker manufacturing
process to reduce the need for virgin materials, and can contribute to large CO2 reductions in the production
of cement and concrete [11] [12].
Some common SCMs include Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBS - a by-product of the iron
making industry), Pulverised Fuel Ash (PFA or ‘fly ash’, a by-product of the combustion of coal) and silica
fume (by-product from silicon alloy production) [13]. Structural concrete can maintain acceptable design
performance whilst substituting over 50% of Portland cement for SCMs. However, global supplies are
currently limited to 10-15% of cement usage today. Due to the finite supplies, if SCMs are locally specified
above and beyond the global availability, this will limit the overall supply worldwide [12]. Additions have an

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optimal proportion before there is a significant effect on concrete strength. For GGBS, this is 50-55% and so
increasing the proportion much beyond this will result in a much higher total binder content (lower w/c ratio)
for equal strength. This negates some of the carbon saving that was intended by increasing the proportion of
GGBS.
The industry is searching for new sources of SCMs [11]. Figure 5 shows supply and demand of commonly
used SCMs.

Supplementary Cementitious Material (SCM) and Portland Cement - Global annual supply and
demand

Portland Cement

Fly Ash

Slag

Natural Pozzolan

0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000
Mt/year
Used Available Demand

Figure 5
Supply and demand of commonly used supplementary cementitious materials and Portland cement [10].

Understanding the data for SCMs is an important step towards reducing the embodied carbon content of
concrete. Table 2 lists the A1-A3 embodied carbon emissions of cement and other cementitious materials
alongside relevant information on non-standard technologies, such as alkali-activated materials and carbon
sequestering technologies, for comparative purposes. However, it is noted that these technologies are not
currently commonly used in construction but may become increasingly popular in the next decade.
Table 2
A1-A3 embodied carbon emissions of cement and cementitious materials [2] [14].
Material / constituent Remarks Carbon factor Availability

[kgCO2e/tonne]

CEM I Typical Portland cement used in 818 - 860 [14] Wide

concrete production

GGBS Widely used in concrete; up to 70- 42-70 [14] Short-term. Note that this is subject to change once
75% replacement. Up to 90% in economic allocation is incorporated throughout
certain applications This does not industry so could be up to 200 kgCO2e/tonne.
include
economic
allocation.*

Fly ash Widely used in concrete; up to 4 [2] Very limited in the UK. Note that this is subject to
35% replacement. Up to 55% in change once economic allocation is incorporated
certain applications This does not throughout industry so could be up to 200
include kgCO2e/tonne.
economic
allocation.*

Silica fume Used in special applications; 28 [14] Limited

mainly in high strength and
sprayed concrete applications. Up
to 10-15% replacement.

Metakaolin Rarely used in concrete; mainly in 150-470 [14] Very limited to none in the UK
high strength concrete applications
where available. Up to 15-20%.

Natural Pozzolans Used in other countries; up to 35% Exact value Very limited in the UK. Exploration required
(e.g., volcanic ashes, replacement. Up to 55% unknown but
trass) replacement in special cases. normally low
(<50) [14]

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 Calcined Natural Not generally used; up to 35% Approx. 300 - Not currently produced in the UK or Europe but used
Pozzolans (e.g., replacement. Up to 55% 500 depending in large scale UK infrastructure projects.
calcined clay, LC3) replacement in special cases. on raw material
and production
methods [14]

Limestone fines Widely used as filler and has the 75 [2] Widely used. Not so much in the UK as SCMs but
potential to be regarded as SCM in industry is changing.
the UK; up to 25% replacement.

Alkali activated Portland cement free materials 50-400 [14] Somewhat in the UK; short-term. Inconsistent
materials / which utilise GGBS and fly ash material behaviour.
“Geopolymers” together with chemical activators
to produce concrete. Currently not
included in standards but covered
by PAS 8820.

Carbon sequestering Cementitious materials Highly variable – Under development in the UK (Concrete4Change,
technologies manufactured with sequestered from carbon Seratech) Note that carbon negativity is a
CO2 negative, to 700 controversial issue as it depends on the source of
CO2 used. It difficult to claim carbon negativity when
using commercial CO2 from methane reforming. If
CO2 from a cement plant is used, then there is a high
risk of double counting if both the cement plant and
the downstream user of the CO2 claim the benefit of
CO2 capture and sequestration.

* economic allocation refers to the levels of responsibility at economy or firm level.

GGBS and fly ash are by-products created from other industries; When assessing the embodied carbon of
structures, it is important that this carbon is calculated correctly. It is often tempting to take the highest
possible GGBS content (up to 70%) to lower embodied carbon in our design calculations – however, due to
the finite supplies of this material globally, increasing this content on one project may reduce the potential
for another building to do the same.
The carbon associated with internationally traded recovered resources currently stands behind a ‘double-
blind’ system of accounting: emissions do not register in the conventional territorial accounts of the
importing country and could be hidden from its consumption-based accounts too. The impacts of such trade
and related carbon accounting conventions are unclear, and we emphasise the need for further investigation.

A2 – Transport
Module A2 includes the carbon emissions attributed to the transport of concrete constituent materials from
their source or factories to the concrete batching plants. Globally, the raw materials used to make concrete
are typically abundant and locally supplied, making the transportation emissions of concrete minimal [15].
The type of transport mode used to move the different constituents of concrete will depend on the location of
the mines and quarries, processing facilities, and batching plants, but they are usually transported via road or
rail.

Portland cement
Portland cement is transported from the cement factories, often located near the quarries where the raw
materials are extracted, to various batching plants which are situated near towns or cities with the need for
concrete manufacture. It is worth noting that the UK currently imports around 20% of required cement.
Cement is also being traded globally and transported around the world. Vietnam and Türkiye are the biggest
cement exporters, with 13% and 10% respectively of shares in world exports of cement in 2021. The United
States and China are the biggest cement importing countries, accounting for 12% and 10% of global cement
import in 2021 respectively [16]. Table 3 shows the largest importing and exporting countries of cement and
cement clinkers.

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Table 3
Export and import of cement, including cement clinkers [16].

Exporting country Share in world Importing country Share in world

exports (2021) imports (2021)

Vietnam, Türkiye 10-20% USA, China 10-20%

USA, Canada, Mexico, 1-5% Australia, Canada Peru, 1-5%

Algeria, Spain, China France, Germany

Russia, Australia, UK, 0-1% Russia, UK, Brazil, Türkiye, 0-1%

Brazil, India Mexico, Algeria, Spain, India

Supplementary cementitious materials

SCMs are often transported from the point of manufacture (from the steel or coal industry) directly to the
concrete batching plants. This is beneficial, especially for GGBS where the range of substitution may vary
significantly, so the materials can be transported directly to the concrete batching plant without having to go
to a cement plant first [17]. The extent of opportunities to use lower-carbon concrete mixes can often be
dictated by the materials available to local batching plants. It may be carbon effective to import cement
substitutes from further afield depending on their impact on the concrete when the A2 emissions have been
taken into consideration [10].

Aggregates (fine and coarse)

Both coarse and fine aggregates are traded globally, but with relatively shorter transportation distances
compared to cement products. Aggregates are usually locally or regionally sourced and therefore low
transport emissions are expected. By identifying specific aggregates, this may impact sourcing and therefore
increase the embodied carbon [18]. Table 4 shows comparative CO2e for virgin and recycled aggregates
travelling different distances.
Table 4
Comparative CO2e for virgin and recycled aggregates [18].
Material and delivery distance Cradle to gate Transport kg Total kg +/- % CO2
kg CO2/tonne CO2/tonne CO2/tonne

Virgin aggregates

+58.5 km (delivery and return distance by road) 6.6 2.7 9.3 -

Recycled C&D* aggregates compared to the use of virgin aggregates

Used on-site, 0 km transport 2 - 7.9 0.0 7.9 - 15 %

+ 5 km (delivery and return distance by road) 2 -7.9 0.5 8.4 - 10 %

+ 10 km (delivery and return distance by road) 2 - 7.9 0.9 8.8 -5%

+ 15 km (delivery and return distance by road) 2 - 7.9 1.4 9.3 0%

+ 20 km (delivery and return distance by road) 2 - 7.9 1.8 9.7 5%

+58.5 km (delivery and return distance by road) 2 - 7.9 2.7 10.6 14 %

In the UK, the average journey of raw materials to a concrete batching plant is around 54km [2]. This may
vary in locations around the world where there is a higher demand than local availability. In large cities or
hard to reach areas, materials are brought in via rail or ships and vehicles will be used to transport aggregates
and cement to site for the last few miles [2].

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At early design stages, the concrete specifications may not have been decided; However, depending on the
project location, there should be sufficient information to understand if concrete can be supplied locally. The
distance from the quarries and factories to the concrete batching plants are most likely to be local or national.
Table 5 shows the carbon emissions produced for local, national, regional and global concrete ingredients.

Table 5
Transportation CO2e values.
Location of Mill Carbon Emissions kgCO2e/kg Assumption
compared to the site

Local <50km 0.005 Transported 50km by road

National <300km 0.032 Transported 300km by road

Regional <1500km 0.161 Transported 1500km by road

Global >1500km 0.183 Transported mostly (10,000 km) by sea and then 200km by road

The embodied carbon that is typically released through burning fossil fuels for transport varies from country
to country. The transport industry is aiming to decarbonise with the electrification of railways and
development of hydrogen powered heavy goods vehicles (HGVs).

A3 – Manufacturing
Module A3 includes the carbon emissions of the manufacture of concrete which is also described as the
“batching” of concrete. The individual components of concrete are stored at the batching plant in bins and
silos. They are weighed and then mixed in either a plant mixer or truck mixer, then transported to site. This
process is mainly fuelled by electricity or diesel depending on the batching facility and this is the main
contributor to CO2 emissions during this stage [4]. Admixtures are added at this stage. Table 6 shows carbon
emissions produced in the A3 stages to batch concrete per kg in-situ and precast.

Table 6
A3 manufacturing process – batching plants [ICE database].
Item Carbon Emissions kgCO2e at A3

Concrete batching energy, per kg concrete 0.0007

Concrete precast, per kg precast 0.0142

A4 – Transport
The batching of concrete is done in many locations positioned around cities and towns to ensure minimal
transport times. The A4 emissions associated with transporting the concrete from the batching plant to the
final site contribute relatively small amounts of CO2 to the total A1-A5 emissions [4].
In-situ concrete is most commonly transported to site in a concrete mixer. This allows for concrete to be
batched and pre-mixed ready for use on site immediately. Due to the restricted setting times of concrete, this
limits how far away the batching plants can be from the site; Hence, they are usually relatively close to the
site. For example, in-situ concrete in the UK travels on average 16km from batching plant to site. Batched
concrete is transported to site in wagons fuelled by diesel.
Alternative methods of transport can vary due to project requirements. A volumetric mixer is a mobile
batching plant which transports the ingredients of concrete to site, mixing it on the way, or once the vehicle
has arrived on site. This is a useful transportation method on projects where different types of concrete are
needed in small volumes.

A5 – Site construction
Module A5 includes carbon emissions of construction related activities associated with placing concrete on
site. This includes the emissions from the equipment used for installation, and the emissions associated with
the waste material. A5 typically accounts for approximately 14% of the A1-A5 carbon emissions of in-situ
concrete, however this value can vary [6].

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Placing concrete activity
Placing concrete on site requires the use of fuel for activities such as pumping or skipping concrete to its
destination, and vibration for compacting and finishing. The emissions factors for onsite placement activities
can be assumed as 0.0090tCO2e/m3 [4].

Formwork
Timber formwork (generally 18mm plywood) is a flexible solution which is commonly used to shutter
concrete on site. The embodied carbon is significantly affected by the reuse rate and End of Life (EoL)
scenario, aspects which can be difficult to determine in the earlier stages of a project. Due to the short service
life of timber formwork, it would be inappropriate to include the benefit of sequestration within embodied
carbon calculations as the carbon is only stored in the short term.
RICS guidance assumes that, in the absence of project specific information, plywood formwork is re-used
three times before being incinerated [19]. Information from contractors suggests that this may not reflect the
reality, with a lot of plywood formwork being used just once. Plain and special finish concrete can result in a
single use ply, as remnants remaining on the sheet make it unsuitable for further pours. Ordinary finish
concrete makes allowances for small defects, hence timber plywood can often be reused multiple times.
Plywood formwork may get reused on site in a different role, such as for fencing, but this can vary project to
project and will still result in new formwork being required for further pours. How the ply is recycled/reused
is down to the supply chain.
It is important that engineers engage early with architects and contractors to discuss the benefits of
specifying a lower grade finish, changing formwork reuse rates, and alternative formwork types.

Waste
The volume of site waste and the associated carbon emissions, varies depending on the processes used by the
contractor. Global waste values are typically 1-6%, but can sometimes reach as much as 13% due to
overordering of concrete as a precaution. Additional elements to enable the concrete pour should also be
taken into consideration such as concrete blinding, temporary works including timber formwork and
falsework [20]. Table 7 shows the associated waste ratios and waste factors for several concrete products
[20].
Table 7
Waste ratios and factors for in-situ/precast concrete and formwork.
Material/product Waste ratio (WR) Waste factor (WF)

Concrete in situ 5% 0.053

Concrete precast (beams and frames) 5% 0.053

Timber formwork 10% 0.111

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Stage B
B1 Use - Carbonation and CO2 sequestration
Concrete and mortar containing cementitious materials absorb CO2 if their surface is exposed to air. This
natural process is called carbonation. Carbonation can have positive effects on the strength of concrete;
however, it significantly lowers the alkalinity, and thus may have adverse effects such as corrosion of
embedded steel. Reinforcement cover and mix design are designed to limit this [19] [21]. The amount of
carbonation during the life of a structure is estimated to be up to 2.5% reabsorption of the CO2e emitted in
stages A1-A3 (so comparatively, a small value). [13]

B2 & B3 maintenance and repair

There can be high emissions related to maintenance and repair of concrete structures during their lifetime,
but this will vary on a case-by-case basis; Therefore, there is currently little information available to advise
on carbon factors for maintenance and repair for concrete due to these variations.

Stage C
Stage C includes the emissions associated with demolishing and removing concrete components from a
building.
Global figures on the waste and disposal of concrete are not readily available and are expected to be highly
variable from country to country as well as from region to region. Many different factors contribute to these
variations such as local laws and regulations for landfilling of demolition waste and the access to virgin
aggregates. Often there are incentives or penalties and therefore there may be increased interest in recycling
concrete as aggregate, rather than letting the material go to landfill. High recycling rates are reported in the
Netherlands, UK and Japan [22]. Concrete waste can also be used as an Alternative Raw Material (ARM) or
Mineral Component (MIC) in the manufacture of new cement, but this is still under development.

Stage D
Circular economy
For concrete this could be re-using concrete by crushing for aggregate, cutting it up into smaller blocks, or
more effectively, re-using structural elements, allowing for maximum use before being recycled or replaced
[23]. Carbon could be saved by extending a concrete frame’s life; however, this is project-specific and needs
to be calculated on a case-by-case basis. Designing for deconstruction with concrete is difficult, so the future
use of buildings needs to be considered at the outset of a project. [23].

Recycled aggregate
Recovered concrete can be recycled as aggregate in new concrete, but the quantities may be limited by local
regulations and physical properties, especially for structural concrete applications. Regardless, in some
situations crushed and reused concrete can often be better than virgin aggregates [24]. It is important to only
specify recycled aggregates when there is a local source available, otherwise transportation emissions may
outweigh the intended carbon benefits [18]. Additionally, depending on the type of recycled or secondary
aggregates, there may be increased water demand and a need to increase the cement content of the concrete
to achieve the specified characteristic strength, with a consequential increase in eCO2.
The potential for CO2 uptake during the demolition, crushing and waste handling stages is relatively larger
than the B1 stage due to the increased surface area of concrete, however it is still only a small percentage of
the overall carbon impact [19] [21]. It has been claimed that if a concrete element is crushed and left on site
for 26 weeks before being moved, it can reabsorb up to 5% of the original A1-A3 emissions carbon produced
[13].

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Route to Net Zero
There is no global solution to eliminate the embodied carbon of cement and concrete, but there are several
different approaches for reducing these emissions on our projects. As designers we have a huge impact, and
it is our responsibility to recognise and support parts of the supply chain that are looking to make
technological advancements to improve the emissions of the cement and concrete industries. Figure 6 shows
the projected pathway to net-zero for the cement and concrete industry and all the component contributions
required to achieve net zero. For more information on the route to net zero for concrete, refer to the “GCCA
2050 Cement and Concrete Industry Roadmap for Net Zero Concrete” [25]. Published routes for the
decarbonisation of concrete heavily rely on the use of carbon capture and storage. Without the investment
and rapid development of these technologies, the routes to net zero for concrete may never be realised.

6 CO2 sink: recarbonation

5

De-carbonisisation of electricity

36
Carbon capture and utilisation/storage (CCUS)

Savings in clinker production

11

9 Savings in cement & binders

11
Efficiency in concrete production

22
Efficiency in design & construction

Figure 6
Projected pathway to net-zero for the cement and concrete industry and the different contributors to achieve net-zero before 2050
[25].

Efficiency in design
According to the GCCA 2050 Cement and Concrete Industry Roadmap for Net-Zero Concrete, ‘Efficiency in
design and construction’ is the second largest area that will impact achieving net-zero carbon emissions by
2050. As designers, we can lower our carbon impact by:
Using less: Design with the minimal amount of concrete required by revising assumptions which are often
conservative; Aiming to have maximum utilisation can also be beneficial [26]. Using less can have the
biggest cost and carbon savings on a project!
Specifying concrete more effectively: Reduce the use of CEM I/Portland cement where possible, specify
appropriate concrete grade, allow the use of alternative aggregates and admixtures within concrete [27]. This
includes precast elements.
Benchmarking concrete: Establishing carbon benchmarks for concrete is important to classify concrete by
embodied carbon. There is ongoing work around this; However, this will require cross-industry support to
standardise the measuring, reporting and benchmarking of emissions produced by different concrete mixes
[10].
Design for the future: If future changes are anticipated, trying to delay the need for any replacement/major
refurbishment can have significant long term carbon reduction [26]. Also, circular economy principles
should be incorporated into the design and detail for easy disassembly and re-use at end of life. We should
also be designing to make maintenance and repair easier.

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Reusing and refurbishing: Where possible, reusing concrete structures in-situ can have huge cost,
programme and carbon benefits. Where concrete structures cannot be reused, circular economy principles
can be implemented to maximise carbon benefits [26].
Offsite prefabrication: By exploring alternative methods such as off-site manufacture, this may have
multiple benefits including a potential decrease in carbon emissions (due to less wastage).
Generally, the concrete strength used for precast concrete is higher than for ready-mix concrete.
Additionally, the use of supplementary cementitious materials is traditionally limited, because replacing
CEM I slows down the curing process. The commercial principle in the precast factory often relies on a
quick re-use of moulds, so the precast elements need to cure quickly; Supplementary cementitious materials
are more widely used for in-situ concrete. Precast and prefabrication components are standardized for
manufacture and can have more mass (and emissions) that in-situ to accommodate production efficiencies
against material costs. Precast concrete elements may use more carbon intensive mixes and therefore a
carbon comparison in the context of the market and suppliers will be necessary for holistic understanding.

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References
[1] Global Cement and Concrete Association, “Cement and concrete around the world,” [Online].
Available: https://gccassociation.org/concretefuture/cement-concrete-around-the-world/. [Accessed 06
June 2023].

[2] The Concrete Center, “Whole-Life Carbon and Buildings,” MPA The Concrete Centre 2016, 2016.

[3] E. Sentucq and M. Clayton, “Beyond Portland cement: Low-carbon alternatives,” The Institution of
Structural Engineers.

[4] A. Nazari and J. G. Sanjayan, “Handbook of Low Carbon Concrete,” 2017.

[5] Fragkoulis Kanavaris (Arup), Karen Scrivener (EPFL), “The confused world of low-carbon concrete,”
Concrete Magazine, vol. 57, no. 3, pp. 36-39, 2023.

[6] P. Astle, “How can we reduce the embodied carbon of structural concrete?,” The Institute of Structural
Engineers, 2021.

[7] OCO Technology, “Sustainable Construction Products,” 2023. [Online]. Available:

https://oco.co.uk/sustainable-construction-products/. [Accessed June 2023].

[8] Low Carbon Materials, “OSTO - Carbon negative lightweight aggregate for carbon zero blockwork,”
2022. [Online]. Available: https://www.lowcarbonmaterials.com/products. [Accessed June 2023].

[9] “Sustainable concrete: Admixtures,” The Concrete Centre, [Online]. Available:

https://www.sustainableconcrete.org.uk/Sustainable-Concrete/What-is-Concrete/Admixtures.aspx.

[10] ICE, “Low Carbon Concrete Routemap,” 2022.

[11] K. Scrivener, F. Martirena, S. Bishnoi and S. Maity, “Calcined clay limestone cements,” in Cement and
Concrete Research, 2018.

[12] World Business Council for Sustainable Development, “Net-zero buildings: Halving construction
emissions today,” 2023.

[13] The Institution of Structural Engineers, “How to Calculate Embodied Carbon,” 2020.

[14] Arup, “Low Carbon Concrete: Practical guidance for Arup engineers,” 2019.

[15] Global Cement and Concrete Association, “Availability: Abundant, Local and Cost-effective,”
[Online]. Available: https://gccassociation.org/sustainability-benefits-of-concrete/availability/.

[16] International Trade Centre, “Trade Map,” International Trade Centre, [Online]. Available:
https://www.trademap.org/Index.aspx. [Accessed Jan 2023].

[17] Concrete Society Working Party, “Cementitious materials,” The Concrete Society, 2011.

[18] The Concrete Centre, “Specifying Sustainable Concrete - Understanding the role of constituent
materials,” www.concretecentre.com/publications, 2021.

[19] The Institute of Chartered Surveyors, “Whole life carbon assessment for the built environment,” 2017.

[20] The Institute of Structural Engineers , “How to Calculate Embodied Carbon,” 2020.

[21] O'Donoghue, “Carbonation,” The Concrete Society, 2019.

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[22] Global Cement and Concrete Association, “Circular Economy,” 2023. [Online]. Available:
https://gccassociation.org/sustainability-benefits-of-concrete/circular-economy/.

[23] The Concrete Centre, “Concrete futures: How concrete is evolving for a net-zero built environment”.

[24] The Cement Sustainibility Initiative (CSI), “Recycling Concrete,” 2009.

[25] Global Cement and Concrete Assosiation, “Concrete future: The GCCA 2050 Cement and Concrete
Industry Roadmap for Net Zero Concrete,” October 2021. [Online].

[26] M. Moynihan, “Steel, concrete and climate change,” The Institution of Structural Engineers, 2019.

[27] J. Burridge, “How to specify lower carbon concrete,” The Institution of Structural Engineers, 2020.

[28] Esri, “Ecosystem Science for Global Restoration,” in 2018 Esri User Conference Plenary, 2018.

[29] Price & Myers, “Avoiding false accounting - why correct carbon factors matter,” 2021.

[30] Z. P. V. I. B. Millward-Hopkins, “Resource recovery and low carbon transitions: The hidden impacts
of substituting cement with imported ‘waste’ materials from coal and steel production,”
Elsevier/Global Environmental Change, 2018.

Contributors
Content created by: Jo Spencer, Leonora Pilakoutas (Skanska), Fragkoulis Kanavaris, Magdalena Janota,
Orlando Gibbons, Liu Chang, Beth Lockhart, Conor Hayes, George Dalkin, Cameron Creamer, Rogier van
Reen.
Content kindly reviewed by: Grace Di Benedetto, Chris Carroll, Ed Hoare (Arup), Ryan Roberts (Holcim),
Melanie Jans-Singh (BEIS), Mike de Silva (Clancy Group), Apostolos Tsoumelekas (SCS Railways), Paul
Astle (Ramboll), Bahman Ghiassi (Birmingham University), Gareth Wake (MPA Ready-Mixed Concrete),
Michal Drewniok (Leeds University)

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