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What is Deep Learning and How

does it work?
Learn the most important Basics of Deep Learning and Neural
Networks in this detailed Tutorial.

Artem Oppermann Nov 13, 2019 · 17 min read

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This is a beginner’s guide to Deep Learning and Neural networks. In

the following article, we are going to discuss the meaning of Deep
Learning and Neural Networks. In particular, we will focus on how
Deep Learning works in practice.

If you liked the article and want to share your thoughts, ask questions
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or stay in touch feel free to connect with me via LinkedIn.

Table of Content
1. What exactly is Deep Learning?

2. Why is Deep Learning so popular these Days?

3. Biological Neural Networks

4. Artificial Neural Networks

5. Neural Network Architecture

6. Layer Connections

7. Learning Process in a Neural Network

8. Loss Functions

9. Gradient Descent

Have you ever wondered how Google’s translator App is able to translate
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entire paragraphs from one language into another in a matter of

milliseconds?

How Netflix and YouTube are able to figure out our taste in movies or
videos and give us appropriate recommendations?

Or how self-driving cars are even possible?

All of this is a product of Deep Learning and Artificial Neural Networks. The
definition of Deep Learning and Neural networks will be addressed in the
following.

Lets us begin with the definition of Deep Learning first.

1. What exactly is Deep Learning?

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Deep Learning is a subset of Machine Learning, which on the other hand is

a subset of Artificial Intelligence. Artificial Intelligence is a general term
that refers to techniques that enable computers to mimic human behavior.
Machine Learning represents a set of algorithms trained on data that make
all of this possible.

AI. vs ML. vs DL.

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Deep Learning, on the other hand, is just a type of Machine Learning,

inspired by the structure of a human brain. Deep learning algorithms
attempt to draw similar conclusions as humans would by continually
analyzing data with a given logical structure. To achieve this, deep learning
uses a multi-layered structure of algorithms called neural networks.

A typical Neural Network.

The design of the neural network is based on the structure of the human
brain. Just as we use our brains to identify patterns and classify different
types of information, neural networks can be taught to perform the same
tasks on data.

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The individual layers of neural networks can also be thought of as a sort of

filter that works from gross to subtle, increasing the likelihood of detecting
and outputting a correct result.

The human brain works similarly. Whenever we receive new information,

the brain tries to compare it with known objects. The same concept is also
used by deep neural networks.

Neural networks enable us to perform many tasks, such as clustering,

classification or regression. With neural networks, we can group or sort
unlabeled data according to similarities among the samples in this data. Or
in the case of classification, we can train the network on a labeled dataset in
order to classify the samples in this dataset into different categories.

In general, neural networks can perform the same tasks as classical algorithms
of machine learning. However, it is not the other way around.

Artificial neural networks have unique capabilities that enable deep

learning models to solve tasks that machine learning models can never
solve.

All recent advances in artificial intelligence in recent years are due to deep
learning. Without deep learning, we would not have self-driving cars,
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chatbots or personal assistants like Alexa and Siri. The Google Translate
app would continue to be as primitive as 10 years ago (before Google
switched to neural networks for this App), and Netflix or Youtube would
have no idea which movies or TV series we like or dislike. Behind all these
technologies are neural networks.

We can even go so far as to say that today a new industrial revolution is

taking place, driven by artificial neural networks and deep learning.

At the end of the day, deep learning is the best and most obvious approach
to real machine intelligence we’ve had so far.

2. Why is Deep Learning is Popular these Days?

Why is deep learning and artificial neural networks so powerful and unique
in today’s industry? And above all, why are deep learning models more
powerful than machine learning models? Let me explain it to you.

The first advantage of deep learning over machine learning is the needlessness
of the so-called feature extraction.

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Long before deep learning was used, traditional machine learning methods
were mainly used. Such as Decision Trees, SVM, Naïve Bayes Classifier and
Logistic Regression.

These algorithms are also called flat algorithms. Flat here means that these
algorithms can not normally be applied directly to the raw data (such as
.csv, images, text, etc.). We need a preprocessing step called Feature
Extraction.

The result of Feature Extraction is a representation of the given raw data

that can now be used by these classic machine learning algorithms to
perform a task. For example, the classification of the data into several
categories or classes.

Feature Extraction is usually quite complex and requires detailed

knowledge of the problem domain. This preprocessing layer must be
adapted, tested and refined over several iterations for optimal results.

On the other side are the artificial neural networks of Deep Learning.
These do not need the Feature Extraction step.

The layers are able to learn an implicit representation of the raw data
directly and on their own. Here, a more and more abstract and compressed
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representation of the raw data is produced over several layers of an

artificial neural-nets. This compressed representation of the input data is
then used to produce the result. The result can be, for example, the
classification of the input data into different classes.

Feature Extraction is only required for ML Algorithms.

In other words, we can also say that the feature extraction step is already part
of the process that takes place in an artificial neural network.

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During the training process, this step is also optimized by the neural
network to obtain the best possible abstract representation of the input
data. This means that the models of deep learning thus require little to no
manual effort to perform and optimize the feature extraction process.

Let us look at a concrete example. For example, if you want to use a

machine learning model to determine if a particular image is showing a car
or not, we humans first need to identify the unique features or features of a
car (shape, size, windows, wheels, etc.) extract the feature and give them to
the algorithm as input data.

In this way, the algorithm would perform a classification of the images.

That is, in machine learning, a programmer must intervene directly in the
action for the model to come to a conclusion.

In the case of a deep learning model, the feature extraction step is

completely unnecessary. The model would recognize these unique
characteristics of a car and make correct predictions.

That completely without the help of a human.

In fact, refraining from extracting the characteristics of data applies to

every other task you’ll ever do with neural networks. Just give the raw data
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to the neural network, the rest is done by the model.

The Era of Big Data…

The second huge advantage of Deep Learning and a key part in
understanding why it’s becoming so popular is that it’s powered by massive
amounts of data. The “Big Data Era” of technology will provide huge
amounts of opportunities for new innovations in deep learning. As per
Andrew Ng, the chief scientist of China’s major search engine Baidu and
one of the leaders of the Google Brain Project,

“The analogy to deep learning is that the rocket engine is the deep learning
models and the fuel is the huge amounts of data we can feed to these
algorithms.”

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Deep Learning Algorithms get better with the increasing amount of data.

Deep Learning models tend to increase their accuracy with the increasing
amount of training data, where’s traditional machine learning models such
as SVM and Naive Bayes classifier stop improving after a saturation point.

3. Biological Neural Networks

Before we move any further with artificial neural networks I would like to
introduce the concept behind biological neural networks, so when we will
later discuss the artificial neural network in more detail we can see parallels
with the biological model.

Artificial neural networks are inspired by the biological neurons that are
found in our brains. In fact, the artificial neural networks simulate some
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basic functionalities of the neural networks in our brain, but in a very

simplified way. Let’s first look at the biological neural networks to derive
parallels to artificial neural networks. In short, a biological neural network
consists of numerous neurons.

A Model of a biological Neural Network.

A typical neuron consists of a cell body, dendrites, and an axon. Dendrites

are thin structures that emerge from the cell body. An axon is a cellular
extension that emerges from this cell body. Most neurons receive signals
through the dendrites and send out signals along the axon.
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At the majority of synapses, signals cross from the axon of one neuron to
the dendrite of another. All neurons are electrically excitable due to the
maintenance of voltage gradients in their membranes. If the voltage
changes by a large enough amount over a short interval, the neuron
generates an electrochemical pulse called an action potential. This potential
travels rapidly along the axon and activates synaptic connections as it
reaches them.

4. Artificial Neural Networks

Now that we have a basic understanding of how biological neural networks
are functioning, let’s finally take a look at the architecture of the artificial
neural network.

A neural network generally consists of a collection of connected units or

nodes. We call these nodes neurons. These artificial neurons loosely model
the biological neurons of our brain.

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An artificial Feedforward Neural Network.

A neuron is simply a graphical representation of a numeric value (e.g. 1.2,

5.0, 42.0, 0.25, etc.). Any connection between two artificial neurons can be
considered as an axon in a real biological brain.

The connections between the neurons are realized by so-called weights,

which are also nothing more than numerical values

When an artificial neural network learns, the weights between neurons

are changing and so does the strength of the connection Meaning: Given
training data and a particular task such as classification of numbers, we are
looking for certain set weights that allow the neural network to perform the
classification. The set of weights is different for every task and every
dataset. We can not predict the values of these weights in advance, but the

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neural network has to learn them. The process of learning we also call as
training.

PS: You are halfway through — - nice :)

5. Typical Neural Network Architecture

The typical neural network architecture consists of several layers. We call
the first layer as the input layer.

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The input layer receives the input x, data from which the neural network
learns. In our previous example of classification of handwritten numbers,
these input x would represent the images of these numbers ( x is basically
an entire vector where each entry is a pixel).

The input layer has the same number of neurons as there are entries in the
vector x. Meaning: each input neuron represents one element in the vector
x.

Structure of a Feedforward Neural Network.

The last layer is called the output layer, which outputs a vector y
representing the result that the neural network came up with. The entries in
this vector represent the values of the neurons in the output layer. In our
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case of classification, each neuron in the last layer would represent a

different class.

In this case, the value of an output neuron gives the probability that the
handwritten digit given by the features x belongs to one of the possible
classes (one of the digits 0–9). As you can imagine the number of output
neurons must be the same as there are classes.

In order to obtain a prediction vector y, the network must perform certain

mathematical operations. These operations are performed in the layers
between the input and output layers. We call these layers the hidden layers.
Now lets us discuss how the connections between the layers look like.

6. Layer Connections in a Neural Network

Please consider a smaller example of a neural network that consists of only
two layers. The input layer has two input neurons, while the output layer
consists of three neurons.

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Layer Connections

As mentioned earlier: each connection between two neurons is

represented by a numerical value, which we call weight.

As you can see in the picture, each connection between two neurons is
represented by a different weight w. Each of these weight w has indices.
The first value of the indices stands for the number of neurons in the layer
from which the connection originates, the second value for the number of
the neurons in the layer to which the connection leads.

All weights between two neural network layers can be represented by a

matrix called the weight matrix.
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A weight matrix.

A weight matrix has the same number of entries as there are connections
between neurons. The dimensions of a weight matrix result from the sizes
of the two layers that are connected by this weight matrix.

The number of rows corresponds to the number of neurons in the layer

from which the connections originate and the number of columns
corresponds to the number of neurons in the layer to which the connections
lead.

In this particular example, the number of rows of the weight matrix

corresponds to the size of the input layer which is two and the number of
columns to the size of the output layer which is three.

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7. Learning Process of a Neural Network

Now that we understand the neural network architecture better, we can
intuitively study the learning process. Let us do it step by step. The first step
is already known to you.

For a given input feature vector x, the neural network calculates a

prediction vector, which we call here as h.

Forward Propagation.

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This step is also referred to as the forward propagation. With the input
vector x and the weight matrix W connecting the two neuron layers, we
compute the dot product between the vector x and the matrix W.

The result of this dot product is again a vector, which we call

Equations for Forward Propagation.

z. The final prediction vector h is obtained by applying a so-called

activation function to the vector z. In this case, the activation function is
represented by the letter Sigma. An activation function is only a nonlinear
function that performs a nonlinear mapping from z to h.

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There are 3 activation functions that are used in Deep Learning, which are
tanh, sigmoid, and ReLu.

At this point, you may recognize the meaning behind neurons in a neural
network. A neuron is simply a representation of a numeric value.

Let’s take a closer look at vector z for a moment. As you can see, each
element of z consists of the input vector x. At this point, the role of the
weights unfolds beautifully. A value of a neuron in a layer consists of a
linear combination of neuron values of the previous layer weighted by some
numeric values.

These numerical values are the weights that tell us how strongly these neurons
are connected with each other.

During training, these weights are adjusted, some neurons become more
connected, some neurons become less connected. As in a biological neural
network, learning means the alteration of weights. Accordingly, the
values of z, h and the final output vector y are changing with the weights.
Some weights make the predictions of a neural network us closer to the
actual ground truth vector y_hat, some weights increase the distance to the
ground truth vector.

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Now that we know how the mathematical calculations between two neural
network layers look like, we can extend our knowledge to a deeper
architecture that consists of 5 layers.

Same as before we calculate the dot product between the input x and the
first weight matrix W1 and apply an activation function to the resulting
vector to obtain the first hidden vector h1. h1 is now considered as the
input for the upcoming third layer. The whole procedure from before is
repeated until we obtain the final output y:

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Equations for Forward Propagation

You still here?? Nice!!

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8. Loss Functions
After we get the prediction of the neural network, in the second step we
must compare this prediction vector to the actual ground truth label. We
call the ground truth label as vector y_hat.

While the vector y contains the predictions that the neural network has
computed during the forward propagation (and which may, in fact, be very
different from the actual values), the vector y_hat contains the actual
values.

Mathematically, we can measure the difference between y and y_hat by

defining a loss function which value depends on this difference.

An example of a general loss function is the quadratic loss:

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Quadratic Loss.

The value of this loss function depends on the difference between y_hat
and y. A higher difference means a higher loss value, a smaller difference
means a smaller loss value.

Minimizing the loss function directly leads to more accurate

predictions of the neural network, as the difference between the
prediction and the label decreases.

Minimizing the loss function automatically causes the neural network

model to make better predictions regardless of the exact characteristics of
the task at hand. You only have to select the right loss function for the task.
Fortunately, there are only two loss functions that you should know about
to solve almost any problem that you encounter in practice.

These loss-functions are the Cross-Entropy Loss:

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Cross-Entropy Loss Function.

and the Mean Squared Error Loss:

Mean Squared Error Loss Function.

Since the loss depends on the weights, we must find a certain set of
weights for which the value of the loss function is as small as possible. The
method of minimizing the loss function is achieved mathematically by a
method called gradient descent

9. Gradient Descent

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During gradient descent, we use the gradient of a loss function (or in other
words the derivative of the loss function) to improve the weights of a neural
network.

To understand the basic concept of the gradient descent process, let us

consider a very basic example of a neural network consisting of only one
input and one output neuron connected by a weight value w.

Simple Neural Network.

This neural network receives an input x and outputs a prediction y. Let say
the initial weight value of this neural network is 5 and the input x is 2.
Therefore the prediction y of this network has a value of 10, while the label
y_hat might have a value of 6.

Parameters and Predictions.

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This means that the prediction is not accurate and we must use the gradient
descent method to find a new weight value that causes the neural network
to make the correct prediction. In the first step, we must choose a loss
function for the task. Let’s take the quadratic loss that I have defined earlier
and plot this function, which basically is just a quadratic function:

Quadratic Loss Function.

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The y-axis is the loss value which depends on the difference between the
label and the prediction, and thus the network parameters, in this case, the
one weight w. The x-axis represents the values for this weight. As you can
see there is a certain weight w for which the loss function reaches a global
minimum. This value is the optimal weight parameter that would cause the
neural network to make the correct prediction which is 6. In this case, the
value for the optimal weight would be 3:

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Initial Weight Value.

Our initial weight, on the other hand, is 5, which leads to a fairly high loss.
The goal now is to repeatedly update the weight parameter until we
reach the optimal value for that particular weight. This is the time when we
need to use the gradient of the loss function. Fortunately, in this case, the
loss function is a function of one single variable, which is the weight w:

Loss Function.

In the next step, we calculate the derivative of the loss function with respect
to this parameter:

Gradient of the loss function.

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In the end, we get a result of 8, which gives us the value of the slope or the
tangent of the loss function for the corresponding point on the x-axis at
which our initial weight lies.

This tangent points towards the highest rate of increase of the loss function
and the corresponding weight parameters on the x-axis.

This means that we have just used the gradient of the loss function to find
out which weight parameters would result in an even higher loss value. But
what we want to know is the exact opposite. We can get what we want, if
we multiply the gradient by minus 1 and this way obtain the opposite
direction of the gradient. This way we get the direction of the highest rate
of decrease of the loss function and the corresponding parameters on the x-
axis that cause this decrease:

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In the final step, we perform one gradient descent step as an attempt to

improve our wights. We use this negative gradient to update your current
weight in the direction of the weights for which the value of the loss
function decreases according to the negative gradient:

Gradient Descent Step.

Gradient Descent Step.

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The factor epsilon in this equation is a hyperparameter called the learning

rate. The learning rate determines how quickly or how slowly you want to
update the parameters. Please keep in mind that the learning rate is the
factor with which we have to multiply the negative gradient and that the
learning rate is usually quite small. In our case, the learning rate is 0.1.

As you can see, our weight w after the gradient descent is now 4.2 and
closer to the optimal weight than it was before the gradient step.

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New Weights after Gradient Descent.

The value of the loss function for the new weight value is also smaller,
which means that the neural network is now capable to do a better
prediction. You can do the calculation in your head and see that the new
prediction is, in fact, closer to the label than before.

Each time we are performing the update of the weights, we move down the
negative gradient towards the optimal weights.

After each gradient descent step or weight update, the current weights of
the network get closer and closer to the optimal weights until we eventually
reach them and the neural network will be capable to do the predictions we
want to make.

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