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General Chemistry 100 1st Quarter, 1st Semester

Instructor: Jay M. Cavan Lecture Notes No. 4

Topics: Electronic Structure and Periodicity

I. The Periodic Table
II. Electron Configuration and the Periodic Law
III. Periodic Variation in Atomic Properties

Learning Competencies:
At the end of the session, the students will be able to:
I. Relate the number of valence electrons of elements to their group number in
the periodic table
II. Explain the periodic recurrence of similar properties among elements in the
periodic table in terms of electronic structure
III. Describe and explain the trends in atomic properties in the periodic table

Concepts:
I. The Periodic Table

Periodic table is a tabular arrangement of the elements

in order of increasing atomic number such that elements
having similar chemical properties are positioned in
vertical columns. Within the table, each element is
represented by a rectangular box that contains the
symbol, atomic number and atomic mass of the element.
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Using the information on a periodic table, one can quickly determine the number of
protons and electrons for atoms of an element. However, no information concerning
neutrons is available from a periodic table; mass numbers are not part of the information
given because they are not unique to an element. The location of element within the
periodic table is specified by giving its period number and group number.
• Period is a horizontal row of elements in the periodic table. For identification
purposes, the periods are numbered sequentially with Arabic numbers, starting at
the top of the periodic table.
• Group is vertical column of elements in the periodic table. Elements in the same
group have the same chemical properties. There are two notations in use for
designating individual periodic-table groups.
o Roman numerals and the letters A and B
o Arabic numbers (1 through 18)

The elements can be classified in several ways. The two most common classification
system are the following:
• A system based on selected physical properties of elements.
o Metal is an element that has the characteristic properties of luster, thermal
conductivity, electrical conductivity, and malleability.
o Nonmetal is an element characterized by the absence of the properties of
luster, thermal conductivity, electrical conductivity, and malleability.
o Metalloids are elements which have the properties of both metals and
nonmetals.

Selected Physical Properties of Metals and Nonmetals

Metals Nonmetals
High electrical conductivity that decreases Poor electrical conductivity (except carbon
with increasing temperature in the form of graphite)
High thermal conductivity Good heat insulators (except carbon in the
form of diamond)
*
Metallic gray or silver luster No metallic luster
Almost all are solids** Solids, liquids, or gases
Malleable (can be hammered into sheets) Brittle in solid state
Ductile (can be drawn into wires) Nonductile
* Except mercury
** Except mercury; cesium and gallium melt when held in a person’s hand
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• A system based on the electron configurations of the elements with the use of
distinguishing electron which is the last electron added to the electron configuration
for an element when electrons subshells are filled in order of increasing energy. 1
o Noble-gas element is an element located in the far-right column of the
periodic table. These elements have little tendency to form chemical
compounds. With one exception (helium’s electron configuration is 1s2), the
distinguishing electron for a noble gas completes the p subshell.
o Representative element (main group element) is an element located in the
s area or the first five columns of the p area of the periodic table. The
distinguishing electron in these elements partially or completely fills an s
subshell or partially fills a p subshell.
o Transition element is an element located in the d area of the periodic table.
Each has its distinguishing electron in a d subshell. All the transition
elements are metals.
o Inner transition element is an element located in the f area of the periodic
table. Each has its distinguishing electron in an f subshell. All of the inner
transition elements are metals.

1 In the book of Chang and Stoker, noble gases are not considered as representative
elements. However, it is important to note that in some books (e.g., Zumdahl and
Padolina), the noble-gas elements (Group 8A) are labeled as representative elements.
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II. Electron Configuration and The Periodic Law

Periodic law states that when elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic
number, elements with similar chemical properties occur at periodic (regularly recurring)
intervals. The periodic law points out that the properties of the elements repeat
themselves in a regular manner when the elements are arranged in order of increasing
atomic number. The elements that have similar chemical properties are placed under one
another in vertical columns (group) in the periodic table.
Groups of elements have similar chemical properties because electron
configurations repeat themselves in a regular manner among the elements. To illustrate
this correlation between similar chemical properties and similar electron configuration, let
us look at the electron configurations of two groups of elements known to have similar
chemical properties.

Group IA Group 7A
Li (Z=3) 1s2 2s1 F (Z=9) 1s2 2s2 2p5
Na (Z=11) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 Cl (Z=17) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5
K (Z=19) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 Br (Z=35) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p5
Rb (Z=37) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 I (Z=53) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10
4p6 5s1 4p6 5s2 4d10 5p5
Cs (Z=55) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 At (Z=85) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10
4p6 5s2 4d10 5p6 6s1 4p6 5s2 4d10 5p6 6s2 4f14 5d10 6p5
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Note that each of these elements under the same group have the same number of
electrons in its outermost shell. The outermost shell (valence shell) is the shell with the
highest number. This similarity in outer-shell electron arrangements causes these
elements to have similar chemical properties since electrons found in the outermost shell
(valence electrons) are the ones that interact when atoms form bonds with one another.

For representative elements and noble-gas elements, the valence electrons are those in
the s and p subshells of the highest energy level or shell. The number of valence electrons
is the same as the group number (Roman numerals with letters notation) of the element.
Below are the examples.
Na (Z=11) - 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1. Sodium (Group 1A) has 1 valence electron.
Kr (Z=36) - 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6. Krypton (Group 8A) has 8 valence
electrons.
For transition elements, the valence electrons are the electrons in the outermost energy
level and the electrons in the d orbitals of the next inner main energy level. Below are the
examples.
Ni (Z=28) - 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d8. Nickel 10 valence electrons.
Tc (Z=43) - 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d5. Technetium has 7 valence
electrons.
For inner transition elements, valence electrons consist of the outermost s, d and f
electrons. Below are the examples.
Gd (Z=64) - 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10 5p6 6s2 4f7 5d1. Gadolinium
has 10 valence electrons.
Bk (Z=97) - 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10 5p6 6s2 4f14 5d10 6p6 7s2 5f9.
Berkelium has 11 valence electrons.

III. Periodic Variation in Atomic Properties

Many properties of atoms depend on their electron configurations and on how strongly
their outer electrons are attracted to the nucleus. In a many-electron atom, a valence
electron is attracted to the nucleus and is repelled by the other electrons in the atom. In
particular, the electron density that is due to the inner (core electrons) is particularly
effective at partially canceling the attraction of the valence electron to the nucleus.
• Effective nuclear charge (Zeff) is the nuclear charge felt by an electron when both
the actual nuclear charge (Z) and the repulsive effects (shielding) of the other
electrons are taken into account.
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Trends in Zeff for valence electrons in

the periodic table.

o From left to right across a period,

the effective nuclear charge
increases. Although the number of
core electrons stays the same as we
move across a period, the actual
nuclear charge increases. The
valence electrons added to
counterbalance the increasing
nuclear charge shield one another
very ineffectively. Thus, the Zeff
increases steadily.

o From top to bottom or going down a column, effective nuclear charge also
increases. However, because the valence electrons are now added to
increasingly large shells as n increases, the electrostatic attraction between
the nucleus and the valence electrons usually decreases. The increase in
effective nuclear charge that occurs moving down a column is smaller than
the change that occurs when moving across a period.

Atomic radius, ionization energy and electron affinity of the atoms of an element have
very important roles in determining the properties of the element.

A number of physical properties including density, melting

point and boiling point are related to the sizes of the atoms.
According to the quantum mechanical model, however,
atoms and ions do not have sharply defined boundaries at
which the electron distribution becomes zero. Nevertheless,
we can define atomic size in several ways, based on the
distances between atoms in various situations.
• Atomic radius is one-half the distance between the
two nuclei in two adjacent metal atoms (a) or in a
diatomic molecule (b). Below are the trends of the
atomic radii of representative elements.
o From left to right across a period, atomic radius
decreases. The major factor influencing this
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trend is the increase in the effective nuclear charge. As each successive

electron is added across a period, the nuclear charge also increases by the
addition of one proton. The result is an increased attraction between the
nucleus and electrons that is somewhat stronger than the increasing
repulsion between electrons, causing atomic radius to decrease.
o From top to bottom of a group, the atomic radius increases. This trend
results primarily from the increase in the principal quantum number of the
outer electrons. As we go down a column, the outer electrons have a greater
probability of being farther from the nucleus, causing the atom to increase
in size.

An element’s chemical reactivity is determined, in part, by how easily valence electrons

are removed from its atoms, a process that requires energy.

• Ionization energy of an atom or ion

is the minimum energy required to
remove an electron from the ground
state of the isolated gaseous atom or
ion. The greater the ionization
energy, the more difficult it is to
remove an electron. Below are the
trends of the ionization energies of
representative elements
o From left to right across a period,
the first ionization energy generally
increases with increasing atomic
number. Across a period, there is
both an increase in effective nuclear
charge and a decrease in atomic radius. Smaller atoms have higher
ionization energies because it is more difficult to remove the electron.
o From top to bottom of a group, the first ionization energy generally
decreases with increasing atomic number. Down a column, atomic radius
increases while the effective nuclear charge increases rather gradually.
Thus, the attraction between the nucleus and the electron decreases (easier
to remove), causing the ionization energy to decrease.
However, the trend is not followed when the added valence electron in the next
element (a) enters a new sublevel (higher energy sublevel) or (b) is the first
electron to pair in one orbital of the sublevel (electron repulsions lower energy).
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Another property that greatly influences the chemical behavior of atoms is their ability to
accept one or more electron and this property is called electron affinity.

• Electron affinity is the energy

change that occurs when an electron
is added to a gaseous atom to form
negatively charged ions. If ionization
energy measures the ease with
which an atom loses an electron, the
electron affinity measures the ease
with which an atom gains an
electron. In the case of chlorine
atom, addition of an electron is
accompanied by an energy change
of -349 kJ/mol, the negative sign
indicates that energy is released
during the process2. The greater the attraction between a given atom and an
electron, the more negative the atom’s electron affinity will be. There is a general
correlation between electron affinity and effective nuclear charge, which also
increases form left to right in a given period. However, as in the case of ionization
energies, there are some irregularities. Electron affinity do not change greatly as
we move down a group.
o The electron affinity of noble gas is positive since the addition of an electron
to a noble gas requires that the electron reside in a higher-energy subshell
that is empty and is energetically very unfavorable.

2
Two conventions are used for electron affinity.
In the case of chlorine, it can be +349 kJ/mol or -349 kJ/mol.
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o Halogens (Group 7A) have the most negative electron affinities since by
gaining an electron, they will form a stable negative ion that has a noble-
gas configuration.
o Electron affinities of the Group 5A elements are also interesting. Because
these elements have half-filled p subshells, the added electron must be put
in an orbital that is already occupied, resulting in larger electron-electron
repulsion that is why elements are either positive like Nitrogen or less
negative than their neighbors to the left.
o As we move down a group, using the halogens. For F, the added electron
goes into a 2p orbital, for Cl a 3p orbital, for Br a 4p orbital, and so forth. As
we proceed from F to I, therefore, the average distance between the added
electron and the nucleus steadily increases, causing the electron-nucleus
attraction to decrease. However, the orbital that holds the outermost
electron is increasingly spread out, so that as we proceed from F to I, the
electron-electron repulsions are also reduced. As a result, the reduction in
the electron-nucleus attraction is counterbalanced by the reduction in
electron-electron repulsions.

Educational Videos:

The Periodic Table Song (2018 Update)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rz4Dd1I_fX0
How Does the Periodic Table Work | Properties of Matter
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P6DMEgE8CK8
The Periodic Table: Atomic Radius, Ionization Energy, and Electronegativity
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hePb00CqvP0&t=203s

References:

Brown, Theodore et al (1994). Chemistry: the Central Science. Englewood cliffs, NJ:
Prentice-Hall.
Chang R. Chemistry (2010). Jakarta: McGraw-Hill.
Padolina, Ma. Christina et al (2010). Conceptual and Functional Chemistry, Modular
Approach. Quezon City: Vibal Publishing House, Inc.
Stoker, Stephen (2012). General Chemistry. Pasig City: Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ltd
(Philippine Branch).
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Photo Credits:

(1st Periodic Table of Elements, Classification of Elements)

Stoker, Stephen (2012). General Chemistry. Pasig City: Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ltd
(Philippine Branch).
(PTE-Rectangular Box, Figure 7.13, Table 7.2, Electron Affinity)
Brown, Theodore et al (1994). Chemistry: the Central Science. Englewood cliffs, NJ:
Prentice-Hall.
(2nd Periodic Table of Elements, Zeff Formula, Zeff Trend, Zeff of Elements, IE Trend,)
Chang R. Chemistry (2010). Jakarta: McGraw-Hill.

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