1.

ER to Relational mapping algorithm (STEPS)

Step 1:

 For each regular (strong) entity type E in the ER schema, create a relation
R that includes all the simple attributes of E.

Step 2:

 For each weak entity type W in the ER schema with owner entity type E,
create a relation R, and include all simple attributes (or simple
components of composite attributes) of W as attributes.
 In addition, include as foreign key attributes of R the primary key
attribute(s) of the relation(s) that correspond to the owner entity type(s).
Step 3:

 For each binary 1:1 relationship type R in the ER schema, identify the
relations S and T that correspond to the entity types participating in R.
 Choose one of the relations, say S, and include the primary key of T as a
foreign key in S. Include all the simple attributes of R as attributes of S.

Step 4:

 For each regular binary 1: N relationship type R identify the relation (N)
relation S. Include the primary key of T as a foreign key of S.
 Simple attributes of R map to attributes of S.
Step 5:

 For each binary M: N relationship type R, create a relation S.

 Include the primary keys of participant relations as foreign keys in S. Their
combination will be the primary key for S.
 Simple attributes of R become attributes of S.

Step 6:
  For each multi-valued attribute A, create a new relation R.
 This relation will include an attribute corresponding to A, plus the primary
key K of the parent relation (entity type or relationship type) as a foreign
key in R.
 The primary key of R is the combination of A and K.

Step 7:

 For each n-ary relationship type Where n>2,create a new relation S to

represent R.
2.Basic operations in SQL to change state – create, insert, update, delete.

CREATE TABLE

 The CREATE TABLE statement is used to create a new table in a database.

In that table, if you want to add multiple columns, use the below syntax.
 Syntax
CREATE TABLE table_name (
column1 datatype,
column2 datatype,
column3 datatype,
....
);
 The column parameters specify the names of the columns of the table.
  The data type parameter specifies the type of data the column can hold
(e.g., Varchar, integer, date, etc.).
 Example:
CREATE TABLE Employee (
EmpId int,
LastName varchar (255),
FirstName varchar (255),
Address varchar (255),
City varchar (255)
);
 The EmpId column is of type int and will hold an integer.
 The LastName, FirstName, Address, and City columns are of type varchar
and will hold characters and the maximum length for these fields is 255
characters.
INSERT VALUE

 The INSERT INTO statement is used to insert new records in a table.

 Syntax:
INSERT INTO table_name VALUES (value1, value2, value3, ...);
 Example
INSERT INTO Employee VALUES (3, 'XYZ', 'ABC', 'India', 'Mumbai' );

SELECT STATEMENT

 The SELECT statement is used to select data from a database.

 Syntax:
SELECT column1, column2, ... FROM table_name;
 Here, column1, column2, ... are the field names of the table
you want to select from the data.
SELECT * FROM table_name;
 If the above query is executed, then all record is displayed.
 Example
1. Select EmpId, LastName from Employee;
2. Select * from Employee;
UPDATE TABLE

 The UPDATE statement is used to modify the existing records in a table.

 Syntax
UPDATE table_name
SET column1 = value1, column2 = value2, ...
WHERE condition;
 Example
UPDATE Employee
SET FirstName= 'KS', City= 'Pune'
WHERE EmpId= 1;
If the above query is executed then for EmpId= 1, "Firstname" and "City"
column data will be updated.

DELETE STATEMENT

 The DELETE statement is used to delete existing records in a table for a

particular Record.
 Syntax
DELETE FROM table_name WHERE condition;
 Example
DELETE FROM Employee WHERE EmpId=1;
In Employee table EmpId = 1 record gets deleted.

DEFINE:
1. Constraints/integrity constraints:
Constraints are the set of rules that ensures that when an authorized user
modifies the database, they do not disturb the data consistency
2. Domain constraints:
Domain integrity constraint contains a certain set of rules or conditions to
restrict the kind of attributes or values a column can hold in the database
table. The data type of a domain can be string, integer, character, Date,
Time, currency, etc.
3. Key constraints:
 Key constraints in DBMS are a restriction on duplicate values. A key is
composed of one or more columns whose values uniquely identify each
row in the table.
4. Entity integrity constraints:
An entity integrity constraint is a restriction on null values. Null values
are values that are unknown or not applicable,
5. Referential integrity constraints:
A referential integrity constraint is a restriction on how foreign keys can
be used. A foreign key is a column in one table that references a primary
key in another table
6. Super key:
A super key is a group of single or multiple keys that identifies rows in a
table
7. Candidate key:
The minimal set of attributes that can uniquely identify a tuple is known
as a candidate key
8. Foreign key:
A foreign key is a column or group of columns in a relational database
table that provides a link between data in two tables. It is a column (or
columns) that references a column (most often the primary key) of
another table.
9. Primary key:
A primary key is used to ensure that data in the specific column is unique.
10.Unique key:
A unique key in SQL is the set of fields or columns of a table that helps us
uniquely identify records. The unique key guarantees the uniqueness of
the columns in the database. It is similar to the primary key but can accept
a null value

QUERIES
1.
a) Select the detail of the employee whose name start with P.

b) Select the detail of employee whose emailId is in gmail.

c) How many project started in year 2010.

d) Select the department name of the company which is assigned to the
employee whose employee id is grater 103.

e) Select the name of the employee who is working under Abhishek.

2.

a. Write an SQL query to fetch the EmpId and FullName of all the employees
working under the Manager with id – ‘986’.
 b. Write an SQL query to fetch the different projects available from the
EmployeeSalary table.

c. Write an SQL query to find the employee id whose salary lies in the range
of 9000 and 15000.

d. Write an SQL query to fetch the employees whose name begins with any
two characters, followed by a text “hn” and ends with any sequence of
characters.

e. Write an SQL query to fetch employee names having a salary greater than
or equal to 5000 and less than or equal to 10000.

3. Write the SQL queries for the following database schema:

Student (USN, NAME, BRANCH, PERCENTAGE)
Course (CID, CNAME, FID)
Faculty (FID, FNAME, DEPARTMENT, DESIGNATION, SALARY)
Enroll (CID, USN, GRADE)
1. Retrieve the names of all students enrolled for the course 'CS_54'
 SELECT NAME FROM STUDENT S, COURSE C WHERE C.CID='CS-54';
2. List all the departments having an average salary of the faculties above
Rs. 10,000.
SELECT DEPARTMENT, AVG(SALARY) as AVG_SALARY FROM FACULLTY
WHERE AVG_SALARY>10000;
3. List the names of the students enrolled for the course'CS_51' and having
'B' grade.
SELECT NAME FROM FACULTY F, ENROLL E WHERE E.CID='CS-51' AND E.
GRADE='B';

4. Given the following schema:

emp (fname, Lname, SSN. Bdate, address, gender, salary, superSSN, Dno)
dept (Dname, Dnumber, MgrSSN, mgrstartdate)
dept_loc (Dnumber, Dloc)
project (Pname, Pnumber, Ploc, Duum)
works on (ESSN, Pno, hours)
Dependent (ESSN, dependent_name, gender, bdate, relationship)
Give the relation algebra expression for the following:
i) Retrieve the name of the manager of each department.

ii) For each project retrieve the project number, project name and
number of employees who worked on that project.
R1 ←PROJECT pnumber=pnoWORKS_ON
R2←π pnumber, pname, count(*) (R1)
iii) Retrieve the names of employees who work on all the project
controlled by department 5
DEPT5_PROJS ← ρ(Pno)(πPnumber(σDnum=5(PROJECT)))
EMP_PROJ ← ρ (Ssn, Pno) (πEssn, Pno (WORKS_ON))
RESULT_EMP_SSNS ← EMP_PROJ ÷ DEPT5_PROJS
RESULT ← πLname, Fname (RESULT_EMP_SSNS * EMPLOYEE)

iv) Retrieve the name of employees who have no dependents.

v) Retrieve number of Male and Female employee working in the
Company.
genderFCOUNT(gender) (EMP)

vi) Retrieve the name and address of all employees who work for
'sports' department.
R1← ρ DNAME=’sports’(DEPT)

R2←R1 dnumber=Dno EMP

R3←πFname, Lname, Address(R2)
vii) Retrieve each department number, number of employers and
their average salary.

viii) List the project number, controlling department number

and department manager's last name, address and birthdate.

ix) Retrieve the name of employees with 2 or more dependents.

 x) List female employees from dno = 20 earning more than 50000
R1← ρ Dno=’20’ and salary>50000 and gender=’female’ (EMP)
R2←πFname, Lname(R1)
xi) Retrieve the name and address of all employees who work for the
“Accounts” department.
ACCOUNTS_DEPT ← σDname= ‘Accounts’(DEPARTMENT)

ACCOUNTS_EMPS ← (ACCOUNTS_DEPT Dnumber=DnoEMPLOYEE)

RESULT ← πFname, Lname, Address (ACCOUNTS_EMPS)

5. Consider the following schema :
Sailors (Sid, Sname, rating , age)
Boats (bid, bname, color)
Reserves (Sid, bid, day).
Write queries in SQL.
i) Find the names of sailors who have reserved at least one boat
ii) Find sailors whose rating is better than some sailors called 'Jennifer'.
(Use nested query)
iii) Find the average age of sailor for each rating level that at least two
sailors.
iv) Find the name and age of the oldest sailor.
i) Find the ages of sailors whose name begins and ends with A and has
atleast three characters.
Select age
from sailors
where Sname like ‘A___%A’;

ii) Find the age of the youngest sailor who is eligible to vote (i.e. is
atleast 18 years old) for each rating level with atleast two such
sailors.
Select s.rating,MIN(s.age)
from sailors s
where s.age>18
group by s,rating
having 1 < (SELECT COUNT (*)
FROM Sailors s2
 WHERE s.rating=s2.rating);

iii) Find the names of sailors who have not reserved a red boat. (use
nested query).
SELECT S.sname
FROM Sailors S
WHERE S.sid NOT IN ( SELECT R.sid
FROM Reserves R
WHERE R.bid IN ( SELECT B.bid
FROM Boats B
WHERE B.color=`red’ ));
iv) Compute increments for the rating of persons who have sailed two
different boats on the same day.
SELECT r.sid, r.day, COUNT(*), s.rating
FROM reserves r
JOIN sailors s
ON r.sid=s.sid
GROUP BY day
HAVING COUNT(r.day)=2;

6.Given the schema:

Passenger (pid, pname, pgender, pcity)
Agency (aid, anme, acity)
Flight (fid, fdate, time, src, dest)
Booking (pid, aid, fid, fdate)
Give relation algebra expression for the following:
1. Get the complete details of all flights to new Delhi
σ dest= “New Delhi” (flight)
2. Find only the flight numbers for passenger with paid 123 for flights
to Chennai before 06/11/2020
Π fid (σ pid = 123 (booking) ⨝ σ dest = “Chennai” ^ fdate < 06/11/2020 (flight))

3. Find the passenger names for those who do not have any bookings in
any flights
Π pname ((Π pid (passenger) - Π pid (booking)) ⨝ passenger)
 4. Get the details of flights that are scheduled on both dates
01/12/2020 and 02/12/2020 at 16:00 hours
(σ fdate = 01/12/2020 ^ time = 16:00 (flight)) ∩ (σ fdate = 02/12/2020 ^ time = 16:00 (flight))
5. Find the details of all male passengers who are associated with jet
agency.
Π passengers.pid, pname, pcity (σ pgender = “Male” ^ aname =

‘Jet’ (passengers ⨝ booking ⨝ agency))

7.Write SQL query for the following database scheme:

Employee(employee_name, street, city)
Works (employee_name, company_name, salary)
Company(company_name, city)
Manages(employee_name, manager_name)
1. Find the names, street address, and cities of residence for all employees
who work for 'First Bank Corporation' and earn more than $10,000
select employee. Employee_name, employee. Street, employee. City
from employee, works where employee. Employee_name=works.
Employee_name and company_name = 'First Bank Corporation' and
salary > 10000);

2. Find the names of all employees in the database who do not work for
First Bank Corporation'. Assume that all people work for exactly one
company
select employee_name from works where company_name != ’First Bank
Corporation’;

3. Find the names of all employees in the database who earn more that
every employee of Small Bank Corporation'. Assume that all people
work for at most one company
select employee_name from works where salary > all (select salary from
works where company_name = ’Small Bank Corporation’);

4. Find the name of the company that has the smallest payroll
select company-name from works group by company-name having sum
(salary) <= all (select sum (salary) from works group by company-name);
 5. Find the names of all employees in the database who live in the same
cities and on the same streets as do their managers.
select P.employee-name from employee P, employee R, manages M
where P.employee-name = M.employee-name and M.manager-name =
R.employee-name and P.street = R.street and P.city = R.city;

8.

ANSWERS:

9.

ANSWERS
10.

ANSWERS
11.

ANSWERS
RELATIONAL ALGEBRA OPERATION EXAMPLES:(refer it)