Biology

A. Write short notes.

a) What are different between Eukaryo c and Prokaryo c cells?
There are following differences between Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic cells
Characteris c Eukaryo c Cells Prokaryo c Cells
Nucleus Present Absent
Size Generally larger (10-100 μm) Generally smaller (1-10 μm)
Linear, found on a single Circular, found on multiple
DNA
chromosome chromosomes
Ribosomes 80S 70S
Present in most of the cells,
Present in some cells,
Cell wall made of cellulose or other
made of peptidoglycan
materials
Complexity More complex Less complex
Example
Animals, plants, fungi Bacteria, E.coil, mycoplasma
Organisms

b) What is Brownian mo on? Explain with an example?

The zig-zag random movement of particles suspended in a fluid (a liquid or a

gas) is known as Brownian motion. It is due to the collisions of the particles
with the molecules of the fluid. If the size of particle is small, then it is more
affected by Brownian motion.

An example of Brownian motion is the movement of pollen grains in water. If

we look at a drop of water under a microscope, we will see that the pollen
grains are constantly moving around in a random fashion. This is due to the
collisions of the pollen grains with the water molecules.

Brownian motion is a very important phenomenon in physics and biology. It

can be used to measure the size of particles, to study the properties of fluids,
and to understand the behaviour of living cells.

c) Describe the structure and func on of plasma cell membrane.

The plasma membrane is also known as the cell membrane. The plasma
membrane is the outermost layer of a cell. It separates the cell from its
surroundings and protects it from the environment. The plasma membrane is
also responsible for controlling what enters and leaves the cell.

The plasma membrane is made up of two layers of phospholipids. One is

hydrophilic (water-loving) head and two hydrophobic (water-hating) tails.

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The hydrophilic heads of the phospholipids are oriented towards the water on
either side of the membrane, while the hydrophobic tails are oriented towards
each other. This arrangement of the phospholipids creates a barrier that
prevents water and other polar molecules from passing through the membrane.

The plasma membrane is a dynamic structure that is constantly changing. The

plasma membrane is an essential part of all cells.

The plasma membrane has several important functions:

 Protection: The plasma membrane protects the cell from its surroundings
 Transport: The plasma membrane controls what enters and leaves the
cell. It allows certain molecules to pass through the membrane, while
blocking others.
 Communication: The plasma membrane allows cells to communicate
with each other. Cells can send signals to each other through the plasma
membrane.
 Attachment: The plasma membrane attaches to the extracellular matrix
through proteins that are embedded in the membrane.

d) Define sugars, starch and cellulose.

Sugars, starch, and cellulose are all the example of carbohydrates. The
Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes and polyhydroxy ketones or those
organic compounds which gives polyhydroxy aldehydes and polyhydroxy
ketones in form of hemiacetal and acetal compoud is called as carbohydrates.
They are the main source of energy in our body.

 Sugars are the simplest carbohydrates. They are made up of one or

two sugar molecules. Sugars are found in fruits, vegetables, and honey.
They are also added to many processed foods. The chemical formula
of sugar is C12H22O11
 Starch is a complex carbohydrate. It is made up of many sugar
molecules linked together. Starch is found in grains, potatoes, and
other vegetables. It is also the main source of energy for plants.
 Cellulose is a very complex carbohydrate. It is made up of many sugar
molecules linked together in a long chain. Cellulose is the main
component of plant cell walls. It is also used to make paper, textiles,
and other products.

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e) Difference between Anaerobic and aerobic respira on.

Characteristic Aerobic Respiration Anaerobic Respiration
Oxygen
Requires oxygen Does not require oxygen
Requirement
Final Electron Inorganic molecules (e.g., nitrate, sulphate)
Oxygen (O2)
Acceptor or organic molecules (e.g., pyruvate)
ATP Production Produces a large amount of ATP Generates a small amount of ATP
Efficiency More efficient Less efficient
Varies depending on the organism and
Carbon dioxide (CO2) and water
End Products specific pathway (e.g., lactic acid, ethanol,
(H2O)
or other organic compounds)
Most organisms, including
Examples of Some bacteria, yeast, and certain muscle
plants, animals, and many
Organisms cells
microorganisms

f) Why we need to study biology?

Here are some of the reasons why we need to study biology in civil
engineering:

 To understand the impact of biological factors on civil engineering

structures. For example, biology can help civil engineers to understand
how the growth of trees can affect the stability of bridges, or how the
presence of bacteria can corrode steel structures.
 To develop new materials and techniques for civil engineering. Biology
can provide inspiration for new materials and techniques that can be used
to improve the performance of civil engineering structures. For example,
biomimetics is the use of biological principles to design new materials and
structures.
 To protect the environment. Civil engineers can use biology to help
protect the environment by designing structures that are more sustainable
and less harmful to the environment. For example, civil engineers can use
bioremediation to clean up polluted soil and water.

In short, biology can be a valuable tool for civil engineers in a variety of ways.
By understanding the principles of biology, civil engineers can design
structures that are more safe, sustainable, and environmentally friendly .

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B. A empt any 3 ques ons.

1. Briefly explain Nucleo de and DNA/RNA structure.

Nucleo de:

 A nucleotide is a basic building block of DNA and RNA.

 DNA and RNA are the two types of nucleic acids found in living
organisms.
 It is made up of three parts: a phosphate group, a sugar molecule, and a
nitrogenous base.
 The sugar molecule in DNA is deoxyribose, hence the name
deoxyribonucleic acid, while in RNA it is ribose, leading to the name
ribonucleic acid.
 The phosphate group is attached to the sugar molecule at the 5' carbon
atom.
 The nitrogenous base is attached to the sugar molecule at the 1' carbon
atom.
 The nitrogenous base can be one of four types: adenine (A), thymine (T,
found only in DNA), cytosine (C), and guanine (G). In RNA, thymine is
replaced by uracil (U).
 The nitrogenous bases are responsible for the genetic code in living
organism.
 The nitrogenous bases determine the sequence of nucleotides in DNA or
RNA.
 The sugar-phosphate is backbone of the structural framework of DNA and
RNA.

DNA:

 DNA is a double-stranded molecule.

 The two strands of DNA are held together by hydrogen bonds between the
nitrogenous bases.

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 In DNA, the bases adenine (A) and thymine (T) are complementary, and
guanine (G) and cytosine (C) are complementary. This means that A
always pairs with T, and G always pairs with C.

RNA:

 RNA is a single-stranded molecule.

 RNA is also made up of the nitrogenous bases A, G, C, and U. However,
in RNA, Uracil (U) takes the place of Thymine (T). This is because RNA
is involved in the process of protein synthesis, and Uracil is more stable
than Thymine in the environment of the cell.
 The structure of nucleotides and DNA/RNA is essential for their function.
DNA stores genetic information, and RNA is used to translate this
information into proteins.
 The structure of nucleotides and DNA/RNA also allows them to interact
with other molecules, such as enzymes and proteins.

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2. What is the Mendel’s Law? Explain with an example.

Mendel's law is a set of principles that govern the inheritance of traits from
parents to offspring. The law was first proposed by Gregor Mendel in the mid-
1800s, a er he conducted a series of experiments on pea plants.

Mendel's law states that:

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 Law of segregation: When gametes (sex cells) are formed, the two alleles
for each trait are separated and each gamete receives only one allele.
 Law of independent assortment: The segregation of alleles for one trait
is independent of the segregation of alleles for another trait.

For example, let's say that a pea

plant has two alleles for flower
colour: one allele for white flowers
and one allele for purple flowers.

The plant will have white flowers if

it has two copies of the white allele,
and it will have purple flowers if it
has two copies of the purple allele.

However, if the plant has one copy

of each allele, it will be
heterozygous for flower colour and
will have white flowers (because
the white allele is dominant).

When the plant produces gametes, each gamete will have a 50% chance of
receiving the white allele and a 50% chance of receiving the purple allele. This
means that if the plant is crossed with another plant that is heterozygous for
flower colour, the offspring will have a 25% chance of being homozygous for
white flowers, a 50% chance of being heterozygous for flower colour, and a
25% chance of being homozygous for purple flowers.

Mendel's law is a fundamental principle of genetics that has been used to

explain the inheritance of a wide variety of traits, including eye colour, hair
colour, height, and disease susceptibility.

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3. Describe the structure and func on of Amino acids and Proteins.

Amino Acids:

 Amino acids are molecules, which contain two functional groups, one is
carboxylic acids (-COOH) and another is amino group(-NH2).

H2N – CH2 – COOH Amino acetic acids

H2N – CH2 – CH2 – COOH Amino propionic acids

H2N – CH2 – CH2 – CH2 – COOH Amino butanoic acids

 Amino acids are derivatives of carboxylic acid in which one hydrogen atom
of carbon chain is substituted by amino group.

CH3COOH

Acetic acid (Ethanoic acid)

H–C–C–O–H

Amino ace c acid

Ace c acid

Structure of Amino acids

 Amino group: The amino group is a nitrogen-containing group that has a

positive charge. The amino group is responsible for the basic properties of
amino acids.

 Carboxyl group: The carboxyl group is a carbon-containing group that

has a negative charge. The carboxyl group is responsible for the acidic
properties of amino acids.
 Side chain: The side chain is a variable group that is attached to the alpha
carbon. The side chain determines the unique properties of each amino
acid.

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Amino acids are classified as in following ways

a) α-Amino acids

H2N – CH(NH2) – CH2 – COOH α-Amino propionic acids

b) β-Amino acids

H2N – CH2 – CH2 – COOH β-Amino propionic acids

c) γ-Amino acids

H2N – CH2 – CH2 – COOH β-Amino butyric acids

Some amino acids contain a secondary group or potential carboxyl group in the
form of carboxamide: These are called acidic amino acid and some contain a
second basic group which may be an amino group these are called basic amino
acids.

HOOC – CH2 – CH – COOH

Acidic amino acid

H2N– CH2 – CH2 – CH2 – CH2 – CH – COOH

Basic amino acid

The structure of amino acids allows them to form peptide bonds. Peptide bonds
are bonds that form between the carboxyl group of one amino acid and the amino
group of another amino acid. When multiple amino acids are linked together by
peptide bonds, they form a polypeptide. Polypeptides can be further linked
together to form proteins.

Amino acid molecules contain both basic as well as acidic group

H2N – CH – COOH + H2N – CH – COOH H2N – CHCO – NH – CHCOOH

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Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins. They are essential for life and
are involved in many important functions in the body, including:

 Protein synthesis: Amino acids are used to make proteins, which are
essential for the structure and function of all cells in the body.
 Enzymes: Amino acids are used to make enzymes, which are proteins that
speed up chemical reactions in the body.
 Hormones: Amino acids are used to make hormones, which are chemicals
that regulate many different functions in the body.
 Immunity: Amino acids are used to make antibodies, which help the body
fight infection.
 Metabolism: Amino acids are used to produce energy and to build and
repair tissues.
 Nervous system function: Amino acids are used to make
neurotransmitters, which are chemicals that carry messages between nerve
cells.
 Skin, hair, and nail health: Amino acids are essential for the growth and
repair of skin, hair, and nails.

There are 20 different amino acids that are found in proteins. Nine of these amino
acids are essential, which means that the body cannot make them and they must
be obtained from the diet. The other 11 amino acids are non-essential, which
means that the body can make them from other substances.

Amino acids can also be used to make a variety of other molecules, including:

 Neurotransmitters
 Hormones
 Pigments
 Drugs

Amino acids are essential for human health. A deficiency in any of the essential
amino acids can lead to malnutrition and a variety of health problems.

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Proteins:

Proteins are essential for life. They are involved in a wide variety of biological
processes, including:

 Structure: Proteins provide structure to cells and tissues.

 Transport: Proteins transport nutrients and oxygen throughout the body.
 Defense: Proteins play a role in the immune system.
 Enzymes: Proteins are enzymes, which are molecules that speed up
chemical reactions.
 Hormones: Proteins are hormones, which are molecules that regulate body
functions.

Amino acids are essential for human health. A deficiency in any of the essential
amino acids can lead to malnutrition and a variety of health problems.

Proteins are large molecules that are made up of amino acids. Amino acids are
linked together by peptide bonds to form a chain. The sequence of amino acids in
the chain determines the protein's structure and function.

There are four levels of protein structure:

 Primary structure: The primary structure of a protein is the sequence of

amino acids in the chain.
 Secondary structure: The secondary structure of a protein is the local
folding of the chain. The most common secondary structures are alpha
helices and beta sheets.
 Tertiary structure: The tertiary structure of a protein is the overall folding
of the chain. The tertiary structure is determined by the primary and
secondary structures, as well as the interactions between the amino acids
in the chain.
 Quaternary structure: The quaternary structure of a protein is the
arrangement of multiple subunits. Some proteins are made up of multiple
subunits, each of which has its own tertiary structure. The quaternary
structure is determined by the tertiary structures of the subunits, as well as
the interactions between the subunits.

The structure of a protein determines its function. For example, enzymes are
proteins that catalyze chemical reactions. The structure of an enzyme determines
which chemical reactions it can catalyze. Other proteins, such as antibodies, help
the body fight infection. The structure of an antibody determines which antigens
it can bind to.

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Proteins are essential for life. They are involved in a wide variety of biological
processes, including:

 Metabolism: Proteins are used to build and repair cells, tissues, and
organs.
 Enzymes: Proteins are used to catalyze chemical reactions.
 Transport: Proteins are used to transport molecules across cell
membranes.
 Immunity: Proteins are used to fight infection.
 Signaling: Proteins are used to send signals between cells.
 Movement: Proteins are used to contract muscles and move cells.

Proteins are an essential part of a healthy diet. The recommended daily intake of
protein for adults is 0.8 grams per kilogram of body weight. Protein can be found
in a variety of foods, including meat, poultry, fish, eggs, dairy products, beans,
nuts, and seeds.

4. Briefly explain Glycolysis process with figure.

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5. Explain Enzyme classifica on. And what is Mechanism of enzyme ac on.

Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up the rate of chemical reactions in
living organisms. They are essential for all life processes, from digestion to cell
division. Enzymes are classified into six groups based on the type of reaction they
catalyze:

 Hydrolases catalyze the hydrolysis of chemical bonds, such as the

breakdown of carbohydrates into sugars.
 Oxidoreductases catalyze oxidation-reduction reactions, such as the
conversion of glucose to carbon dioxide and water.
 Lyases catalyze the breaking of chemical bonds without hydrolysis or
oxidation-reduction.
 Transferases catalyze the transfer of chemical groups from one molecule
to another.
 Isomerases catalyze the isomerization of molecules, such as the
conversion of glucose to fructose.
 Ligases catalyze the joining of two molecules together, such as the
formation of a peptide bond between two amino acids.

The mechanism of enzyme action is still not fully understood, but it is believed
to involve the following steps:

1. The enzyme binds to the substrate, forming an enzyme-substrate complex.

2. The substrate is then distorted or rearranged by the enzyme, making it more
reactive.
3. The enzyme then catalyzes the reaction, converting the substrate into
products.
4. The products are then released from the enzyme.

Enzymes are very efficient catalysts, and can speed up reactions by millions or
even billions of times. They are also very specific, and will only catalyze
reactions involving a particular substrate. This specificity is due to the shape of
the enzyme's active site, which is like a lock that only the right key (the substrate)
can fit into.

Enzymes are essential for life, and any disruption in their function can lead to
disease. For example, a deficiency in the enzyme lactase can lead to lactose
intolerance. Enzymes are also used in many industrial processes, such as the
production of food and pharmaceuticals.

Here are some additional information about enzymes:

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 Enzymes are made of proteins.
 They are found in all living organisms.
 They are essential for life.
 They speed up chemical reactions.
 They are specific to their substrates.
 They can be inhibited by certain substances.
 They can be used in industrial processes.

6. Explain Ecosystems and describe the classifica on of microorganisms.

The system due to which of living and non-living things interact with each
other is known as ecosystem. The living things in an ecosystem are called
biotic factors, and the non-living things are called abiotic factors. Biotic
factors include plants, animals, and microorganisms. Abiotic factors include
water, air, sunlight, and soil.
Ecosystems can be classified into different types based on their physical
features and the types of organisms that present there. Some examples of
different types of ecosystems include:

i. Forests: Forests are ecosystems that are dominated by trees. They are
found in many different parts of the world, and they support a wide
variety of plant and animal life.
ii. Grasslands: Grasslands are ecosystems that are dominated by grasses.
They are found in many different parts of the world, and they support
a variety of plant and animal life, including grazing animals such as
bison, deer, and cattle.
iii. Deserts: Deserts are ecosystems that are characterized by low rainfall
and high temperatures. They are found in many different parts of the
world, and they support a variety of plant and animal life, including
cacti, lizards, and snakes.
iv. Freshwater ecosystems: Freshwater ecosystems include lakes, rivers,
and streams. They are found in many different parts of the world, and
they support a variety of plant and animal life, including fish,
amphibians, and insects.
v. Marine ecosystems: Marine ecosystems include oceans, seas, and
coastal areas. They cover more than 70% of the Earth's surface, and
they support a vast array of plant and animal life, including fish,
whales, dolphins, and coral reefs.

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Microorganisms:

Microorganisms is also known as microbes. Microorganisms are very

small organisms. The type of organism which are not visible by naked
eye is known as microorganisms. They include bacteria, fungi, protozoa,
and algae. Microorganisms play an important role in ecosystems by
decomposing organic matter, recycling nutrients, and controlling
populations of other organisms.

The classification of microorganisms is a complex and ever-evolving field.

Scientists are constantly learning more about these tiny organisms and their
role in the world.

Microorganisms can be classified into two main groups

(a) Eukaryotes microorganisms

(b) Prokaryotes microorganisms

Eukaryotes: Eukaryotes are single-celled or multicellular organisms that

have a nucleus. Fungi, protozoa, algae, and plants etc. are example of
Eukaryotes.

Prokaryotes: Prokaryotes are single-celled organisms that do not have a

nucleus. Bacteria and archaea etc. are example of Eukaryotes.

Microorganisms are classified into three domains:

(i) Bacteria
(ii) Archaea
(iii) Eukarya.
 Bacteria: Bacteria are single-celled organisms that lack a nucleus.
They are the most abundant type of microorganism on Earth and play a
vital role in the environment. They can be found in all parts of the
environment, including the air, water, soil, and inside living
organisms. Bacteria can be either beneficial or harmful to humans,
depending on the species.

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 Archaea: Archaea are also single-celled organisms, but they have
a different cell structure than bacteria. Archaea are found in
extreme environments, such as hot springs and hydrothermal vents.
 Eukarya are single-celled or multicellular organisms that have a
nucleus. Eukarya includes protozoa, algae, fungi, and animals.
Fungi are decomposers that break down organic matter. Protozoa
are single-celled animals that can be found in water and soil.
Algae are photosynthetic organisms that produce oxygen and
food for other organisms. Plants are multicellular photosynthetic
organisms that produce oxygen and food for other organisms.

Microorganisms can also be classified by their mode of nutrition.

1) Autotrophic: Autotrophic microorganisms can make their own

food from sunlight or inorganic chemicals.
2) Heterotrophic: Heterotrophic microorganisms get their food
from other organisms.
3) Mixotrophic: Mixotrophic microorganisms can do both.
 Bacteria can be autotrophic, heterotrophic, or mixotrophic
 Archaea can also be autotrophic, heterotrophic, or mixotrophic.
 Protozoa can be autotrophic, heterotrophic, or mixotrophic.
 Algae can be autotrophic or mixotrophic.
 Fungi and animals heterotrophic.

Microorganisms can also be classified by their shape.

 Bacteria can be spherical, rod-shaped, or spiral-shaped.

 Archaea are generally rod-shaped or spherical.
 Protozoa can be amoeboid, flagellated, ciliated or sporozoan.
 Algae can be unicellular or multicellular and can have a
variety of shapes, including spherical, rod-shaped, spiral-
shaped, and plate-shaped.
 Fungi can be unicellular or multicellular and can have a
variety of shapes, including yeasts, molds, and mushrooms.
 Animals can be unicellular or multicellular and can have a
variety of shapes, including roundworms, flatworms,
segmented worms, arthropods, mollusks, and vertebrates.

Microorganisms can also be classified by their habitat.

 Bacteria can be found in soil, water, air, and on living and

non-living surfaces.

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 Archaea can be found in extreme environments, such as hot
springs and hydrothermal vents.
 Protozoa can be found in water, soil, and the digestive tracts
of animals.
 Algae can be found in water and soil.
 Fungi can be found in soil, water, and on living and non-
living surfaces.
 Animals can be found on land, in water, and in the air.

Microorganisms are essential for life on Earth. They play a vital role in the
environment by decomposing organic matter, recycling nutrients, and
controlling populations of other organisms.

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