Mathslabmanual Vtu

Lab Component
of
Second Semester Engineering Mathematics
as prescribed by Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi
Compiled by:
Dr. Ramananda H. S. Dr. K. Sushan Bairy
St Joseph Engineering College, SOAS, REVA University,
Mangaluru, INDIA. Bengaluru, INDIA.
Dr. Smita S. Nagouda Dr. Madhukar Krishnamurthy

CHRIST(Deemed to be University), BMS College of Engineering,
Central Campus, Bengaluru, INDIA. Bull Temple Road, Bengaluru, INDIA.
Dr. Chandra Shekara G. Mr. Sonam Kumar

BMS College of Engineering, AMC Engineering college,
Bull Temple Road, Bengaluru, INDIA. Bannerghatta Road, Bengaluru, INDIA.
Instructions and method of evaluation
1. In each Lab student have to show the record of previous Lab.
2. Each Lab will be evaluated for 15 marks and finally average will be taken for 15
marks.
3. Viva questions shall be asked in labs and attendance also can be considered for
everyday Lab evaluation.
4. Tests shall be considered for 5 marks and final Lab assessment is for 20 marks.
5. Student has to score minimum 8 marks out of 20 to pass Lab component.
3
Contents: Computer Science and Engineering Stream
Lab 1. Programme to compute area, volume and center of gravity.
Lab 2. Evaluation of improper integrals , Beta and Gamma functions.
Lab 3. Finding gradient, divergent, curl and their geometrical interpretation
Lab 4. Computation of basis and dimension for a vector space and graphical representation
of linear transformation
Lab 5. Computing the inner product and orthogonality
Lab 6. Solution of algebraic and transcendental equation by Regula-Falsi and Newton-

Raphson method
Lab 7. Interpolation /Extrapolation using Newton’s forward and backward di↵erence for-
mula
1 rd
Lab 8. Computation of area under the curve using Trapezoidal, Simpson’s 3
and Simp-
th
sons 38 rule
Lab 9. Solution of ODE of first order and first degree by Taylor’s series and Modified
Euler’s method
Lab 10. Solution of ODE of first order and first degree by Runge-Kutta 4th order method
and Milne’s predictor and corrector method
51
LAB 1: Programme to compute area, volume and cen-
ter of gravity
1.1 Objectives:
Use python
1. to evaluate double integration.
2. to compute area and volume.
3. to calculate center of gravity of 2D object.
Syntax for the commands used:

1. Data pretty printer in Python:
pprint ()
2. integrate:
integrate ( function ,( variable , min_limit , max_limit ) )
1.2 Double and triple integration

Example 1:
R1 Rx
Evaluate the integral (x2 + y 2 )dydx
0 0
from sympy import *
x ,y , z = symbols ( 'x y z ')
w1 = integrate ( x ** 2 + y ** 2 ,( y ,0 , x ) ,(x ,0 , 1 ) )
print ( w1 )
1/3
Example 2:
R3 3R x 3 Rx y
Evaluate the integral (xyz)dzdydx
0 0 0
from sympy import *
x = Symbol ( 'x ')
y = Symbol ( 'y ')
z = Symbol ( 'z ')
w2 = integrate (( x * y * z ) ,(z ,0 , 3 - x - y ) ,(y ,0 , 3 - x ) ,(x ,0 , 3 ) )
print ( w2 )
81/80
52
Example 3:
RR 2 RR 2
Prove that (x + y 2 )dydx = (x + y 2 )dxdy
from sympy import *
x = Symbol ( 'x ')
y = Symbol ( 'y ')
z = Symbol ( 'z ')
w3 = integrate ( x ** 2 + y ** 2 ,y , x )
pprint ( w3 )
w4 = integrate ( x ** 2 + y ** 2 ,x , y )
pprint ( w4 )
1.3 Area and Volume

RR
Area of the region R in the cartesian form is dxdy
R
Example 4:
p
Ra (b/a) R a2 x2
Find the area of an ellipse by double integration. A=4 dydx
0 0
from sympy import *
x = Symbol ( 'x ')
y = Symbol ( 'y ')
# a = Symbol ( ' a ')
# b = Symbol ( ' b ')
a=4
b=6
w3 = 4 * integrate (1 ,( y ,0 ,( b / a ) * sqrt ( a ** 2 - x ** 2 ) ) ,(x ,0 , a ) )
print ( w3 )
24.0*pi
RR
1.4 Area of the region R in the polar form is rdrd✓
R
Example 5:
Find the area of the cardioid r = a(1 + cos✓) by double integration
from sympy import *
r = Symbol ( 'r ')
t = Symbol ( 't ')
a = Symbol ( 'a ')
#a=4
w3 = 2 * integrate (r ,( r ,0 , a * ( 1 + cos ( t ) ) ) ,(t ,0 , pi ) )

pprint ( w3 )
53
RRR
1.5 Volume of a solid is given by dxdydz
V
Example 6:
Find the volume of the tetrahedron bounded by the planes x=0,y=0 and z=0, xa + yb + zc = 1
from sympy import *
x = Symbol ( 'x ')
y = Symbol ( 'y ')
z = Symbol ( 'z ')
a = Symbol ( 'a ')
b = Symbol ( 'b ')
c = Symbol ( 'c ')
w2 = integrate (1 ,( z ,0 , c * ( 1 - x / a - y / b ) ) ,(y ,0 , b * ( 1 - x / a ) ) ,(x ,0 , a ) )
print ( w2 )
a*b*c/6
1.6 Center of Gravity

Find the center of gravity of cardioid . Plot the graph of cardioid and mark the center
of gravity.
import numpy as np
import matplotlib . pyplot as plt
import math
from sympy import *
r = Symbol ( 'r ')
t = Symbol ( 't ')
a = Symbol ( 'a ')
I1 = integrate ( cos ( t ) * r ** 2 ,( r ,0 , a * ( 1 + cos ( t ) ) ) ,(t , - pi , pi ) )
I2 = integrate (r ,( r ,0 , a * ( 1 + cos ( t ) ) ) ,(t , - pi , pi ) )
I = I1 / I2
print ( I )
I = I . subs (a , 5 )
plt . axes ( projection = ' polar ')
a=5
rad = np . arange (0 , ( 2 * np . pi ) , 0 . 01 )
# plotting the cardioid

for i in rad :
r = a + ( a * np . cos ( i ) )
plt . polar (i ,r , 'g . ')
plt . polar (0 ,I , 'r . ')

plt . show ()
5*a/6
54
1.7 Exercise:
R1 Rx
1. Evaluate (x + y)dydx
0 0
Ans: 0.5
log(2)
R Rx x+log(y)
R
2. Find the (ex+y+z )dzdydx
0 0 0
Ans: -0.2627
3. Find the area of positive quadrant of the circle x2 + y 2 = 16

Ans: 4⇡
4. Find the volume of the tetrahedron bounded by the planes x=0,y=0 and z=0,
x
2
+ y3 + z4 = 1
Ans: 4
55
LAB 2: Evaluation of improper integrals, Beta and
Gamma functions
2.1 Objectives:
Use python
1. to evaluate improper integrals using Beta function.
2. to evaluate improper integrals using Gamma function.

1. gamma
math . gamma ( x )
Parameters :
x : The number whose gamma value needs to be computed.
2. beta
math . beta (x , y )
Parameters :
x ,y: The numbers whose beta value needs to be computed.
3. Note: We can evaluate improper integral involving infinity by using inf.
Example 1:
R1
Evaluate e x dx.
0
from sympy import *
x = symbols ( 'x ')
w1 = integrate ( exp ( - x ) ,(x ,0 , float ( ' inf ') ) )
print ( simplify ( w1 ) )
1
R1
Gamma function is x(n) = 0
e x xn 1 dx
Example 2:
Evaluate (5) by using definition
from sympy import *
x = symbols ( 'x ')
w1 = integrate ( exp ( - x ) * x ** 4 ,( x ,0 , float ( ' inf ') ) )
24
56
Example 3:
R1 st
Evaluate e cos(4t)dt . That is Laplace transform of cos(4t)
0
from sympy import *
t , s = symbols ( 't , s ')
# for infinity in sympy we use oo
w1 = integrate ( exp ( - s * t ) * cos ( 4 * t ) ,(t ,0 , oo ) )
display ( simplify ( w1 ) )
Example 4:
Find Beta(3,5), Gamma(5)
# beta and gamma functions
from sympy import beta , gamma
m = input ( 'm : ') ;
n = input ( 'n : ') ;
m = float ( m ) ;
n = float ( n ) ;
s = beta (m , n ) ;
t = gamma ( n )
print ( ' gamma ( ' ,n , ') is % 3 . 3f '% t )
print ( ' Beta ( ' ,m ,n , ') is % 3 . 3f '% s )
m :3
n :5
gamma ( 5.0 ) is 24.000
Beta ( 3.0 5.0 ) is 0.010
Example 5:
Calculate Beta(5/2,7/2) and Gamma(5/2).
# If the number is a fraction give it in decimals . Eg 5 / 2 = 2 . 5
m = float ( input ( 'm : ') ) ;
n = float ( input ( 'n : ') ) ;
s = beta (m , n ) ;
t = gamma ( n )
57
m : 2.5
n :3.5
gamma ( 3.5 ) is 3.323
Beta ( 2.5 3.5 ) is 0.037
Example 6:
Verify that Beta(m, n) = Gamma(m)Gamma(n)/Gamma(m + n) for m=5 and n=7
m=5;
n=7;
m = float ( m ) ;
n = float ( n ) ;
s = beta (m , n ) ;
t = ( gamma ( m ) * gamma ( n ) ) / gamma ( m + n ) ;
print (s , t )
if ( abs ( s - t ) < = 0 . 00001 ) :
print ( ' beta and gamma are related ')
else :
print ( ' given values are wrong ')
0.000432900432900433 0.000432900432900433
beta and gamma are related
2.2 Exercise:
R1
1. Evaluate e t cos(2t)dt
0
Ans: 1/5
2. Find the value of Beta(5/2,9/2)

Ans: 0.0214
3. Find the value of Gamma(13)

Ans: 479001600
4. Verify that Beta(m, n) = Gamma(m)Gamma(n)/Gamma(m + n) for m=7/2 and

n=11/2
Ans: True
58
LAB 3: Finding gradient, divergent, curl and their
geometrical interpretation
1.1 Objectives:
Use python
1. to find the gradient of a given scalar function.
2. to find find divergence and curl of a vector function.
1.2 Method I:
To find gradient of = x2 y + 2xz 4.
# To find gradient of scalar point function .
from sympy . vector import *
from sympy import symbols
N = CoordSys3D ( 'N ') # Setting the coordinate system
A = N . x ** 2 * N . y + 2 * N . x * N . z - 4 # Variables x ,y , z to be used with coordinate
system N
delop = Del () # Del operator
display ( delop ( A ) ) # Del operator applied to A
gradA = gradient ( A ) # Gradient function is used
print ( f " \ n Gradient of { A } is \ n " )
display ( gradA )
To find divergence of F~ = x2 yz î + y 2 zxĵ + z 2 xy k̂

# To find divergence of a vector point function
N = CoordSys3D ( 'N ')
A = N . x ** 2 * N . y * N . z * N . i + N . y ** 2 * N . z * N . x * N . j + N . z ** 2 * N . x * N . y * N . k
delop = Del ()
divA = delop . dot ( A )
display ( divA )
print ( f " \ n Divergence of { A } is \ n " )

display ( divergence ( A ) )
59
To find curl of F~ = x2 yz î + y 2 zxĵ + z 2 xy k̂
# To find curl of a vector point function
delop = Del ()
curlA = delop . cross ( A )
display ( curlA )
print ( f " \ n Curl of { A } is \ n " )

display ( curl ( A ) )
1.3 Method II:

To find gradient of = x2 yz.
# To find gradient of a scalar point function x ^ 2yz
from sympy . physics . vector import *
from sympy import var , pprint
var ( 'x ,y , z ')
v = ReferenceFrame ( 'v ')
F = v [ 0 ] ** 2 * v [ 1 ] * v [ 2 ]
G = gradient (F , v )
F = F . subs ( [ ( v [ 0 ] ,x ) ,( v [ 1 ] ,y ) ,( v [ 2 ] ,z ) ] )
print ( " Given scalar function F = " )
display ( F )
G = G . subs ( [ ( v [ 0 ] ,x ) ,( v [ 1 ] ,y ) ,( v [ 2 ] ,z ) ] )
print ( " \ n Gradient of F = " )
display ( G )
60
To find divergence of F~ = x2 y î + yz 2 ĵ + x2 z k̂.
# To find divergence of F = x ^ 2yi + yz ^ 2j + x ^ 2zk
from sympy import var
var ( 'x ,y , z ')
F = v [ 0 ] ** 2 * v [ 1 ] * v . x + v [ 1 ] * v [ 2 ] ** 2 * v . y + v [ 0 ] ** 2 * v [ 2 ] * v . z
G = divergence (F , v )
F = F . subs ( [ ( v [ 0 ] ,x ) ,( v [ 1 ] ,y ) ,( v [ 2 ] ,z ) ] )
print ( " Given vector point function is " )
display ( F )
G = G . subs ( [ ( v [ 0 ] ,x ) ,( v [ 1 ] ,y ) ,( v [ 2 ] ,z ) ] )
print ( " Divergence of F = " )
display ( G )
To find curl of F~ = xy 2 î + 2x2 yz ĵ 3yz 2 k̂

# To find curl of F = xy ^ 2i + 2x ^ 2yzj - 3yz ^ 2k
var ( 'x ,y , z ')
F = v [ 0 ] * v [ 1 ] ** 2 * v . x + 2 * v [ 0 ] ** 2 * v [ 1 ] * v [ 2 ] * v . y - 3 * v [ 1 ] * v [ 2 ] ** 2 * v . z
G = curl (F , v )
F = F . subs ( [ ( v [ 0 ] ,x ) ,( v [ 1 ] ,y ) ,( v [ 2 ] ,z ) ] )
display ( F )
G = G . subs ( [ ( v [ 0 ] ,x ) ,( v [ 1 ] ,y ) ,( v [ 2 ] ,z ) ] )
print ( " curl of F = " )
display ( G )
61
1.4 Exercise:
1. If u = x + y + z, v = x2 + y 2 + z 2 , w = yz + zx + xy, find gradu, gradv and gradw.
Ans: î + ĵ + k̂, 2(xî + y ĵ + z k̂), (y + z)î + (z + x)ĵ + (z + x)k̂.
2. Evaluate divF and curlF at the point (1,2,3), given that F~ = x2 yz î+xy 2 z ĵ +xyz 2 k̂.
Ans: 6xyz, x(z 2 y 2 )î + y(x2 z 2 )ĵ + z(y 2 x2 )k̂.
3. Prove that the vector (yz x2 )î + (4y z 2 x)ĵ + (2xz 4z)k̂ is solenoidal.
4. Find the vector normal to the surface xy 3 z 2 = 4 at the point ( 1, 1, 2).

Ans: 4î 12ĵ + 4k̂.
~ = xî + y ĵ + z k̂, show that (i) r · R
5. If R ~ = 3, (ii) r ⇥ R
~ = 0.
62
LAB 4: Computation of basis and dimension for a vec-
tor space and graphical representation of linear trans-
formation
4.1 Objectives:
Use python
1. to verify the Rank nullity theorem of given linear transformation
2. to compute the dimension of vector space
3. to represent linear transformations graphically
4.2 Rank Nullity Theorem

Verify the rank-nullity theorem for the linear transformation T : R3 ! R3 defined by
T (x, y, z) = (x + 4y + 7z, 2x + 5y + 8z, 3x + 6y + 9z).
import numpy as np
from scipy . linalg import null_space
# Define a linear transformation interms of matrix

A = np . array ( [ [1 , 2 , 3 ] , [4 , 5 , 6 ] , [7 , 8 , 9 ] ] )
# Find the rank of the matrix A

rank = np . linalg . matrix_rank ( A )
print ( " Rank of the matrix " , rank )
# Find the null space of the matrix A

ns = null_space ( A )
print ( " Null space of the matrix " , ns )
# Find the dimension of the null space
nullity = ns . shape [ 1 ]
print ( " Null space of the matrix " , nullity )
# Verify the rank - nullity theorem
if rank + nullity = = A . shape [ 1 ] :
print ( " Rank - nullity theorem holds . " )
else :
print ( " Rank - nullity theorem does not hold . " )
Rank of the matrix 2

Null space of the matrix [[-0.40824829]
[ 0.81649658]
[-0.40824829]]
Null space of the matrix 1
Rank-nullity theorem holds.
63
4.3 Dimension of Vector Space
Find the dimension of subspace spanned by the vectors (1, 2, 3), (2, 3, 1) and (3, 1, 2).
import numpy as np
# Define the vector space V

V = np . array ( [
[1 , 2 , 3 ] ,
[2 , 3 , 1 ] ,
[3 , 1 , 2 ] ] )
# Find the dimension and basis of V
basis = np . linalg . matrix_rank ( V )
dimension = V . shape [ 0 ]
print ( " Basis of the matrix " , basis )
print ( " Dimension of the matrix " , dimension )
Basis of the matrix 3

Dimension of the matrix 3
Extract the linearly independent rows in given matrix : Basis of Row space
from numpy import *
import sympy as sp
A = [ [1 , -1 ,1 , 1 ] ,[2 , -5 ,2 , 2 ] ,[3 , -3 ,5 , 3 ] ,[4 , -4 ,4 , 4 ] ]
AB = array ( A )
S = shape ( A )
n = len ( A )
for i in range ( n ) :
if AB [i , i ] = = 0 :
ab = copy ( AB )
for k in range ( i +1 , S [ 0 ] ) :
if ab [k , i ] ! = 0 :
ab [i , : ] = AB [k , : ]
ab [k , : ] = AB [i , : ]
AB = copy ( ab )
for j in range ( i +1 , n ) :
Fact = AB [j , i ] / AB [i , i ]
for k in range (i , n ) :
AB [j , k ] = AB [j , k ] - Fact * AB [i , k ]
display ( " REF of given matrix : " , sp . Matrix ( AB ) )
temp = { (0 , 0 , 0 , 0 ) }
result = [ ]
for idx , row in enumerate ( map ( tuple , AB ) ) :
if row not in temp :
result . append ( idx )
print ( " \ n Basis are non - zero rows of A : " )
display ( sp . Matrix ( AB [ result ] ) )
64
4.4 Graphical representation of a transformation
4.4.1 Horizontal stretch:
Represent the horizontal stretch transformation T : R2 ßR2 geometrically
Find the image of vector (10, 0) when it is stretched horizontally by 2 units.
import numpy as np
V = np . array ( [ [ 10 , 0 ] ] )
origin = np . array ( [ [0 , 0 , 0 ] ,[0 , 0 , 0 ] ] ) # origin point
A = np . matrix ( [ [2 , 0 ] ,[0 , 1 ] ] )
V1 = np . matrix ( V )
V2 = A * np . transpose ( V1 )
V2 = np . array ( V2 )
plt . quiver ( * origin , V [ : ,0 ] , V [ : ,1 ] , color = [ 'b '] , scale = 50 )
plt . quiver ( * origin , V2 [0 , : ] , V2 [1 , : ] , color = [ 'r '] , scale = 50 )
plt . show ()
Another example.
from math import pi , sin , cos
65
import numpy as np
coords = np . array ( [ [0 , 0 ] ,[ 0 .5 , 0 . 5 ] ,[ 0 .5 , 1 . 5 ] ,[0 , 1 ] ,[0 , 0 ] ] )

coords = coords . transpose ()
coords
x = coords [0 , : ]
y = coords [1 , : ]
A = np . array ( [ [2 , 0 ] ,[0 , 1 ] ] )
A_coords = A@coords
x_LT1 = A_coords [0 , : ]
y_LT1 = A_coords [1 , : ]
# Create the figure and axes objects

fig , ax = plt . subplots ()
# Plot the points . x and y are original vectors , x_LT1 and y_LT1 are
images
ax . plot (x ,y , ' ro ')
ax . plot ( x_LT1 , y_LT1 , ' bo ')
# Connect the points by lines

ax . plot (x ,y , 'r ' , ls = " --" )
ax . plot ( x_LT1 , y_LT1 , 'b ')
# Edit some settings

ax . axvline ( x =0 , color = " k " , ls = " : " )
ax . axhline ( y =0 , color = " k " , ls = " : " )
ax . grid ( True )
ax . axis ( [ -2 ,2 , -1 , 2 ] )
ax . set_aspect ( ' equal ')
ax . set_title ( " Horizontal Stretch " ) ;
66
4.4.2 Reflection:
Represent the reflection transformation T : R2 ! R2 geometrically.
Find the image of vector (10, 0) when it is reflected about y axis.
import numpy as np
V = np . array ( [ [ 10 , 0 ] ] )
A = np . matrix ( [ [ -1 , 0 ] ,[0 , 1 ] ] )
plt . show ()
Another example.
B = np . array ( [ [ -1 , 0 ] ,[0 , 1 ] ] )
B_coords = B@coords
x_LT2 = B_coords [0 , : ]
y_LT2 = B_coords [1 , : ]

images

ax . plot (x ,y , 'r ' , ls = " --" )
ax . plot ( x_LT2 , y_LT2 , 'b ')

67
ax . grid ( True )
ax . axis ( [ -2 ,2 , -1 , 2 ] )
ax . set_title ( " Reflection " ) ;
4.4.3 Rotation:
Represent the rotation transformation T : R2 ! R2 geometrically.
Find the image of vector (10, 0) when it is rotated by ⇡/2 radians.
import numpy as np
V = np . array ( [ [ 10 , 0 ] ] )
A = np . matrix ( [ [0 , - 1 ] ,[1 , 1 ] ] )
plt . show ()
68
Another example.
theta = pi / 6
R = np . array ( [ [ cos ( theta ) ,- sin ( theta ) ] ,[ sin ( theta ) , cos ( theta ) ] ] )
R_coords = R@coords
x_LT3 = R_coords [0 , : ]
y_LT3 = R_coords [1 , : ]

images

ax . plot (x ,y , 'r ' , ls = " --" )
ax . plot ( x_LT3 , y_LT3 , 'b ')

ax . grid ( True )
ax . axis ( [ -2 ,2 , -1 , 2 ] )
69
4.4.4 Shear Transformation
Represent the Shear transformation T : R2 ! R2 geometrically.
Find the image of (2, 3) under shear transformation.
import numpy as np
V = np . array ( [ [2 , 3 ] ] )
A = np . matrix ( [ [1 , 2 ] ,[0 , 1 ] ] )
print ( " Image of given vectors is : " , V2 )
plt . show ()
70
Another example.
S = np . array ( [ [1 , 2 ] ,[0 , 1 ] ] )
S_coords = S@coords
x_LT4 = S_coords [0 , : ]
y_LT4 = S_coords [1 , : ]

images

ax . plot (x ,y , 'r ' , ls = " --" )
ax . plot ( x_LT4 , y_LT4 , 'b ')

ax . grid ( True )
ax . axis ( [ -2 ,4 , -1 , 2 ] )
ax . set_title ( " Shear " ) ;
71
4.4.5 Composition
Represent the composition of two 2D transformations.
Find the image of vector (10, 0) when it is rotated by ⇡/2 radians then stretched hori-
zontally 2 units.
import numpy as np
V = np . array ( [ [2 , 3 ] ] )
A = np . matrix ( [ [0 , - 1 ] ,[1 , 0 ] ] )
B = np . matrix ( [ [2 , 0 ] ,[0 , 1 ] ] )
V3 = B * V2
print ( " Image of given vectors is : " , V3 )
plt . quiver ( * origin , V3 [0 , : ] , V3 [1 , : ] , color = [ 'g '] , scale = 20 )
plt . title ( ' Blue = original , Red = Rotated , Green = Rotated + Streached ')
plt . show ()
72
Another example.
C = np . array ( [ [ - cos ( theta ) , sin ( theta ) ] ,[ sin ( theta ) , cos ( theta ) ] ] )
C_coords = C@coords
x_LT5 = C_coords [0 , : ]
y_LT5 = C_coords [1 , : ]

images

ax . plot (x ,y , 'r ' , ls = " --" )
ax . plot ( x_LT5 , y_LT5 , 'b ')

ax . grid ( True )
ax . axis ( [ -2 ,2 , -1 , 2 ] )
73
4.5 Exercise:
1. Verify the rank nullity theorem for the following linear transformation
a) T : R2 ! R3 defined by T (x, y) = (x + 4y, 2x + 5y, 3x + 6y).

Ans: Rank=2, Nullity=1, RNT verified
b) T : R3 ! R4 defined by T (x, y, z) = (x+4y z, 2x+5y+8z, 3x+y+2z, x+y+z).
Ans: Rank=3, Nullity=1, RNT verified
2. Find the dimension of the subspace spanned following set of vectors
a) S = (1, 2, 3, 4), (2, 4, 6, 8), (1, 1, 1, 1)

Ans: Dimension of subspace is 2
b) S = (1, 1, 3, 4), (2, 1, 6, 8), (1, 1, 1, 1), (3, 3, 3, 3)
Ans: Dimension of subspace is 3
3. Find the image of (1, 3) under following 2D transformations
a) Horizontal stretch
b) Reflection
c) Shear
d) Rotation
74
LAB 5: Computing the inner product and orthogo-
nality
5.1 Objectives:
Use python
1. to compute the inner product of two vectors.
2. to check whether the given vectors are orthogonal.
5.2 Inner Product of two vectors

Find the inner product of the vectors (2, 1, 5, 4) and (3, 4, 7, 8).
import numpy as np
# initialize arrays
A = np . array ( [2 , 1 , 5 , 4 ] )
B = np . array ( [3 , 4 , 7 , 8 ] )
# dot product
output = np . dot (A , B )
print ( output )
77
5.3 Checking orthogonality

Verify whether the following vectors (2, 1, 5, 4) and (3, 4, 7, 8) are orthogonal.
import numpy as np
# initialize arrays
A = np . array ( [2 , 1 , 5 , 4 ] )
B = np . array ( [3 , 4 , 7 , 8 ] )
# dot product
output = np . dot (A , B )
print ( ' Inner product is : ' , output )
if output = = 0 :
print ( ' given vectors are orthognal ')
else :
print ( ' given vectors are not orthognal ')
Inner product is : 77
given vectors are not orthognal
75
5.4 Exercise:
1. Find the inner product of (1, 2, 3) and (3, 4, 5).
Ans: 26
2. Find the inner product of (1, 1, 2, 1) and (4, 2, 1, 0).

Ans: 4
3. Check whether the following vectors are orthogonal or not
a) (1, 1, 1) and (2, 3, 5). Ans: True

b) (1, 0, 2, 0) and (4, 2, 2, 5). Ans: True
c) (1, 2, 3, 4) and (2, 3, 4, 5) . Ans: False
76
LAB 6: Solution of algebraic and transcendental equa-
tion by Regula-Falsi and Newton-Raphson method
6.1 Objectives:
Use python
1. to solve algebraic and transcendental equation by Regula-Falsi method.
2. to solve algebraic and transcendental equation by Newton-Raphson method.
6.2 Regula-Falsi method to solve a transcendental equation

Obtain a root of the equation x3 2x 5 = 0 between 2 and 3 by regula-falsi method.
Perform 5 iterations.
# Regula Falsi method
from sympy import *
x = Symbol ( 'x ')
g = input ( ' Enter the function ') # % x ^3 - 2 *x - 5 ; % function
f = lambdify (x , g )
a = float ( input ( ' Enter a valus : ') ) # 2
b = float ( input ( ' Enter b valus : ') ) # 3
N = int ( input ( ' Enter number of iterations : ') ) # 5
for i in range (1 , N + 1 ) :
c=(a*f(b)-b*f(a))/(f(b)-f(a))
if (( f ( a ) * f ( c ) < 0 ) ) :
b=c
else :
a=c
print ( ' itration % d \ t the root % 0 . 3f \ t function value % 0 . 3f \ n '%
(i ,c , f ( c ) ) ) ;
Using tolerance value we can write the same program as follows:

Correct to 3 decimal places.
77
# Regula Falsi method while loop2
from sympy import *
x = Symbol ( 'x ')
N = float ( input ( ' Enter tolarence : ') ) # 0 . 001
x=a;
c=b;
i=0
while ( abs ( x - c ) > = N ) :
x=c
c = (( a * f ( b ) - b * f ( a ) ) / ( f ( b ) - f ( a ) ) ) ;
if (( f ( a ) * f ( c ) < 0 ) ) :
b=c
else :
a=c
i=i+1
(i ,c , f ( c ) ) ) ;
print ( ' final value of the root is % 0 . 5f '% c )
6.3 Newton-Raphson method to solve a transcendental equa-

tion
Find a root of the equation 3x = cos x + 1, near 1, by Newton Raphson method. Perform
5 iterations
from sympy import *
x = Symbol ( 'x ')
g = input ( ' Enter the function ') # % 3x - cos ( x ) -1 ; % function
dg = diff ( g ) ;
78
df = lambdify (x , dg )
x0 = float ( input ( ' Enter the intial approximation ') ) ; # x0 = 1
n = int ( input ( ' Enter the number of iterations ') ) ; #n=5;
for i in range (1 , n + 1 ) :
x1 = ( x0 - ( f ( x0 ) / df ( x0 ) ) )
(i , x1 , f ( x1 ) ) ) ; # print all
iteration value
x0 = x1
6.4 Exercise:
1. Find a root of the equation 3x = cos x+1, between 0 and 1, by Regula-falsi method.
Ans: 0.607
2. Find a root of the equation xex = 2, between 0 and 1, by Regula-falsi method.

Ans: 0.853
3. Obtain a real positive root of x4 x = 0, near 1, by Newton-Raphson method.

Ans: 1.856
4. Obtain a real positive root of x4 + x3 7x2 x + 5 = 0, near 3, by Newton-Raphson

method. Perform 7 iterations.
Ans: 2.061
79
LAB 7: Interpolation /Extrapolation using Newton’s
forward and backward di↵erence formula
7.1 Objectives:
Use python
1. to interpolate using Newton’s Forward interpolation method.
2. to interpolate using Newton’s backward interpolation method.
3. to extrapolate using Newton’s backward interpolation method.

1. Use Newtons forward interpolation to obtain the interpolating polynomial and hence
x: 1 3 5 7 9
calculate y(2) for the following:
y: 6 10 62 210 502
from sympy import *
import numpy as np
n = int ( input ( ' Enter number of data points : ') )
210
x = np . zeros (( n ) )
y = np . zeros (( n , n ) )
# Reading data points

print ( ' Enter data for x and y : ')
x [ i ] = float ( input ( 'x [ '+ str ( i ) + ' ]= ') )
y [ i ] [ 0 ] = float ( input ( 'y [ '+ str ( i ) + ' ]= ') )
# Generating forward difference table

for i in range (1 , n ) :
for j in range (0 , n - i ) :
y[j][i] = y[j+1][i-1] - y[j][i-1]
print ( '\ nFORWARD DIFFERENCE TABLE \ n ') ;
print ( '% 0 . 2f ' % ( x [ i ] ) , end = ' ')
print ( '\ t \ t % 0 . 2f ' % ( y [ i ] [ j ] ) , end = ' ')
print ()
# obtaining the polynomial
t = symbols ( 't ')
f = [ ] # f is a list type data
p=(t-x[0])/(x[1]-x[0])
f . append ( p )
for i in range (1 , n - 1 ) :
f . append ( f [ i - 1 ] * ( p - i ) / ( i + 1 ) )
poly = y [ 0 ] [ 0 ]
for i in range ( n - 1 ) :
poly = poly + y [ 0 ] [ i + 1 ] * f [ i ]
80
simp_poly = simplify ( poly )
print ( '\ nTHE INTERPOLATING POLYNOMIAL IS \ n ') ;
pprint ( simp_poly )
# if you want to interpolate at some point the next session will help
inter = input ( ' Do you want to interpolate at a point ( y / n ) ? ') # y
if inter = = 'y ':
a = float ( input ( ' enter the point ') ) # 2
interpol = lambdify (t , simp_poly )
result = interpol ( a )
print ( '\ nThe value of the function at ' ,a , ' is \ n ' , result ) ;
2. Use Newtons backward interpolation to obtain the interpolating polynomial and

x: 1 3 5 7 9
hence calculate y(8) for the following data:
y: 6 10 62 210 502
from sympy import *
import numpy as np
import sys
print ( " This will use Newton 's backword intepolation formula " )
# Reading number of unknowns
# Making numpy array of n & n x n size and initializing

# to zero for storing x and y value along with differences of y
x = np . zeros (( n ) )
y = np . zeros (( n , n ) )
81
# Generating backward difference table

for j in range ( n -1 , i -2 , - 1 ) :
y[j][i] = y[j][i-1] - y[j-1][i-1]
print ( '\ nBACKWARD DIFFERENCE TABLE \ n ') ;
print ( '% 0 . 2f ' % ( x [ i ] ) , end = ' ')
for j in range (0 , i + 1 ) :
print ( '\ t % 0 . 2f ' % ( y [ i ] [ j ] ) , end = ' ')
print ()

t = symbols ( 't ')
f=[]
p=(t-x[n-1])/(x[1]-x[0])
f . append ( p )
f . append ( f [ i - 1 ] * ( p + i ) / ( i + 1 ) )
poly = y [ n - 1 ] [ 0 ]
print ( poly )
poly = poly + y [ n - 1 ] [ i + 1 ] * f [ i ]
inter = input ( ' Do you want to interpolate at a point ( y / n ) ? ')
if inter = = 'y ':
a = float ( input ( ' enter the point ') )
82
7.2 Exercise:
1. Obtain the interpolating polynomial for the following data
x: 0 1 2 3
y: 1 2 1 10
Ans: 2x3 7x2 + 6x + 1
2. Find the number of men getting wage Rs. 100 from the following table:
wage: 50 150 250 350
No. of men: 9 30 35 42
Ans: 23 men
3. Using Newton’s backward interpolation method obtain y(160) for the following data
x: 100 150 200 250 300
y: 10 13 15 17 18
Ans: 13.42
4. Using Newtons forward interpolation polynomial and calculate y(1) and y(10).
x: 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
y: 4.8 8.4 14.5 23.6 36.2 52.8 73.9
Ans: 3.1 and 100
83
LAB 8: Computation of area under the curve using
rd th
Trapezoidal, Simpson’s 13 and Simpsons 38 rule
8.1 Objectives:
Use python
1. to find area under the curve represented by a given function using Trapezoidal rule.
1 rd
2. to find area under the curve represented by a given function using Simpson’s 3
rule.
3 th
rule.
4. to find the area below the curve when discrete points on the curve are given.
8.2 Trapezoidal Rule

R5 1
Evaluate 1+x2
.
0
# Definition of the function to integrate
def my_func ( x ) :
return 1 / ( 1 + x ** 2 )
# Function to implement trapezoidal method

def trapezoidal ( x0 , xn , n ) :
h = ( xn - x0 ) / n # Calculating step
size
# Finding sum
integration = my_func ( x0 ) + my_func ( xn ) # Adding first and
last terms
k = x0 + i * h # i - th step value
integration = integration + 2 * my_func ( k ) # Adding areas of the
trapezoids
# Proportioning sum of trapezoid areas
integration = integration * h / 2
return integration
# Input section
lower_limit = float ( input ( " Enter lower limit of integration : " ) )
upper_limit = float ( input ( " Enter upper limit of integration : " ) )
sub_interval = int ( input ( " Enter number of sub intervals : " ) )
# Call trapezoidal () method and get result

result = trapezoidal ( lower_limit , upper_limit , sub_interval )
# Print result
print ( " Integration result by Trapezoidal method is : " , result )
84
1 rd
8.3 Simpson’s 3 Rule
R5 1
Evaluate 1+x2
.
0
def my_func ( x ) :
return 1 / ( 1 + x ** 2 )
# Function to implement the Simpson 's one - third rule
def simpson13 ( x0 , xn , n ) :
h = ( xn - x0 ) / n # calculating step size
# Finding sum
integration = ( my_func ( x0 ) + my_func ( xn ) )
k = x0
if i % 2 = = 0 :
integration = integration + 4 * my_func ( k )
else :
k += h
# Finding final integration value
integration = integration * h * ( 1 / 3 )
return integration
# Input section

result = simpson13 ( lower_limit , upper_limit , sub_interval )
print ( " Integration result by Simpson 's 1 / 3 method is : % 0 . 6f " % ( result )
)
8.4 Simpson’s 3/8th rule

R6 1
Evaluate 0 1+x2
dx using Simpson’s 3/8 th rule, taking 6 sub intervals
def simpson s_3_8_ rule (f , a , b , n ) :
85
h = (b - a) / n
s = f(a) + f(b)
for i in range (1 , n , 3 ) :
s += 3 * f(a + i * h)
for i in range (3 , n -1 , 3 ) :
s += 3 * f(a + i * h)
for i in range (2 , n -2 , 3 ) :
s += 2 * f(a + i * h)
return s * 3 * h / 8
def f ( x ) :
return 1 / ( 1 + x ** 2 ) # function here
a = 0 # lower limit
b = 6 # upper limit
n = 6 # number of sub intervals
result = simpsons_3_8_rule (f , a , b , n )
print ( '% 3 . 5f '% result )
1.27631
8.5 Exercise:
Z1
x2 1
1. Evaluate the integral 3
dx using Simpson’s rule.
1+x 3
0
Ans: 0.23108
Z0.6
3 x2
2. Use Simpson’s rule to find e dx by taking seven ordinates.
8
0
Ans: 0.5351
Z⇡
3. Evaluate using trapezoidal rule sin2 xdx. Take n = 6.
0
Ans: ⇡/2
4. A solid of revolution is formed by rotating about the x-axis, the area between the
x-axis, the lines x = 0 and x = 1, and a curve through the points with the following
co-ordinates:
x y
0.00 1.0000
0.25 0.9896
0.50 0.9589
0.75 0.9089
1.00 0.8415
86
1
Estimate the volume of the solid formed using Simpson’s rd rule. Hint: Required
R1 2 3
volume is 0 y ⇤ ⇡dx. **[Ans: 2.8192]**
5. The velocity v(km/min) of a moped which starts from rest, is given at fixed intervals
of time t(min) as follows:
t: 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
v: 10 18 25 29 32 20 11 5 2 0
Estimate approximately the distance covered in twenty minutes.
Answer for 5.
We know that ds/dt=v. So to get distance (s) we have to integrate.
Here h = 2.2, v0 = 0, v1 = 10, v2 = 18, v3 = 25 etc.
# we shall use simpson 's 1 / 3 rule directly to estimate
h=2
y = [0 , 10 ,18 , 25 , 29 , 32 ,20 , 11 ,5 ,2 , 0 ]
result = ( h / 3 ) * (( y [ 0 ] + y [ 10 ] ) + 4 * ( y [ 1 ] + y [ 3 ] + y [ 5 ] + y [ 7 ] + y [ 9 ] ) + 2 * ( y [ 2 ] + y [ 4 ] + y [
6]+y[8]))
print ( '% 3 . 5f '% result , ' km . ')
309.33333 km.
87
LAB 9: Solution of ODE of first order and first degree
by Taylor’s series and Modified Euler’s method
9.1 Objectives:
Use python
1. to solve ODE by Taylor series method.
2. to solve ODE by Modified Euler method.
3. to trace the solution curves.
9.2 Taylor series method to solve ODE

dy
Solve: dx
2y = 3ex with y(0) = 0 using Taylor series method at x = 0.1(0.1)0.3.
# # module taylor
'''X , Y = taylor ( deriv ,x ,y , xStop , h ) .
4th - order Taylor series method for solving the initial value problem { y
} ' = { F (x , { y } ) } , where
{ y } = { y [ 0 ] , y [ 1 ] ,... y [n - 1 ] } .
x , y = initial conditions
xStop = terminal value of x
h = increment of x
'''
from numpy import array
def taylor ( deriv ,x ,y , xStop , h ) :
X = []
Y = []
X . append ( x )
Y . append ( y )
while x < xStop : # Loop over integration steps
D = deriv (x , y ) # Derivatives of y
H = 1.0
for j in range ( 3 ) : # Build Taylor series
H = H*h/(j + 1)
y = y + D[j]*H # H = h^j/j!
x = x + h
X . append ( x ) # Append results to
Y . append ( y ) # lists X and Y
return array ( X ) , array ( Y ) # Convert lists into arrays
# deriv = user - supplied function that returns derivatives in the 4 x n

array
'''
[ y '[ 0 ] y '[ 1 ] y '[ 2 ] ... y '[n - 1 ]
y ' '[ 0 ] y ' '[ 1 ] y ' '[ 2 ] ... y ' '[n - 1 ]
y '''[ 0 ] y '''[ 1 ] y '''[ 2 ] ... y '''[n - 1 ]
y ''' '[ 0 ] y ' '''[ 1 ] y ''' '[ 2 ] ... y ' '''[n - 1 ]]
'''
def deriv (x , y ) :
D = zeros (( 4 , 1 ) )
88
D[0] = [ 2 * y [ 0 ] + 3 * exp ( x ) ]
D[1] = [ 4 * y [ 0 ] + 9 * exp ( x ) ]
D[2] = [ 8 * y [ 0 ] + 21 * exp ( x ) ]
D[3] = [ 16 * y [ 0 ] + 45 * exp ( x ) ]
return D
x = 0.0 # Initial value of x

xStop = 0 . 3 # last value
y = array ( [ 0 . 0 ] ) # Initial values of y
h = 0.1 # Step size
X , Y = taylor ( deriv ,x ,y , xStop , h )
print ( " The required values are : at x = % 0 . 2f , y = % 0 . 5f , x = % 0 . 2f , y = % 0 . 5f ,

x = % 0 . 2f , y = % 0 . 5f , x = % 0 . 2f , y = % 0
. 5f " % ( X [ 0 ] ,Y [ 0 ] ,X [ 1 ] ,Y [ 1 ] ,X [ 2 ] ,Y [ 2 ]
,X [ 3 ] ,Y [ 3 ] ) )
The required values are :at x= 0.00, y=0.00000, x=0.10, y=0.34850,

x = 0.20, y=0.81079,x = 0.30, y=1.41590
Solve y 0 + 4y = x2 with initial conditions y(0) = 1 using Taylor series method at x =

0.1, 0.2.
X = []
Y = []
X . append ( x )
Y . append ( y )
H = 1.0
H = H*h/(j + 1)
y = y + D[j]*H # H = h^j/j!
x = x + h

array
'''
[ y '[ 0 ] y '[ 1 ] y '[ 2 ] ... y '[n - 1 ]
y "[ 0 ] y "[ 1 ] y "[ 2 ] ... y "[ n - 1 ]
y '''[ 0 ] y '''[ 1 ] y '''[ 2 ] ... y '''[n - 1 ]
y ""[ 0 ] y ""[ 1 ] y ""[ 2 ] ... y ""[ n - 1 ]]
'''
D = zeros (( 4 , 1 ) )
D [ 0 ] = [ x ** 2 - 4 * y [ 0 ] ]
D [ 1 ] = [ 2 * x - 4 * x ** 2 + 16 * y [ 0 ] ]
D [ 2 ] = [ 2 - 8 * x + 16 * x ** 2 - 64 * y [ 0 ] ]
D [ 3 ] = [ - 8 + 32 * x - 64 * x ** 2 + 256 * y [ 0 ] ]
89
return D

h = 0.1 # Step size

x = % 0 . 2f , y = % 0 . 5f " % ( X [ 0 ] ,Y [ 0 ] ,X [ 1
] ,Y [ 1 ] ,X [ 2 ] ,Y [ 2 ] ) )

x = 0.20, y=0.45026
9.3 Euler’s method to solve ODE:

dy
To solve the ODE of the form dx = f (x, y) with initial conditions y(x0 ) = y0 . The iterative
formula is given by : y(x(i+1) = y(xi ) + hf (xi , y(xi )).
Solve: y 0 = e x with y(0) = 1 using Euler’s method at x = 0.2(0.2)0.6.
import numpy as np
# Define parameters
f = lambda x , y : np . exp ( - x ) # ODE
h = 0 . 2 # Step size
y0 = - 1 # Initial Condition
n=3
# Explicit Euler Method
y [ 0 ] = y0
x[0]=0
x[i+1]=x[i]+h
y[i + 1] = y[i] + h*f(x[i], y[i])
print ( " The required values are at x = % 0 . 2f , y = % 0 . 5f , x = % 0 . 2f , y = % 0 . 5f ,

x = % 0 . 2f , y = % 0 . 5f , x = % 0 . 2f , y = % 0 .
5f " % ( x [ 0 ] ,y [ 0 ] ,x [ 1 ] ,y [ 1 ] ,x [ 2 ] ,y [ 2 ] ,
x [ 3 ] ,y [ 3 ] ) )
print ( " \ n \ n " )
plt . plot (x , y , 'bo - - ' , label = ' Approximate ')

plt . plot (x , - np . exp ( - x ) , 'g * - ' , label = ' Exact ')
plt . title ( " Approximate and Exact Solution " )
plt . xlabel ( 'x ')
plt . ylabel ( 'f ( x ) ')
plt . grid ()
plt . legend ( loc = ' best ')
plt . show ()
90
The required values are at x= 0.00, y=-1.00000, x=0.20, y=-0.80000,
x = 0.40, y=-0.63625,x = 0.60, y=-0.50219
Solve: y 0 = 2y + x3 e 2x
with y(0) = 1 using Euler’s method at x = 0.1, 0.2.
import numpy as np
# Define parameters
f = lambda x , y : - 2 * y + ( x ** 3 ) * np . exp ( - 2 * x ) # ODE
y0 = 1 # Initial Condition
n=2
y [ 0 ] = y0
x[0]=0
x[i+1]=x[i]+h
y[i + 1] = y[i] + h*f(x[i], y[i])
print ( " The required values are at x = % 0 . 2f , y = % 0 . 5f , x = % 0 . 2f , y = % 0 . 5f , x

= % 0 . 2f , y = % 0 . 5f \ n \ n " % ( x [ 0 ] ,y [ 0 ] ,x [ 1
] ,y [ 1 ] ,x [ 2 ] ,y [ 2 ] ) )
plt . plot (x , y , 'bo - - ' , label = " Approximate ( Euler 's method ) " )
plt . title ( " Solution by Euler 's method " )

plt . grid ()
plt . show ()
91
The required values are at x= 0.00, y=1.00000, x=0.10, y=0.80000,
x=0.20, y=0.64008
9.4 Modified Euler’s method

The iterative formula is:
(n+1) h (n)
y1 = y0 + [f (x0 , y0 ) + f (x1 , y1 )], n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . ,
2
(n)
where, y1 is the nth approximation to y1 .
(0)
The first iteration will use Euler’s method: y1 = y0 + hf (x0 , y0 ).
Solve y 0 = ky with y(0) = 100 using modified Euler’s method at x = 100, by taking
h = 25.
import numpy as np
def modified_euler (f , x0 , y0 , h , n ) :
x = np . zeros ( n + 1 )
y = np . zeros ( n + 1 )
x [ 0 ] = x0
y [ 0 ] = y0
x[i+1] = x[i] + h
k1 = h * f ( x [ i ] , y [ i ] )
k2 = h * f ( x [ i + 1 ] , y [ i ] + k1 )
y [ i + 1 ] = y [ i ] + 0 . 5 * ( k1 + k2 )
return x , y
92
def f (x , y ) :
return - 0 . 01 * y # ODE dy / dx = - ky
x0 = 0 . 0
y0 = 100 . 0
h = 25
n = 4
x , y = modified_euler (f , x0 , y0 , h , n )
print ( " The required value at x = % 0 . 2f , y = % 0 . 5f " % ( x [ 4 ] ,y [ 4 ] ) )

print ( " \ n \ n " )
# Plotting the results

plt . plot (x , y , 'bo - ')
plt . ylabel ( 'y ')
plt . title ( ' Solution of dy / dx = - ky using Modified Euler \ ' s Method ')
plt . grid ( True )
plt . show ()
The required value at x= 100.00, y=37.25290
9.5 Exercise:
1. Find y(0.1) by Taylor Series exapnsion when y 0 = x y 2 , y(0) = 1.
Ans: y(0.1) = 0.9138
2. Find y(0.2) by Taylor Series exapnsion when y 0 = x2 y 1, y(0) = 1, h = 0.1.

Ans: y(0.2) = 0.80227
93
3. Evaluate by modified Euler’s method: y 0 = ln(x + y), y(0) = 2 at x = 0(0.2)0.8.
Ans: 2.0656, 2.1416, 2.2272, 2.3217
4. Solve by modified Euler’s method: y 0 = x + y, y(0) = 1, h = 0.1, x = 0(0.1)0.3.

Ans: 1.1105, 1.2432, 1.4004
94
LAB 10: Solution of ODE of first order and first de-
gree by Runge-Kutta 4th order method and Milne’s
predictor and corrector method
10.1 Objectives:
1. To write a python program to solve first order di↵erential equation using 4th order
Runge Kutta method.
2. To write a python program to solve first order di↵erential equation using Milne’s
predictor and corrector method.
10.2 Runge-Kutta method

Apply the Runge Kutta method to find the solution of dy/dx = 1 + (y/x) at y(2) taking
h = 0.2. Given that y(1) = 2.
from sympy import *
import numpy as np
def RungeKutta (g , x0 ,h , y0 , xn ) :
x , y = symbols ( 'x , y ')

f = lambdify ( [x , y ] ,g )
xt = x0 + h
Y = [ y0 ]
while xt < = xn :
k1 = h * f ( x0 , y0 )
k2 = h * f ( x0 + h /2 , y0 + k1 / 2 )
k3 = h * f ( x0 + h /2 , y0 + k2 / 2 )
k4 = h * f ( x0 +h , y0 + k3 )
y1 = y0 + ( 1 / 6 ) * ( k1 + 2 * k2 + 2 * k3 + k4 )
Y . append ( y1 )
# print ( ' y ( % 3 . 3f '% xt , ') is % 3 . 3f '% y1 )
x0 = xt
y0 = y1
xt = xt + h
return np . round (Y , 2 )
RungeKutta ( '1 +( y / x ) ' ,1 , 0 .2 ,2 , 2 )
array([2. , 2.62, 3.27, 3.95, 4.66, 5.39])
10.3 Milne’s predictor and corrector method

Apply Milne’s predictor and corrector method to solve dy/dx = x2 + (y/2) at y(1.4).
Given that y(1)=2, y(1.1)=2.2156, y(1.2)=2.4649, y(1.3)=2.7514. Use corrector formula
thrice.
# Milne 's method to solve first order DE
# Use corrector formula thrice
x0 = 1
y0 = 2
95
y1 = 2 . 2156
y2 = 2 . 4649
y3 = 2 . 7514
h=0.1
x1 = x0 + h
x2 = x1 + h
x3 = x2 + h
x4 = x3 + h
def f (x , y ) :
return x ** 2 + ( y / 2 )
y10 = f ( x0 , y0 )
y11 = f ( x1 , y1 )
y12 = f ( x2 , y2 )
y13 = f ( x3 , y3 )
y4p = y0 + ( 4 * h / 3 ) * ( 2 * y11 - y12 + 2 * y13 )
print ( ' predicted value of y4 is % 3 . 3f '% y4p )
y14 = f ( x4 , y4p ) ;
for i in range (1 , 4 ) :
y4 = y2 + ( h / 3 ) * ( y14 + 4 * y13 + y12 ) ;
print ( ' corrected value of y4 after \ t iteration %d is \ t % 3 . 5f \ t '%
(i , y4 ) )
y14 = f ( x4 , y4 ) ;
predicted value of y4 is 3.079

corrected value of y4 after iteration 1 is 3.07940
In the next program, function will take all the inputs from the user and display the
answer.
thrice.
from sympy import *
def Milne (g , x0 ,h , y0 , y1 , y2 , y3 ) :
x1 = x0 + h
x2 = x1 + h
x3 = x2 + h
x4 = x3 + h
y10 = f ( x0 , y0 )
y11 = f ( x1 , y1 )
y12 = f ( x2 , y2 )
y13 = f ( x3 , y3 )
y4p = y0 + ( 4 * h / 3 ) * ( 2 * y11 - y12 + 2 * y13 )
print ( ' predicted value of y4 ' , y4p )
y14 = f ( x4 , y4p )
y4 = y2 + ( h / 3 ) * ( y14 + 4 * y13 + y12 )
print ( ' corrected value of y4 , iteration % d '%i , y4 )
96
y14 = f ( x4 , y4 )
Milne ( 'x ** 2 + y / 2 ' ,1 , 0 .1 ,2 , 2 . 2156 , 2 . 4649 , 2 . 7514 )
predicted value of y4 3.0792733333333335

corrected value of y4 , iteration 1 3.0793962222222224
Apply Milne’s predictor and corrector method to solve dy/dx = x y 2 , y(0)=2 obtain
y(0.8). Take h=0.2. Use Runge-Kutta method to calculate required initial values.
Y = RungeKutta ( 'x - y ** 2 ' ,0 , 0 .2 ,0 , 0 . 8 )
print ( 'y values from Runge - Kutta method : ' ,Y )
Milne ( 'x - y ** 2 ' ,0 , 0 .2 , Y [ 0 ] ,Y [ 1 ] ,Y [ 2 ] ,Y [ 3 ] )
y values from Runge -Kutta method: [0. 0.02 0.08 0.18 0.3 ]
10.4 Exercise:
1. Find y(0.1) by Runge Kutta method when y 0 = x y 2 , y(0) = 1.
Ans: y(0.1) = 0.91379
2. Evaluate by Runge Kutta method : y 0 = log(x + y), y(0) = 2 at x = 0(0.2)0.8.

Ans: 2.155, 2.3418, 2.557, 2.801
3. Solve by Milnes method: y 0 = x + y, y(0)=1, h=0.1, Calculate y(0.4) . Calculate

required initial values from Runge Kutta method.
Ans: 1.583649219
97
LAB 1: Programme to compute area, volume and cen-
ter of gravity
1.1 Objectives:
Use python
1. to evaluate double integration.
2. to compute area and volume.
3. to calculate center of gravity of 2D object.

1. Data pretty printer in Python:
pprint ()
2. integrate:
integrate ( function ,( variable , min_limit , max_limit ) )
1.2 Double and triple integration

Example 1:
R1 Rx
Evaluate the integral (x2 + y 2 )dydx
0 0
from sympy import *
w1 = integrate ( x ** 2 + y ** 2 ,( y ,0 , x ) ,(x ,0 , 1 ) )
print ( w1 )
1/3
Example 2:
R3 3R x 3 Rx y
Evaluate the integral (xyz)dzdydx
0 0 0
from sympy import *
x = Symbol ( 'x ')
y = Symbol ( 'y ')
z = Symbol ( 'z ')
w2 = integrate (( x * y * z ) ,(z ,0 , 3 - x - y ) ,(y ,0 , 3 - x ) ,(x ,0 , 3 ) )
print ( w2 )
81/80
99
Example 3:
RR 2 RR 2
Prove that (x + y 2 )dydx = (x + y 2 )dxdy
from sympy import *
x = Symbol ( 'x ')
y = Symbol ( 'y ')
z = Symbol ( 'z ')
w3 = integrate ( x ** 2 + y ** 2 ,y , x )
pprint ( w3 )
w4 = integrate ( x ** 2 + y ** 2 ,x , y )
pprint ( w4 )
1.3 Area and Volume

RR
Area of the region R in the cartesian form is dxdy
R
Example 4:
p
Ra (b/a) R a2 x2
Find the area of an ellipse by double integration. A=4 dydx
0 0
from sympy import *
x = Symbol ( 'x ')
y = Symbol ( 'y ')
# a = Symbol ( ' a ')
# b = Symbol ( ' b ')
a=4
b=6
w3 = 4 * integrate (1 ,( y ,0 ,( b / a ) * sqrt ( a ** 2 - x ** 2 ) ) ,(x ,0 , a ) )
print ( w3 )
24.0*pi
RR
1.4 Area of the region R in the polar form is rdrd✓
R
Example 5:
Find the area of the cardioid r = a(1 + cos✓) by double integration
from sympy import *
r = Symbol ( 'r ')
t = Symbol ( 't ')
a = Symbol ( 'a ')
#a=4
w3 = 2 * integrate (r ,( r ,0 , a * ( 1 + cos ( t ) ) ) ,(t ,0 , pi ) )

pprint ( w3 )
100
RRR
1.5 Volume of a solid is given by dxdydz
V
Example 6:
Find the volume of the tetrahedron bounded by the planes x=0,y=0 and z=0, xa + yb + zc = 1
from sympy import *
x = Symbol ( 'x ')
y = Symbol ( 'y ')
z = Symbol ( 'z ')
a = Symbol ( 'a ')
b = Symbol ( 'b ')
c = Symbol ( 'c ')
w2 = integrate (1 ,( z ,0 , c * ( 1 - x / a - y / b ) ) ,(y ,0 , b * ( 1 - x / a ) ) ,(x ,0 , a ) )
print ( w2 )
a*b*c/6
1.6 Center of Gravity

Find the center of gravity of cardioid . Plot the graph of cardioid and mark the center
of gravity.
import numpy as np
import math
from sympy import *
r = Symbol ( 'r ')
t = Symbol ( 't ')
a = Symbol ( 'a ')
I1 = integrate ( cos ( t ) * r ** 2 ,( r ,0 , a * ( 1 + cos ( t ) ) ) ,(t , - pi , pi ) )
I2 = integrate (r ,( r ,0 , a * ( 1 + cos ( t ) ) ) ,(t , - pi , pi ) )
I = I1 / I2
print ( I )
I = I . subs (a , 5 )
plt . axes ( projection = ' polar ')
a=5
rad = np . arange (0 , ( 2 * np . pi ) , 0 . 01 )
# plotting the cardioid

for i in rad :
r = a + ( a * np . cos ( i ) )
plt . polar (i ,r , 'g . ')
plt . polar (0 ,I , 'r . ')

plt . show ()
5*a/6
101
1.7 Exercise:
R1 Rx
1. Evaluate (x + y)dydx
0 0
Ans: 0.5
log(2)
R Rx x+log(y)
R
2. Find the (ex+y+z )dzdydx
0 0 0
Ans: -0.2627
3. Find the area of positive quadrant of the circle x2 + y 2 = 16

Ans: 4⇡
4. Find the volume of the tetrahedron bounded by the planes x=0,y=0 and z=0,
x
2
+ y3 + z4 = 1
Ans: 4
102
LAB 2: Evaluation of improper integrals, Beta and
Gamma functions
2.1 Objectives:
Use python
1. to evaluate improper integrals using Beta function.
2. to evaluate improper integrals using Gamma function.

1. gamma
math . gamma ( x )
Parameters :
x : The number whose gamma value needs to be computed.
2. beta
math . beta (x , y )
Parameters :
x ,y: The numbers whose beta value needs to be computed.
3. Note: We can evaluate improper integral involving infinity by using inf.
Example 1:
R1
Evaluate e x dx.
0
from sympy import *
x = symbols ( 'x ')
w1 = integrate ( exp ( - x ) ,(x ,0 , float ( ' inf ') ) )
1
R1
Gamma function is x(n) = 0
e x xn 1 dx
Example 2:
Evaluate (5) by using definition
from sympy import *
x = symbols ( 'x ')
w1 = integrate ( exp ( - x ) * x ** 4 ,( x ,0 , float ( ' inf ') ) )
24
103
Example 3:
R1 st
Evaluate e cos(4t)dt . That is Laplace transform of cos(4t)
0
from sympy import *
t , s = symbols ( 't , s ')
# for infinity in sympy we use oo
w1 = integrate ( exp ( - s * t ) * cos ( 4 * t ) ,(t ,0 , oo ) )
display ( simplify ( w1 ) )
Example 4:
Find Beta(3,5), Gamma(5)
m = input ( 'm : ') ;
n = input ( 'n : ') ;
m = float ( m ) ;
n = float ( n ) ;
s = beta (m , n ) ;
t = gamma ( n )
m :3
n :5
gamma ( 5.0 ) is 24.000
Beta ( 3.0 5.0 ) is 0.010
Example 5:
Calculate Beta(5/2,7/2) and Gamma(5/2).
# If the number is a fraction give it in decimals . Eg 5 / 2 = 2 . 5
m = float ( input ( 'm : ') ) ;
n = float ( input ( 'n : ') ) ;
s = beta (m , n ) ;
t = gamma ( n )
104
m : 2.5
n :3.5
gamma ( 3.5 ) is 3.323
Beta ( 2.5 3.5 ) is 0.037
Example 6:
Verify that Beta(m, n) = Gamma(m)Gamma(n)/Gamma(m + n) for m=5 and n=7
m=5;
n=7;
m = float ( m ) ;
n = float ( n ) ;
s = beta (m , n ) ;
t = ( gamma ( m ) * gamma ( n ) ) / gamma ( m + n ) ;
print (s , t )
if ( abs ( s - t ) < = 0 . 00001 ) :
print ( ' beta and gamma are related ')
else :
print ( ' given values are wrong ')
0.000432900432900433 0.000432900432900433
beta and gamma are related
2.2 Exercise:
R1
1. Evaluate e t cos(2t)dt
0
Ans: 1/5
2. Find the value of Beta(5/2,9/2)

Ans: 0.0214
3. Find the value of Gamma(13)

Ans: 479001600
4. Verify that Beta(m, n) = Gamma(m)Gamma(n)/Gamma(m + n) for m=7/2 and

n=11/2
Ans: True
105
LAB 3: Finding gradient, divergent, curl and their
geometrical interpretation
1.1 Objectives:
Use python
1. to find the gradient of a given scalar function.
2. to find find divergence and curl of a vector function.
1.2 Method I:
To find gradient of = x2 y + 2xz 4.
# To find gradient of scalar point function .
N = CoordSys3D ( 'N ') # Setting the coordinate system
A = N . x ** 2 * N . y + 2 * N . x * N . z - 4 # Variables x ,y , z to be used with coordinate
system N
delop = Del () # Del operator
display ( delop ( A ) ) # Del operator applied to A
gradA = gradient ( A ) # Gradient function is used
print ( f " \ n Gradient of { A } is \ n " )
display ( gradA )
To find divergence of F~ = x2 yz î + y 2 zxĵ + z 2 xy k̂

# To find divergence of a vector point function
delop = Del ()
divA = delop . dot ( A )
display ( divA )
print ( f " \ n Divergence of { A } is \ n " )

display ( divergence ( A ) )
106
To find curl of F~ = x2 yz î + y 2 zxĵ + z 2 xy k̂
# To find curl of a vector point function
delop = Del ()
curlA = delop . cross ( A )
display ( curlA )
print ( f " \ n Curl of { A } is \ n " )

display ( curl ( A ) )
1.3 Method II:

To find gradient of = x2 yz.
# To find gradient of a scalar point function x ^ 2yz
from sympy import var , pprint
var ( 'x ,y , z ')
F = v [ 0 ] ** 2 * v [ 1 ] * v [ 2 ]
G = gradient (F , v )
F = F . subs ( [ ( v [ 0 ] ,x ) ,( v [ 1 ] ,y ) ,( v [ 2 ] ,z ) ] )
print ( " Given scalar function F = " )
display ( F )
G = G . subs ( [ ( v [ 0 ] ,x ) ,( v [ 1 ] ,y ) ,( v [ 2 ] ,z ) ] )
print ( " \ n Gradient of F = " )
display ( G )
107
To find divergence of F~ = x2 y î + yz 2 ĵ + x2 z k̂.
# To find divergence of F = x ^ 2yi + yz ^ 2j + x ^ 2zk
var ( 'x ,y , z ')
F = v [ 0 ] ** 2 * v [ 1 ] * v . x + v [ 1 ] * v [ 2 ] ** 2 * v . y + v [ 0 ] ** 2 * v [ 2 ] * v . z
G = divergence (F , v )
F = F . subs ( [ ( v [ 0 ] ,x ) ,( v [ 1 ] ,y ) ,( v [ 2 ] ,z ) ] )
display ( F )
G = G . subs ( [ ( v [ 0 ] ,x ) ,( v [ 1 ] ,y ) ,( v [ 2 ] ,z ) ] )
print ( " Divergence of F = " )
display ( G )
To find curl of F~ = xy 2 î + 2x2 yz ĵ 3yz 2 k̂

# To find curl of F = xy ^ 2i + 2x ^ 2yzj - 3yz ^ 2k
var ( 'x ,y , z ')
F = v [ 0 ] * v [ 1 ] ** 2 * v . x + 2 * v [ 0 ] ** 2 * v [ 1 ] * v [ 2 ] * v . y - 3 * v [ 1 ] * v [ 2 ] ** 2 * v . z
G = curl (F , v )
F = F . subs ( [ ( v [ 0 ] ,x ) ,( v [ 1 ] ,y ) ,( v [ 2 ] ,z ) ] )
display ( F )
G = G . subs ( [ ( v [ 0 ] ,x ) ,( v [ 1 ] ,y ) ,( v [ 2 ] ,z ) ] )
print ( " curl of F = " )
display ( G )
108
1.4 Exercise:
1. If u = x + y + z, v = x2 + y 2 + z 2 , w = yz + zx + xy, find gradu, gradv and gradw.
Ans: î + ĵ + k̂, 2(xî + y ĵ + z k̂), (y + z)î + (z + x)ĵ + (z + x)k̂.
2. Evaluate divF and curlF at the point (1,2,3), given that F~ = x2 yz î+xy 2 z ĵ +xyz 2 k̂.
Ans: 6xyz, x(z 2 y 2 )î + y(x2 z 2 )ĵ + z(y 2 x2 )k̂.
3. Prove that the vector (yz x2 )î + (4y z 2 x)ĵ + (2xz 4z)k̂ is solenoidal.
4. Find the vector normal to the surface xy 3 z 2 = 4 at the point ( 1, 1, 2).

Ans: 4î 12ĵ + 4k̂.
~ = xî + y ĵ + z k̂, show that (i) r · R
5. If R ~ = 3, (ii) r ⇥ R
~ = 0.
109
LAB 4: Verification of Green’s theorem
1.1 Objectives:
Use python
1. to evaluate integrals using Green’s theorem.
1.2 Green’s theorem

Statement of Green’s theorem in the plane: If P (x, y) and Q(x, y) be two con-
tinuous functions having continuous partial derivatives in a region R of the xy-plane,
bounded by a simple closed curve C, then
I Z Z ✓ ◆
@Q @P
(P dx + Qdy) = dxdy.
@x @y
R
H
1. Using Green’s theorem, evaluate [(x + 2y)dx + (x 2y)dy], where c is the region
c
bounded by coordinate axes and the line x = 1 and y = 1.
from sympy import *
var ( 'x , y ')
p=x+2*y
q=x-2*y
f = diff (q , x ) - diff (p , y )
soln = integrate (f , [x ,0 , 1 ] ,[y ,0 , 1 ] )
print ( " I = " , soln )
I= -1
H
2. Using Green’s theorem, evaluate [(xy + y 2 )dx + x2 dy], where c is the closed curve
c
bounded by y = x and y = x2 .
from sympy import *
var ( 'x , y ')
p = x * y + y ** 2
q = x ** 2
f = diff (q , x ) - diff (p , y )
soln = integrate (f , [y , x ** 2 , x ] ,[x ,0 , 1 ] )
print ( " I = " , soln )
I= -1/20
1.3 Exercise:
H
1. Using Green’s theorem, evaluate [(3x + 4y)dx + (2x 3y)dy], where c is the
c
boundary of the circle x2 + y 2 = 4.
Ans: 8⇡
110
LAB 5: Solution of Lagrange’s linear partial di↵eren-
tial equations
1.1 Objectives:
Use python
1. to solve linear Partial Di↵erential Equations of first order
Solve the PDE, xp + yq = z, where z = f (x, y)

from sympy . solvers . pde import pdsolve
from sympy import Function , Eq , cot , classify_pde , pprint
from sympy . abc import x , y , a
f = Function ( 'f ')
z = f (x , y )
zx = z . diff ( x )
zy = z . diff ( y )
# Solve xp + yq = z
eq = Eq ( x * zx + y * zy , z )
pprint ( eq )
print ( " \ n " )
soln = pdsolve ( eq , z )
pprint ( soln )
@z @z
Solve the PDE 2p + 3q = 1, where p = @x
and p = @y
z = f (x , y )
zx = z . diff ( x )
zy = z . diff ( y )
# Solve 2p + 3q = 1
eq = Eq ( 2 * zx + 3 * zy , 1 )
pprint ( eq )
print ( " \ n " )
pprint ( soln )
111
@z @z
Solve the PDE x2 p + y 2 q = (x + y)z, where p = @x
and p = @y
z = f (x , y )
zx = z . diff ( x )
zy = z . diff ( y )
# Solve x ^ 2p + y ^ 2q =( x + y ) z
eq = Eq ( x ** 2 * zx + y ** 2 * zy ,( x + y ) * z )
pprint ( eq )
print ( " \ n " )

pprint ( soln )
1.2 Exercise:
1. Solve y 2 p + x2 q = y 2 x
Ans: z = x2 /2 + F (y 3 x3 )
2. Solve xp + yq = 3z
Ans: z = x3 F (y/x)
3. Solve y 2 p xyq = x(z 2y)

Ans: x2 + y 2 = F (y 2 yz)
112
LAB 6: Solution of algebraic and transcendental equa-
tion by Regula-Falsi and Newton-Raphson method
6.1 Objectives:
Use python
1. to solve algebraic and transcendental equation by Regula-Falsi method.
2. to solve algebraic and transcendental equation by Newton-Raphson method.
6.2 Regula-Falsi method to solve a transcendental equation

# Regula Falsi method
from sympy import *
x = Symbol ( 'x ')
N = int ( input ( ' Enter number of iterations : ') ) # 5
for i in range (1 , N + 1 ) :
c=(a*f(b)-b*f(a))/(f(b)-f(a))
if (( f ( a ) * f ( c ) < 0 ) ) :
b=c
else :
a=c
(i ,c , f ( c ) ) ) ;
Using tolerance value we can write the same program as follows:

113
# Regula Falsi method while loop2
from sympy import *
x = Symbol ( 'x ')
N = float ( input ( ' Enter tolarence : ') ) # 0 . 001
x=a;
c=b;
i=0
while ( abs ( x - c ) > = N ) :
x=c
c = (( a * f ( b ) - b * f ( a ) ) / ( f ( b ) - f ( a ) ) ) ;
if (( f ( a ) * f ( c ) < 0 ) ) :
b=c
else :
a=c
i=i+1
(i ,c , f ( c ) ) ) ;
print ( ' final value of the root is % 0 . 5f '% c )
6.3 Newton-Raphson method to solve a transcendental equa-

tion
Find a root of the equation 3x = cos x + 1, near 1, by Newton Raphson method. Perform
5 iterations
from sympy import *
x = Symbol ( 'x ')
g = input ( ' Enter the function ') # % 3x - cos ( x ) -1 ; % function
dg = diff ( g ) ;
114
df = lambdify (x , dg )
x0 = float ( input ( ' Enter the intial approximation ') ) ; # x0 = 1
n = int ( input ( ' Enter the number of iterations ') ) ; #n=5;
for i in range (1 , n + 1 ) :
x1 = ( x0 - ( f ( x0 ) / df ( x0 ) ) )
(i , x1 , f ( x1 ) ) ) ; # print all
iteration value
x0 = x1
6.4 Exercise:
1. Find a root of the equation 3x = cos x+1, between 0 and 1, by Regula-falsi method.
Ans: 0.607
2. Find a root of the equation xex = 2, between 0 and 1, by Regula-falsi method.

Ans: 0.853
3. Obtain a real positive root of x4 x = 0, near 1, by Newton-Raphson method.

Ans: 1.856
4. Obtain a real positive root of x4 + x3 7x2 x + 5 = 0, near 3, by Newton-Raphson

method. Perform 7 iterations.
Ans: 2.061
115
LAB 7: Interpolation /Extrapolation using Newton’s
forward and backward di↵erence formula
7.1 Objectives:
Use python
1. to interpolate using Newton’s Forward interpolation method.
2. to interpolate using Newton’s backward interpolation method.
3. to extrapolate using Newton’s backward interpolation method.

1. Use Newtons forward interpolation to obtain the interpolating polynomial and hence
x: 1 3 5 7 9
calculate y(2) for the following:
y: 6 10 62 210 502
from sympy import *
import numpy as np
210
x = np . zeros (( n ) )
y = np . zeros (( n , n ) )

# Generating forward difference table

y[j][i] = y[j+1][i-1] - y[j][i-1]
print ( '\ nFORWARD DIFFERENCE TABLE \ n ') ;
print ( '% 0 . 2f ' % ( x [ i ] ) , end = ' ')
print ( '\ t \ t % 0 . 2f ' % ( y [ i ] [ j ] ) , end = ' ')
print ()
t = symbols ( 't ')
f = [ ] # f is a list type data
p=(t-x[0])/(x[1]-x[0])
f . append ( p )
f . append ( f [ i - 1 ] * ( p - i ) / ( i + 1 ) )
poly = y [ 0 ] [ 0 ]
poly = poly + y [ 0 ] [ i + 1 ] * f [ i ]
116
inter = input ( ' Do you want to interpolate at a point ( y / n ) ? ') # y
if inter = = 'y ':
a = float ( input ( ' enter the point ') ) # 2
2. Use Newtons backward interpolation to obtain the interpolating polynomial and

x: 1 3 5 7 9
hence calculate y(8) for the following data:
y: 6 10 62 210 502
from sympy import *
import numpy as np
import sys
print ( " This will use Newton 's backword intepolation formula " )
# Reading number of unknowns
# Making numpy array of n & n x n size and initializing

# to zero for storing x and y value along with differences of y
x = np . zeros (( n ) )
y = np . zeros (( n , n ) )
117
# Generating backward difference table

for j in range ( n -1 , i -2 , - 1 ) :
y[j][i] = y[j][i-1] - y[j-1][i-1]
print ( '\ nBACKWARD DIFFERENCE TABLE \ n ') ;
print ( '% 0 . 2f ' % ( x [ i ] ) , end = ' ')
for j in range (0 , i + 1 ) :
print ( '\ t % 0 . 2f ' % ( y [ i ] [ j ] ) , end = ' ')
print ()

t = symbols ( 't ')
f=[]
p=(t-x[n-1])/(x[1]-x[0])
f . append ( p )
f . append ( f [ i - 1 ] * ( p + i ) / ( i + 1 ) )
poly = y [ n - 1 ] [ 0 ]
print ( poly )
poly = poly + y [ n - 1 ] [ i + 1 ] * f [ i ]
inter = input ( ' Do you want to interpolate at a point ( y / n ) ? ')
if inter = = 'y ':
a = float ( input ( ' enter the point ') )
118
7.2 Exercise:
1. Obtain the interpolating polynomial for the following data
x: 0 1 2 3
y: 1 2 1 10
Ans: 2x3 7x2 + 6x + 1
2. Find the number of men getting wage Rs. 100 from the following table:
wage: 50 150 250 350
No. of men: 9 30 35 42
Ans: 23 men
3. Using Newton’s backward interpolation method obtain y(160) for the following data
x: 100 150 200 250 300
y: 10 13 15 17 18
Ans: 13.42
4. Using Newtons forward interpolation polynomial and calculate y(1) and y(10).
x: 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
y: 4.8 8.4 14.5 23.6 36.2 52.8 73.9
Ans: 3.1 and 100
119
LAB 8: Computation of area under the curve using
rd th
Trapezoidal, Simpson’s 13 and Simpsons 38 rule
8.1 Objectives:
Use python
1. to find area under the curve represented by a given function using Trapezoidal rule.
1 rd
rule.
3 th
rule.
4. to find the area below the curve when discrete points on the curve are given.
8.2 Trapezoidal Rule

R5 1
Evaluate 1+x2
.
0
def my_func ( x ) :
return 1 / ( 1 + x ** 2 )
# Function to implement trapezoidal method

def trapezoidal ( x0 , xn , n ) :
h = ( xn - x0 ) / n # Calculating step
size
# Finding sum
integration = my_func ( x0 ) + my_func ( xn ) # Adding first and
last terms
k = x0 + i * h # i - th step value
integration = integration + 2 * my_func ( k ) # Adding areas of the
trapezoids
# Proportioning sum of trapezoid areas
integration = integration * h / 2
return integration
# Input section

result = trapezoidal ( lower_limit , upper_limit , sub_interval )
# Print result
print ( " Integration result by Trapezoidal method is : " , result )
120
1 rd
8.3 Simpson’s 3 Rule
R5 1
Evaluate 1+x2
.
0
def my_func ( x ) :
return 1 / ( 1 + x ** 2 )
# Function to implement the Simpson 's one - third rule
def simpson13 ( x0 , xn , n ) :
h = ( xn - x0 ) / n # calculating step size
# Finding sum
integration = ( my_func ( x0 ) + my_func ( xn ) )
k = x0
if i % 2 = = 0 :
else :
k += h
# Finding final integration value
integration = integration * h * ( 1 / 3 )
return integration
# Input section

result = simpson13 ( lower_limit , upper_limit , sub_interval )
print ( " Integration result by Simpson 's 1 / 3 method is : % 0 . 6f " % ( result )
)
8.4 Simpson’s 3/8th rule

R6 1
Evaluate 0 1+x2
dx using Simpson’s 3/8 th rule, taking 6 sub intervals
def simpson s_3_8_ rule (f , a , b , n ) :
121
h = (b - a) / n
s = f(a) + f(b)
for i in range (1 , n , 3 ) :
s += 3 * f(a + i * h)
for i in range (3 , n -1 , 3 ) :
s += 3 * f(a + i * h)
for i in range (2 , n -2 , 3 ) :
s += 2 * f(a + i * h)
return s * 3 * h / 8
def f ( x ) :
return 1 / ( 1 + x ** 2 ) # function here
a = 0 # lower limit
b = 6 # upper limit
n = 6 # number of sub intervals
result = simpsons_3_8_rule (f , a , b , n )
print ( '% 3 . 5f '% result )
1.27631
8.5 Exercise:
Z1
x2 1
1. Evaluate the integral 3
dx using Simpson’s rule.
1+x 3
0
Ans: 0.23108
Z0.6
3 x2
2. Use Simpson’s rule to find e dx by taking seven ordinates.
8
0
Ans: 0.5351
Z⇡
3. Evaluate using trapezoidal rule sin2 xdx. Take n = 6.
0
Ans: ⇡/2
4. A solid of revolution is formed by rotating about the x-axis, the area between the
x-axis, the lines x = 0 and x = 1, and a curve through the points with the following
co-ordinates:
x y
0.00 1.0000
0.25 0.9896
0.50 0.9589
0.75 0.9089
1.00 0.8415
122
1
Estimate the volume of the solid formed using Simpson’s rd rule. Hint: Required
R1 2 3
volume is 0 y ⇤ ⇡dx. **[Ans: 2.8192]**
5. The velocity v(km/min) of a moped which starts from rest, is given at fixed intervals
of time t(min) as follows:
t: 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
v: 10 18 25 29 32 20 11 5 2 0
Estimate approximately the distance covered in twenty minutes.
Answer for 5.
We know that ds/dt=v. So to get distance (s) we have to integrate.
Here h = 2.2, v0 = 0, v1 = 10, v2 = 18, v3 = 25 etc.
# we shall use simpson 's 1 / 3 rule directly to estimate
h=2
y = [0 , 10 ,18 , 25 , 29 , 32 ,20 , 11 ,5 ,2 , 0 ]
result = ( h / 3 ) * (( y [ 0 ] + y [ 10 ] ) + 4 * ( y [ 1 ] + y [ 3 ] + y [ 5 ] + y [ 7 ] + y [ 9 ] ) + 2 * ( y [ 2 ] + y [ 4 ] + y [
6]+y[8]))
print ( '% 3 . 5f '% result , ' km . ')
309.33333 km.
123
LAB 9: Solution of ODE of first order and first degree
by Taylor’s series and Modified Euler’s method
9.1 Objectives:
Use python
1. to solve ODE by Taylor series method.
2. to solve ODE by Modified Euler method.
3. to trace the solution curves.
9.2 Taylor series method to solve ODE

dy
Solve: dx
2y = 3ex with y(0) = 0 using Taylor series method at x = 0.1(0.1)0.3.
# # module taylor
'''X , Y = taylor ( deriv ,x ,y , xStop , h ) .
4th - order Taylor series method for solving the initial value problem { y
} ' = { F (x , { y } ) } , where
{ y } = { y [ 0 ] , y [ 1 ] ,... y [n - 1 ] } .
x , y = initial conditions
xStop = terminal value of x
h = increment of x
'''
X = []
Y = []
X . append ( x )
Y . append ( y )
H = 1.0
H = H*h/(j + 1)
y = y + D[j]*H # H = h^j/j!
x = x + h

array
'''
[ y '[ 0 ] y '[ 1 ] y '[ 2 ] ... y '[n - 1 ]
y ' '[ 0 ] y ' '[ 1 ] y ' '[ 2 ] ... y ' '[n - 1 ]
y '''[ 0 ] y '''[ 1 ] y '''[ 2 ] ... y '''[n - 1 ]
y ''' '[ 0 ] y ' '''[ 1 ] y ''' '[ 2 ] ... y ' '''[n - 1 ]]
'''
D = zeros (( 4 , 1 ) )
124
D[0] = [ 2 * y [ 0 ] + 3 * exp ( x ) ]
D[1] = [ 4 * y [ 0 ] + 9 * exp ( x ) ]
D[2] = [ 8 * y [ 0 ] + 21 * exp ( x ) ]
D[3] = [ 16 * y [ 0 ] + 45 * exp ( x ) ]
return D

h = 0.1 # Step size

x = % 0 . 2f , y = % 0 . 5f , x = % 0 . 2f , y = % 0
. 5f " % ( X [ 0 ] ,Y [ 0 ] ,X [ 1 ] ,Y [ 1 ] ,X [ 2 ] ,Y [ 2 ]
,X [ 3 ] ,Y [ 3 ] ) )

x = 0.20, y=0.81079,x = 0.30, y=1.41590
Solve y 0 + 4y = x2 with initial conditions y(0) = 1 using Taylor series method at x =

0.1, 0.2.
X = []
Y = []
X . append ( x )
Y . append ( y )
H = 1.0
H = H*h/(j + 1)
y = y + D[j]*H # H = h^j/j!
x = x + h

array
'''
[ y '[ 0 ] y '[ 1 ] y '[ 2 ] ... y '[n - 1 ]
y "[ 0 ] y "[ 1 ] y "[ 2 ] ... y "[ n - 1 ]
y '''[ 0 ] y '''[ 1 ] y '''[ 2 ] ... y '''[n - 1 ]
y ""[ 0 ] y ""[ 1 ] y ""[ 2 ] ... y ""[ n - 1 ]]
'''
D = zeros (( 4 , 1 ) )
D [ 0 ] = [ x ** 2 - 4 * y [ 0 ] ]
D [ 1 ] = [ 2 * x - 4 * x ** 2 + 16 * y [ 0 ] ]
D [ 2 ] = [ 2 - 8 * x + 16 * x ** 2 - 64 * y [ 0 ] ]
D [ 3 ] = [ - 8 + 32 * x - 64 * x ** 2 + 256 * y [ 0 ] ]
125
return D

h = 0.1 # Step size

x = % 0 . 2f , y = % 0 . 5f " % ( X [ 0 ] ,Y [ 0 ] ,X [ 1
] ,Y [ 1 ] ,X [ 2 ] ,Y [ 2 ] ) )

x = 0.20, y=0.45026
9.3 Euler’s method to solve ODE:

dy
To solve the ODE of the form dx = f (x, y) with initial conditions y(x0 ) = y0 . The iterative
formula is given by : y(x(i+1) = y(xi ) + hf (xi , y(xi )).
Solve: y 0 = e x with y(0) = 1 using Euler’s method at x = 0.2(0.2)0.6.
import numpy as np
# Define parameters
f = lambda x , y : np . exp ( - x ) # ODE
y0 = - 1 # Initial Condition
n=3
y [ 0 ] = y0
x[0]=0
x[i+1]=x[i]+h
y[i + 1] = y[i] + h*f(x[i], y[i])
print ( " The required values are at x = % 0 . 2f , y = % 0 . 5f , x = % 0 . 2f , y = % 0 . 5f ,

x = % 0 . 2f , y = % 0 . 5f , x = % 0 . 2f , y = % 0 .
5f " % ( x [ 0 ] ,y [ 0 ] ,x [ 1 ] ,y [ 1 ] ,x [ 2 ] ,y [ 2 ] ,
x [ 3 ] ,y [ 3 ] ) )
print ( " \ n \ n " )
plt . plot (x , y , 'bo - - ' , label = ' Approximate ')

plt . plot (x , - np . exp ( - x ) , 'g * - ' , label = ' Exact ')
plt . title ( " Approximate and Exact Solution " )
plt . grid ()
plt . show ()
126
The required values are at x= 0.00, y=-1.00000, x=0.20, y=-0.80000,
x = 0.40, y=-0.63625,x = 0.60, y=-0.50219
Solve: y 0 = 2y + x3 e 2x
with y(0) = 1 using Euler’s method at x = 0.1, 0.2.
import numpy as np
# Define parameters
f = lambda x , y : - 2 * y + ( x ** 3 ) * np . exp ( - 2 * x ) # ODE
y0 = 1 # Initial Condition
n=2
y [ 0 ] = y0
x[0]=0
x[i+1]=x[i]+h
y[i + 1] = y[i] + h*f(x[i], y[i])
print ( " The required values are at x = % 0 . 2f , y = % 0 . 5f , x = % 0 . 2f , y = % 0 . 5f , x

= % 0 . 2f , y = % 0 . 5f \ n \ n " % ( x [ 0 ] ,y [ 0 ] ,x [ 1
] ,y [ 1 ] ,x [ 2 ] ,y [ 2 ] ) )
plt . plot (x , y , 'bo - - ' , label = " Approximate ( Euler 's method ) " )
plt . title ( " Solution by Euler 's method " )

plt . grid ()
plt . show ()
127
The required values are at x= 0.00, y=1.00000, x=0.10, y=0.80000,
x=0.20, y=0.64008
9.4 Modified Euler’s method

The iterative formula is:
(n+1) h (n)
y1 = y0 + [f (x0 , y0 ) + f (x1 , y1 )], n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . ,
2
(n)
where, y1 is the nth approximation to y1 .
(0)
The first iteration will use Euler’s method: y1 = y0 + hf (x0 , y0 ).
Solve y 0 = ky with y(0) = 100 using modified Euler’s method at x = 100, by taking
h = 25.
import numpy as np
def modified_euler (f , x0 , y0 , h , n ) :
x = np . zeros ( n + 1 )
y = np . zeros ( n + 1 )
x [ 0 ] = x0
y [ 0 ] = y0
x[i+1] = x[i] + h
k1 = h * f ( x [ i ] , y [ i ] )
k2 = h * f ( x [ i + 1 ] , y [ i ] + k1 )
y [ i + 1 ] = y [ i ] + 0 . 5 * ( k1 + k2 )
return x , y
128
def f (x , y ) :
return - 0 . 01 * y # ODE dy / dx = - ky
x0 = 0 . 0
y0 = 100 . 0
h = 25
n = 4
x , y = modified_euler (f , x0 , y0 , h , n )
print ( " The required value at x = % 0 . 2f , y = % 0 . 5f " % ( x [ 4 ] ,y [ 4 ] ) )

print ( " \ n \ n " )
# Plotting the results

plt . plot (x , y , 'bo - ')
plt . ylabel ( 'y ')
plt . title ( ' Solution of dy / dx = - ky using Modified Euler \ ' s Method ')
plt . grid ( True )
plt . show ()
The required value at x= 100.00, y=37.25290
9.5 Exercise:
1. Find y(0.1) by Taylor Series exapnsion when y 0 = x y 2 , y(0) = 1.
Ans: y(0.1) = 0.9138
2. Find y(0.2) by Taylor Series exapnsion when y 0 = x2 y 1, y(0) = 1, h = 0.1.

Ans: y(0.2) = 0.80227
129
3. Evaluate by modified Euler’s method: y 0 = ln(x + y), y(0) = 2 at x = 0(0.2)0.8.
Ans: 2.0656, 2.1416, 2.2272, 2.3217
4. Solve by modified Euler’s method: y 0 = x + y, y(0) = 1, h = 0.1, x = 0(0.1)0.3.

Ans: 1.1105, 1.2432, 1.4004
130
LAB 10: Solution of ODE of first order and first de-
gree by Runge-Kutta 4th order method and Milne’s
predictor and corrector method
10.1 Objectives:
1. To write a python program to solve first order di↵erential equation using 4th order
Runge Kutta method.
2. To write a python program to solve first order di↵erential equation using Milne’s
predictor and corrector method.
10.2 Runge-Kutta method

Apply the Runge Kutta method to find the solution of dy/dx = 1 + (y/x) at y(2) taking
h = 0.2. Given that y(1) = 2.
from sympy import *
import numpy as np
def RungeKutta (g , x0 ,h , y0 , xn ) :

xt = x0 + h
Y = [ y0 ]
while xt < = xn :
k1 = h * f ( x0 , y0 )
k2 = h * f ( x0 + h /2 , y0 + k1 / 2 )
k3 = h * f ( x0 + h /2 , y0 + k2 / 2 )
k4 = h * f ( x0 +h , y0 + k3 )
y1 = y0 + ( 1 / 6 ) * ( k1 + 2 * k2 + 2 * k3 + k4 )
Y . append ( y1 )
# print ( ' y ( % 3 . 3f '% xt , ') is % 3 . 3f '% y1 )
x0 = xt
y0 = y1
xt = xt + h
return np . round (Y , 2 )
RungeKutta ( '1 +( y / x ) ' ,1 , 0 .2 ,2 , 2 )
array([2. , 2.62, 3.27, 3.95, 4.66, 5.39])
10.3 Milne’s predictor and corrector method

thrice.
# Milne 's method to solve first order DE
# Use corrector formula thrice
x0 = 1
y0 = 2
131
y1 = 2 . 2156
y2 = 2 . 4649
y3 = 2 . 7514
h=0.1
x1 = x0 + h
x2 = x1 + h
x3 = x2 + h
x4 = x3 + h
def f (x , y ) :
return x ** 2 + ( y / 2 )
y10 = f ( x0 , y0 )
y11 = f ( x1 , y1 )
y12 = f ( x2 , y2 )
y13 = f ( x3 , y3 )
y4p = y0 + ( 4 * h / 3 ) * ( 2 * y11 - y12 + 2 * y13 )
print ( ' predicted value of y4 is % 3 . 3f '% y4p )
y14 = f ( x4 , y4p ) ;
y4 = y2 + ( h / 3 ) * ( y14 + 4 * y13 + y12 ) ;
print ( ' corrected value of y4 after \ t iteration %d is \ t % 3 . 5f \ t '%
(i , y4 ) )
y14 = f ( x4 , y4 ) ;
predicted value of y4 is 3.079

In the next program, function will take all the inputs from the user and display the
answer.
thrice.
from sympy import *
def Milne (g , x0 ,h , y0 , y1 , y2 , y3 ) :
x1 = x0 + h
x2 = x1 + h
x3 = x2 + h
x4 = x3 + h
y10 = f ( x0 , y0 )
y11 = f ( x1 , y1 )
y12 = f ( x2 , y2 )
y13 = f ( x3 , y3 )
y4p = y0 + ( 4 * h / 3 ) * ( 2 * y11 - y12 + 2 * y13 )
print ( ' predicted value of y4 ' , y4p )
y14 = f ( x4 , y4p )
y4 = y2 + ( h / 3 ) * ( y14 + 4 * y13 + y12 )
print ( ' corrected value of y4 , iteration % d '%i , y4 )
132
y14 = f ( x4 , y4 )
Milne ( 'x ** 2 + y / 2 ' ,1 , 0 .1 ,2 , 2 . 2156 , 2 . 4649 , 2 . 7514 )

Apply Milne’s predictor and corrector method to solve dy/dx = x y 2 , y(0)=2 obtain
y(0.8). Take h=0.2. Use Runge-Kutta method to calculate required initial values.
Y = RungeKutta ( 'x - y ** 2 ' ,0 , 0 .2 ,0 , 0 . 8 )
print ( 'y values from Runge - Kutta method : ' ,Y )
Milne ( 'x - y ** 2 ' ,0 , 0 .2 , Y [ 0 ] ,Y [ 1 ] ,Y [ 2 ] ,Y [ 3 ] )
y values from Runge -Kutta method: [0. 0.02 0.08 0.18 0.3 ]
10.4 Exercise:
1. Find y(0.1) by Runge Kutta method when y 0 = x y 2 , y(0) = 1.
Ans: y(0.1) = 0.91379
2. Evaluate by Runge Kutta method : y 0 = log(x + y), y(0) = 2 at x = 0(0.2)0.8.

Ans: 2.155, 2.3418, 2.557, 2.801
3. Solve by Milnes method: y 0 = x + y, y(0)=1, h=0.1, Calculate y(0.4) . Calculate

required initial values from Runge Kutta method.
Ans: 1.583649219
133

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Lab Component

Dr. Smita S. Nagouda Dr. Madhukar Krishnamurthy

Dr. Chandra Shekara G. Mr. Sonam Kumar

5. Student has to score minimum 8 marks out of 20 to pass Lab component.

Lab 2. Evaluation of improper integrals , Beta and Gamma functions.

Lab 3. Finding gradient, divergent, curl and their geometrical interpretation

Lab 5. Computing the inner product and orthogonality

Lab 6. Solution of algebraic and transcendental equation by Regula-Falsi and Newton-

1. to evaluate double integration.

2. to compute area and volume.

3. to calculate center of gravity of 2D object.

Syntax for the commands used:

1.2 Double and triple integration

1.3 Area and Volume

w3 = 2 * integrate (r ,( r ,0 , a * ( 1 + cos ( t ) ) ) ,(t ,0 , pi ) )

1.6 Center of Gravity

# plotting the cardioid

plt . polar (0 ,I , 'r . ')

3. Find the area of positive quadrant of the circle x2 + y 2 = 16

Syntax for the commands used:

2. Find the value of Beta(5/2,9/2)

3. Find the value of Gamma(13)

4. Verify that Beta(m, n) = Gamma(m)Gamma(n)/Gamma(m + n) for m=7/2 and

1. to find the gradient of a given scalar function.

2. to find find divergence and curl of a vector function.

To find divergence of F~ = x2 yz î + y 2 zxĵ + z 2 xy k̂

print ( f " \ n Divergence of { A } is \ n " )

print ( f " \ n Curl of { A } is \ n " )

1.3 Method II:

To find curl of F~ = xy 2 î + 2x2 yz ĵ 3yz 2 k̂

4. Find the vector normal to the surface xy 3 z 2 = 4 at the point ( 1, 1, 2).

1. to verify the Rank nullity theorem of given linear transformation

2. to compute the dimension of vector space

3. to represent linear transformations graphically

4.2 Rank Nullity Theorem

# Define a linear transformation interms of matrix

# Find the rank of the matrix A

# Find the null space of the matrix A

Rank of the matrix 2

# Define the vector space V

Basis of the matrix 3

coords = np . array ( [ [0 , 0 ] ,[ 0 .5 , 0 . 5 ] ,[ 0 .5 , 1 . 5 ] ,[0 , 1 ] ,[0 , 0 ] ] )

# Create the figure and axes objects

# Connect the points by lines

# Edit some settings

# Create the figure and axes objects

# Connect the points by lines

# Edit some settings

# Create the figure and axes objects

# Connect the points by lines

# Edit some settings

# Create the figure and axes objects

# Connect the points by lines

# Edit some settings

# Create the figure and axes objects

# Connect the points by lines

# Edit some settings

a) T : R2 ! R3 defined by T (x, y) = (x + 4y, 2x + 5y, 3x + 6y).