Ground Support 2013 — Y. Potvin and B.

Brady (eds)
© 2013 Australian Centre for Geomechanics, Perth, ISBN 978-0-9806154-7-0
doi:10.36487/ACG_rep/1304_05_Hadjigeorgiou

Assessment of the influence of drift orientation on

observed levels of squeezing in hard rock mines

J. Hadjigeorgiou Lassonde Institute of Mining, University of Toronto, Canada

E. Karampinos Lassonde Institute of Mining, University of Toronto, Canada
P. Turcotte Agnico-Eagle Mines Ltd., Canada
F. Mercier-Langevin Agnico-Eagle Mines Ltd., Canada

Abstract
In several deep and high stress mines, squeezing rock conditions are caused by the presence of foliation and
the orientation of the drift with respect to this foliation. This paper relies on field observations from two
hard rock mines to support the hypothesis that the angle of the drift walls, with respect to the orientation of
the foliation, has a significant influence on the level of squeezing. This study evolved by recognising that,
irrespective of the employed support system, it was difficult to maintain open drifts developed subparallel
with respect to foliation. This had a direct impact on the required rehabilitation to keep the drifts functional.
A database was constructed at the Lapa and LaRonde mines of Agnico-Eagle, recording the observed levels
of squeezing for drifts developed at varying angles with regard to foliation.

1 Introduction
A large number of underground hard rock mines are exposed to large scale deformation often referred to
as squeezing ground conditions. This has major economic and safety implications for the mining industry,
especially where deeper excavations are developed. In a mining context the Squeezing Task Force, Potvin
and Hadjigeorgiou (2008), suggested that “squeezing ground conditions are encountered when the total
displacement of an excavation or, more specifically, the drive closure, will reach at least tens of centimetres
within the life expectancy of a supported drive. In general, mine drives are designed to be in operation up
to 18 months to two years. It is also implied that in squeezing ground the resulting loads will be greater
than the capacity of a ‘stiff’ support system. This often results in significant failure of ground support and
necessitates extensive rehabilitation work.”
In deep and high stress mines, squeezing conditions are caused by the presence of foliation and the
orientation of the drift with respect to this foliation. This is supported by analytical buckling solutions,
Kazakidis (2002), physical modelling, Lin et al. (1984) and by numerical studies, Beer et al. (1981) and Hsu
et al. (2004). Although many hard rock mines around the world have problems associated with large scale
deformations, there are only few documented case studies in mining under squeezing rock conditions
(Struthers et al., 2000; Beck and Sandy, 2003; Potvin and Slade; 2007, Sandy et al., 2010; Mercier-Langevin
and Hadjigeorgiou, 2011; Vakili et al., 2012).
Ground support strategies used to control large deformations in Australia and Canada have been reviewed
by Potvin and Hadjigeorgiou (2008). It was suggested that an effective ground support system for squeezing
ground employs both reinforcement elements and surface support units. Reinforcement elements maintain
the self-supporting capacity of the rock mass surrounding the excavation by keeping together the
reinforced rock mass unit around each tendon and mitigate the rate of convergence of a drift. Surface
support is required to deform in order to accommodate the resulting high deformations while maintaining
the integrity of the reinforced rock unit.
In a mining context it was suggested that squeezing ground conditions display strain approximately greater
than 2%. High deformations are generally related to the presence of a prominent structural failure such as a

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Assessment of the influence of drift orientation on observed levels of squeezing in J. Hadjigeorgiou et al.
hard rock mines

dominant fracture set, intense foliation or a shear zone and high stress (Potvin and Hadjigeorgiou, 2008). In
addition, the host rock type, where squeezing was most dominant, was characterised by relatively weak
intact rock strength (less than 60 MPa).
Mercier-Langevin and Hadjigeorgiou (2011) reported on the development of a ‘Hard Rock Squeezing Index’
for underground mines based on case studies conducted in various mining operations and calibrated based
on in situ observations at the LaRonde mine in Quebec, Canada. This index was intended as a preliminary
indicator of the squeezing potential of a rock mass and can be potentially useful at other hard rock mines
experiencing squeezing ground conditions.

2 Mine sites
Squeezing conditions are investigated in two underground Canadian mines owned by Agnico-Eagle Mines
Ltd: LaRonde and Lapa. Both mines are located in the Abitibi region of Northwest Quebec and have to
manage large rock mass deformations that require rehabilitation of affected drifts. Of interest is that the
two mines, located 11 km from each other, provide a spectrum of squeezing ground control conditions.
The LaRonde orebody is a world-class Au-Ag-Cu-Zn massive sulphide lenses complex with reserves
extending from surface down to 3,110 m and still open at depth. The mine has been in operation since
1988. Two mining methods are used – longitudinal retreat with cemented backfill, and transverse open
stoping with cemented and unconsolidated backfill. Current production is below 940 m depth using a
2,240 m deep shaft. After the construction of an 832 m long internal shaft, new development is in progress
to establish a new production horizon in the deepest part of mine (2,930 m). Over 14 km of lateral
development has been planned in 2013 to achieve the mining plan in variable ground conditions. As the
operating depth and the stress to strength ratio increased, the behaviour of the rock mass changes has
changed from hard and brittle to soft and squeezing. In some areas of the mine, the total wall convergence
can be in excess of one meter with resulting fracturing extending up to six meters into the rock mass.
Lapa is a high grade gold mine that began production in 2009 through a 1,369 m deep shaft using two
mining methods – longitudinal retreat with cemented backfill, and locally transverse open stoping with
cemented backfill. The mine has reported squeezing conditions and efforts were made to investigate the
type of squeezing mechanism and support strategy to control large deformations (Mercier-Langevin and
Wilson, 2013).

2.1 Ground support

In comparing Australian and Canadian ground support practices in squeezing ground conditions it was
noted that the choice of surface support was different, Potvin and Hadjigeorgiou (2008). It was also
observed that Australian mines rely considerably on the use of fibrecrete while Canadian mines rely on the
use of welded screen, sometimes complemented with mesh straps. The use of in-cycle fibre reinforced
shotcrete was justified by operators as it can retard rock mass degradation and control large deformations.
Using a thick layer of shotcrete results in a support that is too stiff for squeezing ground, often requiring a
further layer of screen. This creates a composite liner that is initially stiff followed by a ductile behaviour
after the fibrecrete has cracked. The choice of reinforcement elements also varies from operation to
operation without any clear consensus.
LaRonde had reported some success in controlling closure using friction bolts. However, their capacity in
shear loading is limited. Friction bolts ‘lock up’ when buckling of foliation reaches a certain level but they
fail, usually at the collar of the bolt, when further deformation occurs. Limited success was also reported
with the use of cement grouted cable bolts, yielding cable bolts and modified cone bolts in squeezing
ground. Some success has been achieved using a hybrid bolt (Mercier-Langevin and Turcotte, 2007). The
preference for the hybrid bolts has been justified by reduction in the rehabilitation requirements as
compared to other systems. The current standard for LaRonde calls for screen brought to 0.6 m from the
ground, friction sets in the sidewalls and rebar in the back. This is complemented by the use of hybrid bolts

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and straps in the side walls Figure 1. The hybrid bolts are installed at an offset height on the south wall in
order to account for the expected deformation associated with the foliation.

Figure 1 Ground support standards for squeezing rock conditions at LaRonde

Ground support at Lapa was inspired by the success of the hybrid bolt at LaRonde. The mine employs three
standards for areas where squeezing occurs. Longer support is used in the walls, and split set bolts are
upgraded to higher capacity hybrid bolts in the very weak schist zones (ultramafic) wall(s) susceptible to
squeezing (Figure 2). In all ground support standards, screen (#6 gauge, 4.1 mm diameter) is brought within
0.6 m from the floor to prevent unravelling of the lower part of the sidewalls.

Figure 2 Ground support standards for squeezing rock conditions at Lapa: hybrid bolts are
installed in both north and south walls in the presence of ultramafic rock

The support system incorporating screen and the hybrid bolt evolved based on the advantages of the
hybrid bolt, particularly that it could be easily installed in highly fractured ground. Other considerations
were the high capacity of the bolt head and steel bar (approximately 15 tonnes) that prevented early
failure. Early trials at LaRonde demonstrated that it was successful where friction bolts failed (Figure 3).
It has been demonstrated that the introduction of the hybrid bolt in the support system resulted in a
significant reduction since 2006 in ‘purging ‘of drifts that display excessive squeezing (Figure 4). When
convergence reaches a point where wall stability is compromised or if equipment clearance is insufficient,
an 8 yard scoop-tram is used to ‘purge’ the walls, i.e. to remove excess material. This is a critical operation
and is always performed under close supervision from ground control personnel. As it is difficult to control
the amount of broken material that falls off during purging, the final size of the drift often exceeds its
original dimensions. It is then necessary to install secondary back support, such as cable bolts, in order to
stabilise the greater spans created by scaling of the side walls. This rehabilitation process is costly and time-
consuming and only used as a last resort. Another benefit was increased equipment availability for priority
development headings.

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Assessment of the influence of drift orientation on observed levels of squeezing in J. Hadjigeorgiou et al.
hard rock mines

Figure 3 Relative success of the hybrid bolt as compared to friction bolts for squeezing rock
conditions at LaRonde, after Turcotte (2010)

Figure 4 Reduction in cumulative distance purged under the 215 Level as related to the
introduction of the hybrid bolt as part of the ground support standard for squeezing
rock conditions at LaRonde (after Turcotte, 2010)

3 Mitigating the degree of squeezing

Mining experience has shown that it is not a realistic option to stop deformation in squeezing ground. It has
been demonstrated that such an approach results in frequent rehabilitation and high support costs. This
resulted in most mines pursuing a modified support strategy whereby the objective becomes one of
controlling rather than arresting the degree of drive closure squeezing. To better understand how to

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manage this deformation it is necessary to investigate the different parameters that control the squeezing
process.
At the LaRonde mine it was recognised that there was a potential advantage of modifying the drift
orientation with respect to in situ foliation (Mercier-Langevin and Turcotte, 2007). Driving haulage drifts at
a favourable angle with respect to foliation resulted in increased development per level. The cost of the
reconditioning work and associated production delays was significantly reduced.

3.1 Influence of drift orientation

This was quantified by the angle of interception (ψ) which was defined as the angle between the normal to
the foliation planes and the normal to the wall of interest (Figure 5). The influence of the angle of
interception was evident at 2,150 m depth. As shown in Figure 6, there was little evidence of squeezing
when the foliation was perpendicular to the drift orientation, relatively more severe at 45° and extreme
when foliation was parallel to the drift.

Figure 5 Definition of angle of interception (ψ), after Mercier-Langevin and Hadjigeorgiou

(2011)

a) b) c)
Figure 6 Variations in squeezing severity in three locations less than 100 m apart at 2,150 m
depth, after Mercier-Langevin and Hadjigeorgiou (2011); a) perpendicular – no
squeezing; b) 45 degrees – minor or no squeezing; c) parallel – severe squeezing

This had significant ramifications on the performance of the ground support systems employed at the
LaRonde Mine. A first approach to quantify the impact of drift orientation was made by Mercier-Langevin
(2005). Based on 23 field observations in drifts at the LaRonde mine the degree of squeezing was defined
based the observed level of damage to the support, the angle of interception between the foliation and the
effect of stress on the resulting excavation convergence. In drifts developed sub-parallel with respect to
foliation, it was recognised that irrespective of the employed support system it was difficult to maintain the
drifts open and it was necessary to resort to regular rehabilitation to keep the drifts functional
(Mercier-Langevin and Hadjigeorgiou, 2011). Drifts developed at varying angles with regards to foliation,
displayed different levels of squeezing. This orientation phenomenon is supported by a mechanistic
analysis. Auto confinement of foliation planes is greater when the angle between the normal to the free

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Assessment of the influence of drift orientation on observed levels of squeezing in J. Hadjigeorgiou et al.
hard rock mines

face and the normal to the foliation increases. It is recognised that even a small confinement is sufficient to
inhibit buckling failure of the slabs. Kazakidis (2002) demonstrated that a relatively low confining pressure
could be sufficient to prevent buckling failure of bedding planes.

3.2 Updated database investigating the influence of drift orientation

The original database was extended from case studies at both LaRonde and Lapa Mines, 41 case studies
from LaRonde and 22 case studies from Lapa. The following parameters were recorded: the angle of
interception (ψ); the dip angle of the foliation; the observed damage; the development date; the stress
effect due to mining activity; the support system used; the additional support installed and the presence of
water. Any rehabilitation or purging was recorded. Some of the drifts were surveyed using the cavity
monitoring survey (CMS) instrument CMS V400 (Optech Incorporated, 2010). In drifts where a CMS survey
was not available, a laser distance measurer was used to measure the distance between the two sidewalls
at 1.5 and 2.5 m height, as shown in Figure 7. A 3D survey of each drift is available at the mine. This is
produced by surveying one point at the back, the floor and each sidewall.
Ventilation Pipes
Footwall Hangingwall

Profile recorded from the

cavity monitoring survey

4.87 m
3D survey of the drift after
development 5.0 m (measured distance)

Designed profile 5.1 m (measured distance)

2.5 m
1.5 m

5.26 m

Figure 7 Determination of sidewall convergence

3.3 Quantifying observed convergence

In earlier work at the mine the observed convergence was recorded in a qualitative way. In recent work this
has been supplanted by quantitative records. The total sidewall convergence (δ) is defined as the difference
between the lowest measured sidewall distance and the surveyed width (L). The total sidewall convergence
was expressed as % strain (ε):

(1)
There are practical considerations in interpreting these field data. For example it is noted that if a drift
closes to near 3.5 m it is purged as the convergence renders its non-operational for equipment.
Consequently a value of 3.5 m was used as the lowest distance measured. Although the data collection is
still in progress a working classification for squeezing in a hard rock mining environment has been
proposed:
 No or low squeezing (0% < ε < 5%).
 Moderate squeezing (5% < ε < 10%).
 Pronounced squeezing or rehabilitated drifts (10% < ε < 35%).

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 Extreme squeezing (35% < ε).

These strain ranges differ from other published work in civil engineering tunnelling applications
summarised by Potvin and Hadjigeorgiou (2008). The reason for this is a higher tolerance for rock mass
failure (and its associated rehabilitation) that is accepted by mining operators. Figure 8 provides examples
of squeezing observed at both Lapa and LaRonde mines.

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Assessment of the influence of drift orientation on observed levels of squeezing in J. Hadjigeorgiou et al.
hard rock mines

No squeezing Low squeezing; bolts take load

Moderate squeezing; convergence Extreme squeezing

Rehabilitated drift Purged drift

Figure 8 Examples of drifts subjected to squeezing at the LaRonde and Lapa mines

The influence of angle of interception (ψ) on resulting sidewall strain at the LaRonde and Lapa mines is
illustrated in Figure 9. This diagram captures only part of the salient behaviour in that the data are

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controlled by the time that the readings were made and that there are operational constraints that do not
allow for a drift to close to a width smaller than 3.5 m. Nevertheless, there are definite indications that
increasing the drift angle of interception with respect to foliation will invariably reduce the degree of
squeezing. In the absence of a ground support system that can control pronounced and extreme squeezing
in a mining context these results make a strong case for exploring changes in the orientation development.
This has been an opportunity at LaRonde, while it has been more challenging at Lapa. The reason is the
mining method at Lapa that allows less flexibility.

Figure 9 Influence of angle of interception (ψ) on resulting sidewall strain at the LaRonde and
Lapa mines

Given the limitations of the results shown in Figure 9, it is suggested that there is a need to better define
and capture the transition between the various squeezing zones. This can potentially be achieved by
complementing field observations with parametric numerical studies.

4 Conclusions
In a mining environment, the threshold of what is considered acceptable squeezing is significantly higher
than in civil engineering tunnelling operations. This allows more flexibility to operators. On the other hand,
mines have to work with what are considerably higher constraints in the choice of economic support.
Squeezing ground conditions in mines are characterised by significant failure of ground support systems
that often necessitates considerable rehabilitation work.
The LaRonde and Lapa mines are employing similar support strategies aiming in managing squeezing
ground conditions as opposed to stopping deformation, which is not a realistic option in a mining context.
This paper summarises on-going work on quantifying the influence of the angle of interception between
the drift and the inherent foliation. Selecting an appropriate angle of interception can result in a more
manageable squeezing level which can arguably increase the performance of a suitable support system for
squeezing rock conditions. This, however, may not always be a practical option in a mining operation. This
work also contributes to the fine tuning, validation and extension of the Squeezing Index that has been
proposed by Mercier-Langevin and Hadjigeorgiou (2011).

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Acknowledgement
The authors acknowledge the support of Agnico-Eagle Mines, Division LaRonde and Lapa and the Natural
Science and Engineering Research Council of Canada.

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