Current

• Current is the rate of flow of charge across a cross-section normal to the

direction of flow of current.
Current (I) = Charge(Q)/Time(t)
• It is a scalar quantity. Its SI unit is ampere (A).
• Current is one ampere if the rate of flow of charge is one coulomb per
second.
• If n electrons pass through the cross-section of a conductor in time t, then
the total charge passed through the conductor is given as Q = ne, and
current in the conductor is given as I = Q/t = ne/t

Concept of Potential and Potential Difference

• The conductor with higher concentration of electrons is said to be at a

lower potential, and the conductor with lower concentration of electrons is
said to be at a higher potential.
• The electrons flow from a body at a lower potential to a body at a higher
potential.
• Potential is the electrical state of a conductor which determines the
direction of flow of charge when the two conductors are either kept in
contact or joined by a metallic wire.
• The electric current flows from a body at a higher potential to a body at a
lower potential, and this is called conventional current. This direction is
opposite to the direction of flow of electrons which is called electronic
current.

Measurement of Potential as Work Done Per Unit Charge

• The potential at a point is defined as the work done in bringing a unit

positive charge from infinity to that point.
Potential difference = (Work done)/(Charge)
V = W/Q
• The potential difference between two points is said to be 1 volt if the work
done in bringing 1 coulomb of charge from infinity to the point is 1 joule.
• The potential difference between two points is equal to the work done in
moving a unit positive charge from one point to the other.
VA – VB = W/Q
• It is a scalar quantity. Its SI unit is also volt (V).

Concept of Resistance
 • There is always some obstruction in the current which flows through a
conductor like a metal wire, and this obstruction is called its electrical
resistance.
• The current in the circuit flows due to the drift of electrons. The metal wire
has free electrons which move in a random manner.
• When the ends of a wire are connected to a cell, the electrons start moving
from the negative terminal to the positive terminal. In this process, they
collide with the positive ions, and due to this, the speed of electrons
decreases. Thus, the metal offers resistance to the flow of electrons because
of these collisions.

The resistance of a conductor depends on four factors:

1. Length of the conductor:
Resistance (R) ∝ length (l)
2. Thickness of the conductor:
Resistance (R) ∝ 1/(Area of cross-section (A))
3. Nature of the conductor: The resistance depends )on the material of the
wire as there is different concentration and different arrangement of
atoms in different materials.
4. Temperature of the wire: A higher temperature of the wire causes the ions
in it to vibrate more rapidly. As a result, the number of collisions
increases, and hence, the resistance increases.

Ohm’s Law
Ohm’s law: The current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to
the potential difference V across its ends provided the temperature and physical
conditions of the conductor remain the same.

I∝V

V = IR

• R is constant for a given metallic wire at a given temperature, and this

constant is named as resistance.
 • Its SI unit is ohm and is denoted as Ω.
• If we plot the I–V graph for a conductor, then it shows a linear nature.

• The slope of the graph is the reciprocal of the resistance of the conductor.
Slope = ΔI/ ΔV = 1/(Resistance of conductor)
• Conductance: It is defined as the reciprocal of resistance.
Conductance = 1/Resistance of conductor
Conductance = 1/Resistance
• Hence, the slope of the I–V graph gives the conductance of the conductor.

Ohmic and Non-ohmic Resistors

• Ohmic resistors: The conductors which obey Ohm's law are called ohmic
resistors or linear resistances.
For such resistors, a graph plotted for the potential difference V against
the current I is a straight line, and the value of resistance R is the same
irrespective of the value of V or I.
• Non-ohmic resistors: The conductors which do not obey Ohm's law are
called non-ohmic resistors or non-linear resistances.
For these devices, the graph plotted for the potential difference V against the
current I is not a straight line, but it is a curve.

• Superconductors: A superconductor is a substance of zero resistance (or

infinite conductance) at a very low temperature.
The superconductors can be very useful provided it is possible to obtain
them at room temperature. The size of computers could then be reduced to
a few centimetres and power lines could then be made as thin as a single
cable.
Specific Resistance or Resistivity
The resistance of a wire depends on the following factors:

1. Directly proportional to the length (l) of the wire

2. Inversely proportional to the area of cross-section of the wire
3. Nature of the material of the wire

R ∝ l/A

R = ρ. l/πr2

• Here, ρ is the constant of proportionality and is called the electrical

resistivity or specific resistance of the material of the wire.
• The resistivity will be given as
ρ = RA/l
• Resistivity is the resistance of a wire of that material of unit length and
unit area of cross-section.
• Its SI unit is ohm-metre (Ω m).
• Conductivity: The reciprocal of resistivity is called conductivity. It is
represented by σ.
σ = 1/ρ = 1/RA
• Its SI unit is ohm−1 metre−1 or siemen metre−1.

Choice of Material of Wire

The choice of material of a wire depends on the purpose for which the wire is to
be used.

1. The wires which are used for electrical connections and power
transmission should possess negligible resistance.
2. The resistance wires (or standard resistors) are made of materials such as
nichrome, manganin, constantan etc., for which the resistivity is quite
large and the effect of change in temperature on their resistance is
negligible.
3. A fuse wire is made from an alloy of lead and tin because its resistivity is
high and melting point is low.
4. A wire made of tungsten is used for the filament of an electric bulb because
it has a high melting point and high resistivity.
5. A nichrome wire is used as the heating element in appliances such as a
heater, toaster and oven, because the resistivity of nichrome is very high
and increase in its value with increase in temperature is also high.
Electromotive Force, Terminal Voltage and Internal Resistance of a
Cell
• When no current is drawn from a cell, i.e. when the cell is in open circuit,
the potential difference between the terminals of the cell is called its
electromotive force (emf).
• The emf of a cell is denoted by the symbol ε (epsilon). Its unit is volt (V).

Factors Affecting the EMF of a Cell

• The emf of a cell is the characteristic of the cell. It is different for different
kinds of cells.
• The emf of a cell depends on
・Material of the electrodes
・Electrolyte used in the cell
• It is independent of
・Shape of electrodes
・Distance between the electrodes
・Amount of electrolyte
• The emf of a cell is also defined as the energy spent (or work done) per unit
charge in taking a positive charge around the complete circuit of the cell.
ε = W/q0

Terminal Voltage of a Cell

• When current is drawn from a cell, i.e. when the cell is in a closed circuit,
the potential difference between the electrodes of the cell is called its
terminal voltage.
• The terminal voltage of a cell is denoted by the letter V. It is also expressed
in volt (V).
• The terminal voltage of a cell is defined as the work done per unit charge in
carrying a positive charge around the circuit connected across the
terminals of the cell.
V = W’/q0
• The terminal voltage V of a cell is less than its emf ε by the amount of
energy spent in the flow of unit positive charge (taking q0 = 1 C) through
the electrolyte inside the cell.
ε=V+v
• When a larger current is drawn from the cell, a greater number of charge
carriers flows through the electrolyte, and hence, more work is done. This
results in more voltage drop v and hence less terminal voltage V.
Internal Resistance of a Cell

• When current is drawn from a cell, it flows from the anode to the cathode
in the external circuit and from the cathode to the anode inside the cell
through the electrolyte so as to maintain a continuous flow.
• The resistance offered by the electrolyte inside the cell to the flow of
current is called the internal resistance of the cell. It is denoted by r. Its
unit is ohm Ω.
• When current I is drawn from the cell of which the internal resistance is r,
the voltage drop is v = Ir

Relationship between the emf, terminal voltage and internal

resistance
r = v/l = ε – V/l = (ε – V)/(V/R) = (ε/V – 1)R

Factors affecting the internal resistance of a cell: The internal resistance of a

cell depends on the following four factors:

1. Surface area of the electrodes

2. Distance between the electrodes
3. Nature and concentration of the electrolyte
4. Temperature of the electrolyte

Resistors in Series

• The current in series remains the same across all the resistors.
• The resultant resistance of the circuit is given as
RS = R1 + R2 + R3
 • Here, Rs is the resultant resistance. The resultant resistance is greater than
all the resistances.

Resistors in Parallel

The potential difference in parallel remains the same across all the resistors.
The resultant resistance of the circuit is given as
1/RP = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3
Here, Rp is the resultant resistance. The resultant resistance is lesser than all
the resistances.

Electrical power : Rate of doing work

Electric power is the rate at which work is done or energy is transformed into
an electrical circuit. Simply put, it is a measure of how much energy is used in a
span of time.
Measurement of electrical energy, W = QV = VIt (from the definition of pd. )
Combining with ohm’s law W = VIt = I2 Rt = (V2 t /R) and
Electrical power P = (W/t) = VI = I2 R = V2 /R.
Units: SI and commercial

Power Rating of Common Appliances

The electrical appliances such as electric bulb, geyser bulb, heater, etc., are
rated with power and voltage. We calculate the two quantities such as:
(1) the resistance of the filament of the bulb (coil)
R= V²/ P = (Voltage rating of appliances)² / Power rating of appliance

(ii) Safe limit of current through the filament of the bulb (coil)
I = P/V = Power rating of appliance / Voltage rating of appliance
Household Consumption of Electrical Energy

The electrical energy consumed by a household appliance in a certain time (t) is

calculated in kWh using the following relation.
Energy (in kWh) = Power (in kW) x Time (in hour)

= Power (in watt) x Time (in hour) / 1000 = V(volt) x I (ampere) x t (hour) /
1000
Cost of electricity = Energy consumed (in kWh) x Rate in rupees per unit.

Heating Effect

The heat produced in a wire on passing current through it is called heating

effect of current. It is expressed by H = I² Rt (in joule) = 0.241² Rt (in cal) This is
known as Joule's law of heating.