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/ 41
Unit 1-Chapter 1
Introduction
1.0 Structure of the Unit
1, Outcomes of the unit
2. Introduction to Software
3. Software Crisis
4. Introduction to Software engineering
5. Software Processes and Characteristics
6. Process Models
7. Self-Assessment Questions and Activities
8, Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
9. Keys 0 MCQs
10, Summary
1.1 Outcomes of the Unit
1. Discuss the software, software enainegias (SE), and crisis.
e software products.
xplain the attributes of good sofware,
4, Discuss the importance of SE and its applications.
5. Analyze software process models,
1.2 Introduction
Software refers to the computer programs and related documentation developed for a specific
client or a general market. The software consists of computer programs, data structures, and
documentation. Examples-of software are Online Reservation System, Windows Operating
System, VLC Movie Player, Firefox. Google Chrome. etc.
A program is a sctof instructions written in a programming language used to execute a specific
lask or function, Software is @ collection of several programs and other procedures and
documentation.
Software and Program: A program consists of a scl of instructions that are coded in a
programming language like c, C++, PHP, Java, ete. The software consists of bundles of programs
and data Tiles.Programs in specific software use these data files to perform dedicated types of
tasks. The program has limited functionality and fewer features. The software has low of
functionality and features such as GUI, inputourput data, process, ete. A program may not be
software but software can be a program. The software takes relatively more time to build/make
when compared to a program. The program development approach may be un-procedural,
unorganized, and unplanned. The software development approach is systematic, erganized. and
very well-planned, The size of a program may range from kilobytes (KB) to megabytes (MB). The size of software may range from megabytes (MB) to gigabytes (GB) or more. The program may
have patchy documentation mostly technical. The software has comprehensive documentation
including user manuals.
The major types of software are:
1. System Software: Operating System, Text Editors, Compilers
2. Programming Software: Tools for writing computer programs, such as Java, Python, C,
C+, ete.
3. Application Software; Sofware for a particular task such as accounting) data proc
games, etc.
The other types of software are given a
1. Scientific / Engineering Software
2. Embedded Software
Application Software
Web application
5. Artificial intelligence software
Software is in our daily life. Software systems lack/physical constraints. The software can be
extremely complex to create, difficult to understand, and expensive to change, Software
development is still a complex and challenging task, The modern world is unimaginable without
sofiware. The software has its presence acros’-Various industries. Among numerous sectors, the
software is usefull in manufacturing, utilities. distribution, finance, education, and entertainment.
Some of the software applications are:
1. Global positioning system (GPS)
2. WhatsApp, Instagram, websites, Student Portals
3. Traffic lights, fire alarms, printing
4. Home and Office Automation
5. Security Systems, online examination, reservation systems
1.2.1 Software Products
When software is developed for’a specific requirement, it is known as a software product. There
are two types of software products.
1, Generic products? Software sold in the open market is generic. E.g., packages for
Preparing drawings, typesetting, accounting, hospital management-related tools, etc.
Customized products; Software developed for a specific customer is custom-made or
bespoke software, E.g,, airline traffic control, the control system in customer.
Software Products are produced using SE.
1.2.2 Attributes of Good Software
I. -Maintainability: We should be able to do changes in the software based on business needs.
2.Dependability: Software should be reliable and should not cause damage or financial loss
during failure.
3. Security: Unauthorized or unknown persons should not be allowed to use the software as
they can create harm to the system,
ng,
-y
5 4. Efficiency: Software should be quick. consume less memory, and should not waste
computer resources
5. Acceptability: All types af users must be able to use the software, It should be casy to
understand, use and install on different systems,
13 Software Crisis C
Software products are difficult 10 alter, debug, and enhance; use resources rion-optimally: often
fail 10 meet the user requirements: are fur from being reliable: frequently crash. and are often
elivered late. Many factors such as larger problem sizes, lack of adequate-training in software
creasing skill shortage, and law productivity improvemefts have created a software
Ineffective development of the product and inefficient resource usage, lead to more cost and
¢, This situation was termed a sofware crisis.
Jofware applications are getting larger, and more complex and the demands change, Systems
nust be buili and delivered more quickly, In many places ad-hoc approach to sofiware
Jevelopment is widespread. Therefore, software tends to be unreliable. and expensive t maintain
ind use. An engineering approach to developing and managing software is required. This entails
sducation and training in software engineering methods A)satisfactory solution to the present
software crisis can come from a spread of SE practives-amony the engineers with advancements
© the software engineering discipline itself, Good software can be developed with the use of
iystematic software engineering, Y
1.4 Introduction to SE
The term “software engineering’ was first (eapeod in 1968 ata NATO conference held to discuss
what was then called the software erisis. Inhécame elear that individual approaches to program
Jevelopment did not scale up to large and complex software systems. The software was unreliable,
vost more than expected, and was delivered late. Software engineering techniques such as
structured programming, information hiding, and object-oriented development. Tools and standard
rotations were developed and are now extensively used.
Definition of SE: A detailed study of engineering to the design, development, and maintenance of
software is known as SE,
SE is a branch of engineering related to:
* Collecting customers’ requirements
* Preparing the design
© Writing programs or code
Testing
© Maintenance’
LS Software Processes and Characteristics
4 software process is defined as a collection of related aclivities for producing quality software.
The development of software is done u programming languages sueh as C, Java, Python. etc, A modem approach is the use of readymade tools or develaped sofware components.
Reusing the existing sofware reduces a lot of time and effort, A software process consists of four
activities as given below.
L Software Specification
2,Software Design and Implementation
3,Software Validation
4.Software Evolution
|. Software Specification: The different functions in the software and the conditions under
which it is developed are defined in b
process is used 10 de
step. In this phase, the require!
engineering
document that fulfills the detailed
a requirement specifiy
system specifica There are wo levels high-level statgmentiy for end-users and ts,
detailed dk as systenvimanagers, developers, ete.
Software Design and Implementation: The requifementis converted imo a design and
implemented using programming language to méet-the requirement specification. The
structure of the software to be implemented is given) by the software design, The system
components, interfaces. database, and architecture designs are produced in this stage. The
design can be top-down, bottom-up, structured, ete. Object-oriented design and procedure-
oriented designs are prepared ‘using standard tools and techniques. Software
implementation is done using programing languages such as C, Python, Java, C++, and
other supporting packages. The programming style is dependent on the
programmer. S
3, Software Validation: The software is-verified whether it is fulfilling the requir
the client, Here the programs-are tested using test data, Whether the developed system is
meeting the customer's tequirements or not is validated in this step, Unit testing, system
testing, and accepuineg testing are some examples of sofware validation steps.
4. Software Evolution: The software must get refined w meet the needs of the customers.
‘The software is considered Mexible. The software |s part of a complex system that requires
continuous \modifivati Software evolution refers to software maintenance or
accommodating changes in the software over time.
There is no common software process for all the applications. The software process is complex
and creative based on the decisions taken by the people, The people involved in the software
process afe clients, developers, managers, administrators, etc. The major classification of the
nis for stakeholders suel
software: process is plan-based and agile. In the plan-based software process, requirements are
fixed, aiid plans are concrete and not chunged. In the agile software process, the software process
steps~are flexible and are changed as per changes in the requirements. The architecture or
framework of the software process can be represented using various models as given below. The
sclivities in the software process are described using, an abstract model known as the software development life cycle (SDLC) or process model. The SDLC model includes all the stages in
software development from requirement specification to the maintenance of the software.
1.6 Software Process Models
The software process models represent the generic or partial information of.a software
arocess. It does not depict any specific activity but shows the framework»The process
nodels discussed in this section are:
1. The Waterfall Model
2. The Incremental Development Approach
3, Prototyping Models
4. Boehm’s Spiral Model
1.6.1 The Waterfall Model
The waterfall model is developed in 1970\for representing a simple system
engineering process by a scientist Royce. In this model, there is cascading of one
phase from another like a waterfall. Another common name used for this model is the
software life cycle. The phases of the waterfall model are described as follows:
1. The requirement definition phase: Used to collect information about what a
client wants.
2. The design phase; Used to prepare the architecture or a blueprint of the
software to be developed
3. The implementation-and unit testing: These phases are used to convert the
design into‘computer programs. Unit testing refers to testing small computer
program components,
4. The integration and testing phase: These phases are used to combine all the
components developed and test the complete software system
5.Operating and maintenance phase: The last phase is where the software
system is used and tested in the customer's workspace. The maintenance
phase is used to accommodate new requirements.
The waterfall model is depicted in Figure 1.1. Implementation
land Unit Testing]
integration and]
‘Unit
Figure 1.1 The Wateriall Model
‘The important characteristics of the waterfall model are:
Asoftware development pracess consists of several phases in sequence.
A phase can be started only after the completion of the Previous phase.
This development model is sequential; the phases do not overlap each other.
Work can be divided, according to phases, among different classes of experts
Advantages: Simple and easy to understand. All phases are processed one at
a lime and well documented. It is well Suited for smaller software systems. The
Progress can be tracked more accurately, It reduces development and
maintenance costs.
Disadvantages: The waterfall model is rigid. This is not a good model for
‘complex or long-ongoing software systems. If requirements change midway, it
is difficult ta accommodate those in this model. There is no working software
Praduced till the very‘end of the life cycle as integration is generally done
‘towards the end of the software life cycle.
|.6.2 Incremental Developnient Model
The incremental development model is used (0 produce un initial software, deliver it to the
luser, understand the wser’s feedback, and then ative at the final product v
software developmer
ion. Incremental
is based on ayile software development, The software is developed in
Parts, if here iSany mistake, it is possible to go back and correct it easily as compared to the
‘waterfall model, The phases of the incremental software development model arv given as
follows:
lL.
Specification: Collect the requirements from the client and prepare system
specifications.
2\Development: Prepare a design or model of the software and complete programming.
idation: Test the developed software to ensure that the client's requirements are
fulfilled, Figure |.2 Incremental Development Software Model
The versions shown in the above figure are referred to as increments. At the initial Slage, urgent
work is included in the system, Then the additional functions are added based on the response
given by the customer. The important features of incremental development are given as follows,
|. Software product is developed in increments wr steps.
First a few functions are developed.to get 4 working model of the software, Later more
functions are added.
3. The requirements are collocted using a fixed method like the Waterfall Model, But
coding, integration, and testing are done incrementally.
Incremental software development uses a mix of both planned and agile sofware
processes.
we
*
5. Advantages: Users’ changes can be incorporated, The most important funct
developed first with better quility, Time taken is less. Testing functions,
lity is
error detection,
and correction are easier.
6. Drawhael
| Preparing: inultiple versions of the software product ean be very costly
Upgrading software)many times can lead to time delay and frequency changes ean
corrupt the structure. Involving clients is necessary for an incremental development
model, Such kinds of customer-developer contracts are not very usual
6.3 Software Prototyping Model
In this model, a-working prototype of the software is given to the user for comments and
Feedbu
means aslariing version of a software system, This i
It helps the user (o give all their requirements ina more detailed fashion, A prototype
ial version illustrates different concepts,
design layouts, etc. Based on the prototype, problems or loopholes and related remedies can be
found. A prototype is an initial version of a software system that is used to demonstrate the
concepts and design of the sofiware. A prototyping model clarifies und validates the quirements. The design ideas and interface between the different parts of the software design
uti be explored using prototypes. The prototyping model is developed into two types.
a) Evolutionary Prototyping: In this model, a prototype is developed and used by the
clients. Based on the feedback, it is refined by
ding the additions, This model is modified
in several iterations, It begins with the requirements that are best understood. The different
steps in the evolutionary model are shown in Figure 1.3.
Develop a eyxte
ng initial
requirements
Figure 1.3 Evolutionary Prototyping Model
The important features of the evolutionary prototyping model as given below.
The evolutionary computing model is-useful when the system specifications are
now knawn beforehand, Some-examples include artificial intelligence, machine
learning, und user interface systems,
Evolutionary prototyping builds, & sy:
customers. .
Rapid software devélopment with reusable components. computer-aided software
engineering (CASE) tools, and 4GL are based on evolutionary prototyping. The
interfaces are built using GUI,
mus a set of increments and is delivered to
The advantage of the evolutionary prototyping model is it gives a quick delivery of
software \prodicts, It also involves clients using the system from its initial
development to the final
The drawback of the evolutionary model is it requires specialist skills to
accommodate the changes.
‘The maintenance is expensive due to continuous changes. The system structure may
getcorrupt duc to continuous maintenance. There are management and contractual
problems in evolutionary prototyping models.
b) Throw-away Prototyping: System requirements are derived in this model. The software
process of this type starts with requirements that are poorly understood. The prototype is wot
1.6.4
developed as a trial version and given for experimentation and then it is discarded, Thus, it
is not considered a final product, The stages of throw-away prototyping are depicted in
Figure 1.4. Here the initial version of the software is developed only temporarily to get
detailed requirements from the user. This is then thrown away and a revised version of the
software is developed using the Waterfall Model or some other model,
Figure 1.4 Throw-away Prototyping Model
The important features of the throe-away prototyping model as given below,
The software product delivery is fastas the throw-away prototype is developed using rapid
software development tools.
It clarifies requirements.
It includes reusable. COTS components and involves customers in the development of the
software product.
Boehm’s Spiral-model
The spiral model is developed by scientist Barry Boehm in 1986. The spiral model is also known
as the Meta Model.as it is made of characteristics of different models such as waterfall. incremental
and evolutionary models. The spiral model produces the software quickly and it is flexible in
accommodating-changes in requirements and design. It has good documentation control, and it
satisfies Customers with risk management features. The spiral model includes four quadrants with
different activities of software development as shown in Figure 1.5. Quadrant 1: Rormutation
igantity Nowe, vom
Constratms & Alisrables
‘Quadrant 4; interpretation Pl
‘SrNast Pass of Spinal Litwcycte
Figure |.5 Bochm’s Spiral Model ~
Aspiral model is an iterative approach and there is a spinal for each phase ofsoftware development.
In each spiral or cycle, the specific activity of sofware engineering such as requirement
specification, design, coding, ete. takes place. This activity can be like any other model such as
swaterfull, prototyping, or incremental, The spiral model is risk-driven, and it idemifies and assesses,
risk in acti
s, It combines customer satiéfaction, approvil, und documentation contol, Each
loop in the spiral model includes four sectors as given below,
y
2
»
4)
Objectives; Define the objectives; constraints, management plon, ete for the software
product. Identify the project tisks anh ulternative strategies if required. This step is the
starting point of the spiral model The objectives are concemed with the functionality and
performance of the software product
Assessing and reducing risks: Assess the risks and perform a detailed anal
and steps (o
reduce risks. For example, if risks are inappropriate, then develop a prototype for the
system fo understand.the needs. The initial model can be further used to incorporate the
remaining features: In this step, risks are resolved using activities related to information
collection.»
Development and Validation: In this step, a model is selected after the risk evaluation.
Throwsdway piototyping canbe used if there are risks in user interaction. A formal system
model is helpful if there are safety risks. Risks may be related o finance. new programming
language; compiler, etc.
Planning: In this step, based on the risk evaluation, a decision is taken on whether to
continue with the project. If the project is to be continued, then plans for the next phases
are drawn, Steps in project management related to preparing schedules, eost estimation,
and manpower are planned in this step. The important characte
cs of the spiral model are as follows.
1) The spiral model is used for large and complex projects in software engineering.
2) The phases in the spiral model are planning, analyzing risks, engineering that includes
coding and software deploying, and software evaluation by customers,
3) The spiral model is useful if there are frequent changes in requirements, unclear and
complex. -
4) Cost estimation is casy and software deployment is faster in the spiral'medel,
5) There are several advantages to the Spiral model, but it works fortange projects and
requires a risk assessment, Thus, [tis not suitable for small projects.
6)
7
Documentation in the spiral madel is mare as there are many intermediate steps.
The risk assessment in the spiral model may not meet the schedule or budget of the project.
1.7 Self-Assessment Questions and Activities
1) Define software engineering and explain its need.
2) What are the types of software? /
3) Explain software products.
4
Describe the term software crisis, >
5) List a few applications of software,
6) Identify the necessary churacteristics of the software,
7) What is a software development
8) Explain the phases of the waterfall model,
9) How che waterfall model is different from other models?
10) Discuss the drawbacks of the Waterfall model
11) Describe the incremental development model.
12) What are the types of prototyping models? Discuss with suitable examples.
13) Explain the different sectors in the spiral mod.
14) Discuss the strengths: and weaknesses of the spiral model.
15) What are the limitations of the waterfall model? How the spiral model addresses these
issues?
1.8 Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
fe cycle?
1) A Linux Operating?system is an example of
A. System Software
‘Apphcation Software
C.-Scientific Software
~D.Web) Software
2) 1f a newcomer college student is assigned software development, which SDLC is suitable?
A. Witerfall Model B. Throw-away Prototyping
C, Evolutionary Prototyping
D. Spiral Model
3) Which of the following a model can be used for risk analysis?
A. Spiral Model
B. Prototyping Model
C. Waterfall Model
4) Waterfall model is not suitable for__
A. Accommodating changes
B, Large complex project
C. Small projects
D. Testing projects
5) Which of the following is not a phase in the sofware development madet?
A. Requirement gathering
B. Feasibility study
C. Requirement validation
D. Prototyping
6) The most fundamental model for sofivarg prowess is.
A. Waterfall Mode!
B, Evolutionary Protetyping
C. Throw-away Prototyping
D. Incremental Development ~
1.9 Keys to MCQs
1) System Software (AK
2) Throw-away Prototyping (B)
3) Spiral Model (A)
4) Accommodating Changes (A)
5) Prototyping(D).
6) Waterfall Model (A)
1.10 Su mmary of the Unit
Software refersto the computer programs and related documentation developed for a specific
client er general market. When software is developed for a specifie requirement, it is known as
a Software product, A detailed study of engineering to the design, development, and maintenance
of software is known as Software Engineering. The software process is represented using abstract
models known as the SDL or process model. The fundamental SDLC model is the waterfall model,
used when the requirements are well known. The SDLC models are incremental development,
prototyping, spiral model, ete. Unit 1-Chapter 2
Reliability and Quality
2.0 Structure of the Unit
|, Owweomes of the unit
2. Sonware Quality and Reliability: Inseduetion .
3. Importnee of SoNware Rtinbultty
4, Failure and Fouls
5. Reliability Models
& Total quality management
7. Software Quality Models
ISO 9an0
4, SELCMM Model
|0, Camparison of ESO and CMM
| 1, Sel&Asseasmen! Questions and Activa
12, Multiple Choice Questions (MCKQs)
13. Keys to MCQs
14, Sumomry
2.1 Outcomes of the Unit
J, Discuss the reliability issues {n Sovtivare.
2. dently the reliability mertes in quantifying the reliability of the software pooxlucts.
3. Understand the reliability of growih rmodeting.
4. Discuss the quality hietors in the softwore
3. Understaad and coenpasison of [SO and SELCMM Models
2.2 Introduction
The quality of the software 4s detormined by its reltability. Reliability is a fhilwre-frce software
operation in a specific environment, Sofiwaze reliability is difficult as itis complex. For example,
the airerafi of this generation will have Billions of ines of cove: Software failure is.die to errors.
incorrect usage of saware, incompeten' developers, or inadequate testing, The reliability may be
hardware or software,
(22D Software Reta bility:
Softwuns reliability isthe probabil ty ofthe software working correctly aver given time. Software
réliability depicts the iustwerthiness or dependability of the sy stem, Software with many defects
is known as unreliable, Reliability is difficult to measure, 26M changes when the errors are
reamowed. it relies om the observation and location of te error, Reliability alsodepends on bow that
product is used. Ifthe inputte the system is selocied such that it always gives correc! autpur, then
ishigh, whereas ifthe input always invokes rors in the software, then the reliability
the Folin i ts tow, The reliability ean be improved by reducing the number af defects, Measuring software
reliability is difficult due to several reasons:
+ More errors, and poor reliability.
‘# The reliability depends on how well the software product is observed and tested using,
table input,
4 Hased on fining bugs the relsbilily keeps changing
2.2.2 Software Failure
The ity ic hasad on sofhiatre fila
typesas follows,
L. Transient: This failure as only due to certain input values given to the system,
2. Permanent: Software failures forall inaui values while jnscking finction ofthe system
are called permanent failures. °
3. Recoverable: When 2 sysiem can recover with of wiihoubany manual help from the
failure, them it is called recoverable ‘failure.
4. Unrecaverable: 4 software fhilure where the system needs te be restarted.
§. Cosmetic: System failure duc to cosmetics feed sto minor irritable software failures. € a
fot being able to click on x3 option for selectifig’a menu
Sonware fuilures are classified into five dittereat
2.3 Hardware and Software Re
bility
Hard ware reliability is oi fereny from software reliability as mast ofthe time, the componenis
wear and lear over time, and thete is hantware failure. The software fault will remain till the
error is tracked and etther the design or program is changed. After the hardware repair, the
reliability is maintained, whereas, in the case of software relinbility. it may increase or
decrease: Thus, thetmndware reliability sudy 1x rolated to stability, and software reliability
‘aims at reliability. growth. The difference between hardware and sofware reliability is showrn
in Figure 2 1, ~
pane nate
“ime
Figure 2.1: Harevrare Product ‘As shows ia the graph, the hardware and software reliability depend on how much hardware
components are deteriorated aver usage ce after miny days the sofware is ouwated. The
software product growth is shown in Figure 2.2,
Plague Fate
Figure 2.2: Software Product
‘Table 2.1: Differences between Harthware and Software Reliability
Q
‘The components wear and tear over Lime,
SS as
Software failure is due to bugs
| and there is a hardware failure
After a hardware repair, rellibilty is | Afjer fixing a bug, tellabilfiy may increase or
malcvained decrease, Hence while fixing a bug, care should
be taken not to innroduce othar bugs
Tnnatare | Sofiware faults may be design cr logical faults
which are hard io detect and correct
Hardware faults are physi
24 Reliability growth modeling
Software with Fewer defects is reliable, Ensuring a reliable software product is usually a goal
‘of any organization, to determine the quality ef software at any given point in time during the
sofivrare development process, softwere reliability metrics aro used.
“The teltabulty growth model is used as a matherntical approach to determine how software
velisbility can be improved as bugs are found and later repaired. To predict when a particlar
level of reliability can be achieved, reliability growth models are used, The models can be
used to decide when to stop testing the sofiwave for finding bugs ance a reliability level has
‘heen reached. A software reliability model defines the behavior of software failure to time,
‘Various software models have been used 10 understand the features of why and how the
software falls, and also to measure software reliability. Software reliability is difficult to
‘Messure as there is no individual model that ean be used in all situations. fi depends on the
software being developed, The software usually Fils due to improper/faulty functionality and
‘not due to wear out. Many models have evolved aver the years, but due to tho rise in demand {for software reliability models, based on iheir nature these sofiware reliability models are
categorized as
+ Prediction Models
«Estimation Models
Prediction Modals
Historical data from real software projects are used. Previous data is used for analysis, They
are used before che develapment or test phases 1o predic: reliability al some time inthe furure.
Estimation Models
(Uses current failure data. from testing to forecast failure rata, Usually used:after collecting
same deta and hence are used later in the life cycle development.
2.5 Software Quality
Software quality 1s determined. unlike & tmditional predict Such’as the working of a fan or
any machine. Software is no considered a quality predict if iUooky satisfies the functionality.
If the software 15 morking as per requirement specifigation hut it kes ¢ long time and
memory. then jt is net quality software. C
Software that is defect free, delivered within thiullocated tudget and time, meets the client's
requirements, and can be casily mmainmined is Known as quality sofiware. The software quality
refleets both funstio ell as structural quality,
Ac per the madem view of quality. scveral fictors detennine software quality
tability: When o software product can be made to work on different operating system
ensironments, different systems, cle.. then itis known as portable sofware.
© Usability: When beth expert schier and novice or mew persons can use the software
‘without any diffieully, thei it is said 1 have usability quatity atrihares
© Remsmbility: This factor determines the reusability of the software, where different
componeats Gam be reused several times to develop new software,
© Correctness? Thic factor determines whether the softuare is corneily implemented
‘boconding te the requirement specifications.
#\ Maintainability: This factor determines whether the software product can be easily
corrected and whether new functions.can be added without much over
“26 Software Quality Management System
‘A-quality management sysiom is also referred to as a quality system. It is a fundamental
methodology used by organizations to sive assurance that the products have desirable quality, A
‘quality management »y9tem must contain tbe following.
© Managerial Structure and Individl
© Quality System Activities
| Resxpomsibilliles 1. Mamagerial Structure and Ladivicual Responsibilities:
‘Quality isa respossibility of the whole organization with may departments There isa quality
depariment in every organizawen, Quality management is used 1 esiablish a framework for
‘the organization's tandards The standards are applied to sofiware-related documentation
such as system requirements, design, and code, At the project level, every process i¢checked
whether itis a quality prowess producing produsts that are of the expected quality stanlurd,
2. Quality System Activities: \
The quality system activities are related to auditing the projects, reviewing. the? quality.
developing guidelines, and methods, ele. for orgunizations, gencraing reports for the top
management, ets, The guality goals are defined in the quality plan to define what processes
are to be used. The most used terms are quality assurance or qualify control in the
‘manutactunng industry. b
‘Quality management is evolving over the past xcreral yearslw the earlier days before Workd
War IL, the quality was checked only to eliminate the defects. Since then. the quality system has
undergone differcet stages of evolution as shenen in Figure 2 3;
Initially, the quality system was only to determide the defects but in recent days, the reasons for
the cause of defectsare also considered forgorrection, Thus, quality coutrol is not just neice
the products but also correcting them,
county | tape
‘Quality
aaa Process
Miteinod z Paradigm Assurance
{ canny | ¥
= r
i
‘Chsant *
[SST 4
Product
A Assurance
Sa
Nanaprte’
sina
Figure 2.3: Evolution of Quality Maagement
2.7 180 9000 certification
ISO stands for Intemational Standards Organization, 1 san international stundand development
~Gfganization, It is composed ef representatives from the national standards organizations of
‘nertber countries. ISO published it 900H serves of danclands in 1987. [ prouides puidlines for
Mmuintuning quality ISO certifiestion and serves as 4 reference for contracis between
‘ndepandent partics, The operations and reaponsibalities, and report aspocts ane addressed by the
ISO for producing high-quality Jevelopment, The [SO 9000 standard gives guidelines for
produciag the product and it ismat concerned with the product ete! ‘Types of ISO 9000;
1. ISO 9001: This standard applies to most software organizations. The design,
development. production, and servicing of the products use this standard
2. 180-9002: This standard applies to those organizations which are not involved in the
design of the product but are concemed with the production. The industries suelias a
car or sicel manufacturing companies buy their design from extemal parties aid only
focus oa manufacturing, Therefore, this standard does not apply to soltware products,
3. IS0-9003: This standart is applied only to organizations that are involved! only in the
installation and testing of the products. )
Need for ISO Certification:
With the use of ESO certification, the customer gets confidence in the product, ISO 9000 uses
a well-structured and documented process in place, and this assures that the developed
software is of high quality. The development process is much jnaré efficient and cost-effective
with the ISO 9000. Lf there are any weak points, then they-are pointed out by the ISO 9000
and the remediesare given. Thus, the use af ISO 9000 sets the basic framework for an efficiem,
proves and results in total quality management (TQM). However, [SO 9000 sets the steps for
the software production process but dees not guarantee the high quality of the process. It is
nota full-proofagency, and it may downplay the domain experts. It requires a heavy emphasis
‘oa documentation and takes a Lot of time and effort.
2.8 Software Engineering Institute Capability Maturity Model (SEI CMM)
Software Engineering Institute (SEH)is a research and development center promoted by the
US. Department of Defeaee (DOD) that has developed the Capability Matunty: Model
(CMM). CMM is procedure that is used to develop and measure the matunty of an
organization's soilieite process. The quality of the software can be improved using the SEL
CMM. With the help of the SELCMM model, there can be business benefits. SELCMM has
two.mettiods that can be used for capability evaluation and software process assessment.
Capabainry Schware Process|
‘Evaluabon Assessment
Figure 2.4: Methods of SEICMM
Capability Evaluation: With the help of capability evaluation, we can understand how to
assess an onganization’s software process capability. Software Process Assessment: To improve the process capability. the software process
assessment is used by am organization. It is purely used for internal purposes.
There are five maturity levels of software development industries using SEE CMM.
+ Initial
+ Repeatable’ Managed
+ Defined
+ Quantitatively Managed
+ Optimizing
TEE! | receeace wenecictable. pouty content and tear
\ Figure 25: Levels of CMM
2 individual efforts as very few processes are defined. Prediction
of product quality and time of completion is difficult as the enviroament is unstable
for software development.
© Repeatable: Project management policies are established. Based on earlier project
Xperience new projectsare managed. The focus is on software requirement gathering.
Project planning. configuration management, and quality assurance. Processes are
‘established to track the cost, schedule, and functionality of the software.
*\ Defined: Standant guidelines for the processes of software development and
mainicnance are introduced and documented. Training programs are conducted for
improving the skills of the development team to ensure understanding and increase
wark efficiency
+ Quantitutively Managed: The organization set quantitative quality goals. Software
metrics like product metrics and process metrics are given importance ta develop a
quality product.
© Optimizing: Thistevel focuses on continuous process improvement using quantitative
feedback in the organization To prevent defects from recurring, mow tools and
techniques are used. ‘There are several key areas provided by SEL CMM far the organtet
9. The key process
areas (KPA) ate given in Table 2.2 The quality is impeaved gradually from ons kevel to the
next over several singes
already exesung eapabibty
ch stage is: care
fully designed so that oxe stge eahanees tbe
sand CMM Levels
Table 2.2 KPA
CMM Level | Focus
Initial ‘Competent paople
Repestable = Project Management
“oafiguration |
management
Process definition, Training ograms, and
Defined Defining of processes
peor reviews
Managed ae and PROT] orand Quetyy nad quullty fnasigeteent
Defect \ prevention, recess change
img i
Optimizing Pinson acess of anagenten, and rechnology change
management.
2.9 Comparison between [80 and SEICMM.
Table 2.180 and
BO a SS
SEICMM
ISO 9000 includes 9-s2%.of international
standards on quality management, and it
38 awarded by the intemational standards
body. It helps companies to get efficient
documentation far quality
“The 150-9000 is focused on the customer
and supplier relationship
180 8000 is accepted by mos: countries
2:10 Self-Assessment Questions
OL. Explain software reliability in brief
Q2. Compare software and fhardwa
SEI CMM was developed specifically for the
software indusiry and whecefore addresses
many issues which are specific to the software
indusiry alone
SEICMM Is oly on the improvement of |
intermediate processes to achieve a high-
quality product
SEI CMM is used in the USA and less in other
countries.
reliability QE What ite the different software failures? Explain with » saitable example,
Q4. Explain the different rellability metres used (0 measure the reliability of software.
QS. Define reliability and explain the reliability: metrics in brief
6. Wate a note on reliability growth modeling.
Q?. What is software quality” Explain the factors te determine the soflware quality.
QS. Explain the software quality management system in brief
QO. Esplain different versions of ISO 9000,
QI. Wat is the nced for [SO 9000? Explain im brie.
ON. ldentify and explain the different levels ofthe SFU Capability Maturity Model,
QI2. Explain Software Enginoering Institute Capability Maturity Model (SELCMM).
O13, Explain the hey provess areas ofa software organization provided fy the SEI Capability
Maturity Moctel
QM. Differentinte berween ISO 9000 certification and SEL CMM:
2.11 Self-Assessment Activities
AL. Explain how the reliability of tre somaate product gam Be gmhanced. Discuss in bret
A2. Explain how the quality of software cam be improved with a suitable example,
AA. Explain the need for ISO cenification and make a list of software companies with ISO.
certification,
2.12 Multiple-Chaice Questions
ai isthe probability of the sofware Working correctly overa given perio!
A. Software reliability
A. Software Quality
BL Software Mamienance
CL Nope of the above
Q2. Which of the Tollivwing does not belong to software failure classifies
©) Uniovoverable
‘D. \Complcieness
\_)03. Which of the following does not belong to reliability issues?
A. The quality of the software is determined by tts reliability
B. The reliability may be hardware or software
©. Software is always reliable D. Software failure is due tw eerors
4, With the usage o7 software, its reliability
AC always increases
Bay increase or decrease
© always decreases
D. is constant throughout its use
QS. Factors that detennine software quality ane
A. Portability
B. Usability
©. Reusability (~~
D_ All of the above
ve
. Soy. —_—
6, The __ ofthe software can be imped ning the SET CMM
A. Fixing bugs
B. Maimenance
©. Quality
D, None of the above
aN
Q7. ISO stands fox
AL Indian’ Standard Organization
niegautienal Standards Organization
\ wisn a Raye Cnnlation
Dy Nene of the above
&
(Q8._swas developed specifically forthe software industry and thors fore addsesses many
7” jasacs which ere specifi tothe software industy alone.
A. MITE
B. 150
c SELCMM
D. MTHR 2.13 Keys to Multiple-Choice Questions
QISofiware [A]
Q2.Completeness (D]
Q3 Software |s always reliable (C]
Q4, may increase or decoease [6]
QS. All ofthe above [D]
06. Quality [C]
Q7- International Standards Organization. (18)
Qs. SELCMM [C]
2.14 Summary of the Unit
Software reliability is the probability of the sofiware Working correctly over a givem perio
The reliability is biseel on software failure. The reliability may be hardwate or software. The
reliability growth model is used as a mathematical approuch to determine how software
reliability can be improved as buysare found and Lar repaired. The software quality redlects
both furictional as well as structural quality. Several factors determining software quality are
portability, usability, reusability, correciness, and maintainability. ISO 000 includes a set of
imeimational stindands en quality munagement, andl it is awarded by the international
standards body. It help cornpaniex to get efficient decumentation for quality. The quality of
the software can be improved using the SELCMM. Unit 2-Chapter 3
Software Project Management:
3.0 Structure of the Unit
1. Outcomes ofthe unit
2, Software Project Management life cycle
3, Software Project Planning
AL Project Size Estimation
5. Costand Effort Estimation Medel COCOMD Model
6. Risk Estimation and Management
7. Project Mowitering. and Control
. Project Scheduling: Basic Concepts and Principles /
9, Task Network
10, Gant Chast and PERT
11, Project Stating
12, Self-Assessment Questions and Activities
13. Multiple Choice Questions (MCQe}
14. Keys to MICOS
13, Summary
3.1 Outcomes of the Unit
Discuss suftware project mamagernemt,
Discuss the estimation of vagus parameters such as cost, Efforts, and schedule’duration.
Fralutesoftwarg in ier wf size.cust_and schedule using proyect management principles
Anal yze the coristructive cost models (COCOMO} and, resource allocation models.
Develop effisetund \risk estimation models.
Analyze project monitoring and control.
ee hee
3.2 Software Project Management (SPM) life cycle
SPM isan important part of software engineering from the stage of a conceptual madel to the
Meveloped software stage. Any project in software engineering is under the coastraints of budget
land hedale planned, The success of the project varies based on the application and wsers, but im
‘peneral, the goals of the SPM are:
+ Muintain the agreed timing of the software delivery.
4 Keep the project activities wader the alloued budget
© Fulfill the clicmt’s specifications,
© Make sure that the development teamis functioning well ima kappy atmesphere. 4.2.1 Management Spectrum: The SPM is effective with a focus on the four Ps. known as the
management spectitim, as given below!
People: Software engineeing involves tremendous human work. The people include
clients, the project manager, and his team. Clients are involved in giving clear expectations
‘The project manager coordinates all the people and activities. A successful software
product is developed with a well-structured sofware project plan, Software engineering
involves tremendous human work. Senior managers define the business issues that often
have a significant influence on the project, Project (technical) managetS, must plan,
motivate, organize. and control the praciitioners who do software Work. Practitioners
deliver the technical skills that are necessary to engineer 4 product ar application.
Customers who specify the requirements for the software to be engineered and other
stakeholders who have a peripheral interest in the outcoteEnd users interact with the
software once itis released for production use:
Product: A detaited plan is needed to examine the product.and the problem it is intended to
salve at the very beginning of the project. There are two important things in the product:
Scope and problem decompusition, The scope, ot the product must be established and
bounded. The scope is defined by
1. Context: The size, business, aid other Contents ire determined.
2. Information objectives: The output atid input datw are determined as information
objectives
Process: The sofiware process iS.a.liamework that establishes different activities. The
process framework establishes a skeleton for project planning. Itis adapted by allocaung a
tsk set that is appropriate-ta the project, The process model is decided using the class of
cchents, product chafacteristes, and the project environment.
Project: The projéct\inust be organized in a manner that enables the software team to
succeed. The five common-sense ajyprouches for the project are:
1. Starton tie right foot.
2. Maintain momentum,
3 Track progress
cd. Make smart decisions
Ҥ._ Conduct a post-mortem anal
_ Project management in software engineering is different from other engineering practices. In
eivil.or mechanical engincering, the progress of the project underdevelopment is visible and the
Project manager can see it. Whereas in software engineering the product is intangible. A review
‘of the progress with team members is only possible in software development. The software
processes are dynamic, unlike electrical or civil engineering
ject tasks, When the software to
be developed is part of a lange engincering project, it becomes impossible to determune whether
there wil be any software development problems. SPM is managed by the project manager. For
any project, whether its small or big, the praject manager is employed for its completion, The project manager is responsible for, Project planning. Reporting, Risk management, People
management, and Proposal wniting
3.3 Project Planning
The SPM lifecycle includes project planning as a major activity. Ths activity is flowed by
project monitoring and project control. Activities in project planning are shown ii Figure’3. 1.
Figure 3.1: Activi
{In project planning. the project mana ge¢is responsible for planning the project and estimating and
developing the project schedule. The differeat task allocation to team members is dane by the
project manager. The manager will monitor,the projeet development progress within the given
schedule and budget. Project planning is completed before the software development activity
begins. Project planning ingludes the following important activities.
timation of project Size, cost duration, and efforts; The size af the project sletermiines the
complexity of the project im terms of the complexity of efforts and time required for
software development, The cast of the project refers to how much finance is necessary to
develop project. The duration refers othe time required to complete project development
‘The efforts refer to the manpower and other resources required for project completion.
Preparing a schedule of manpower and resources such as web, database, hardware, ete.
‘Organisation and appointment of staff In this activity, analysis is done to find out if the
‘Existing staf is sulficient for the project or if new hiring is required.
4: Configuration management and quality assurance planning,
The different activities can be conducted in the order shown in Figure 3.1. The size of the
project is determined first. The clTort estimation is connected to project staffing. The size
is connected to the time or duration required for completion and scheduling. Each activity
‘is equally important in project planning
in Project Planning
3.4 Project Size Estimation ‘When developing any software project, it is abays necessary to estimate the cost, schedule,
‘and time required to complete che project. ‘The cost, sehedule, nd time of the projact can be
deicrmined using the size of the project, This is the reason the size of the project must he
determined very accurately. There are same important metrics commonly used in project size
estimation: (
+ Lines of Code (Loc)
© Function Point (FP)
4 Prowet Estimation Techniques
Jed Lines af code (LOC)
This is the simples: meine used where the project size is calculated by counting the number
of source instructions in the program. The comments andoihe liecaden file statements are
exeltided from the count. LOC includes the lines in a program-containing the declaration of
all vanables, and executable and non-execulable statements: For estimation ofthe project size
i the project size can by) divided inte modules and
urate LO the experience in the past and the: skill
of the software developer are eonmdered. Progrjwnny skills ean be divided inio 3 typesas
shown in Table 3.1
Teble 3.| Division of Prosramuniag SI
Skill Level | Developed Code
Eificient Optimistic (Sopo>
“Average | ely (Sm)
Foor " Pesvimisie pest)
The LOC can be caltulaied using the formula:
Sapt + 4Sm + Spess
ee)
Example: Coasts? a soflware system, at the initial stage itis esiimamed that there ane $200
‘Sop 7000 Sm, and 9000 Spess. Find the expscted LOC of the software.
Sotation
5 (om + 45m + Spess-
6 )
(5200 + 4* 7000+ 9000N6
= 7033 LOC
3.4.2 Funetion point (FP)
Function point was proposed in 1983 and it overcomes many pitfalls of the LOC metic,
Unlike the LOC method, FP can be used to esiimate LOC right from the stage of problem specification, Function point (FP) is awd to measure ibe size of software based ow the
functional view, The main concept of the FP method 1s that size of the software depends on
the sumber of functions or fewiures included in the project, The more the number of fanctiens
‘or tasks in the project, the higher the size of the project, Other parameters te estimate the size
are the number of files and interfaces 6 the project, and inpuvowrpur dam values-F
lation considers the number of inputs, outputs, quertes, internal files. and extemal files.
TP determines the approximate developinent cost at the early stage, The functionality of the
system is from the user's point a! view,
Table 3.3: Notions used in Function Points
| Important Notations:
Function Point
Function Point Count
‘Unadjusted function point
Value adjusted factor
‘TDI = ‘Tol depree of influence
DI = Degree of Influence
EL = Number of excemal inputs
EO = Number of extemal outputs
EQ = Number of external inquiries
IF = Number of Internal Files
EIF = Number of external and iniernal interfaces
‘Weighting Fuctor Ti S
‘Table 3.3! Weighting Factor Table usod in Function Points
‘Weighting Factor Table (generally average calculation is used)
Function Unit | Low 7 AVG | HIGH
| Number of extermal inputs (20) a] 4
| Nugibet ef exteynal outputs (£0) 4 5
| Numiier of eacernal Inquiries QD = |= 7 6
| Number of Internal Files (iy 7 [ol
(Nubber of external and interaal ioteifaces (ETF) 5 nn
Degree of Influence (D1) :
Table 3.5; Degtec of Influcnce used ia Function Points
Degree of tnfla
No lafluence [incidental 1
| Moderate z |
Average 3
Significant a
Essential 3
‘Steps for Function Point (FP) calculation:
Table 3.6; Formulas and Steps used in the Funciion Pouits (FP) (EQ*AWE) +(ILT*AWT)
+{ELF*AWF)
(AWE: Average Weighing Factor)
‘2 TDI =14°DI
3. VAF = 0.55 + (0.01 * TDD)
4.FP -UFP* VAF
Example for finding the FP coisnt
Consider a seftward projec? with the Following fianetional units.
1) Number of user iisputs ~ 20
2) Number of user outputs = 40
3) Number of inquiries = 4
4y Number of files ~ 3
'5)\Ninaber of ettemal interface:
1G) Degree offindluence is given as= 3132543331254
7h Weight Factors are given as = Average for which the valltes are 4.5.4.10.7
Caleulate tho function point astimation of the proyect.
Solution :
From the data given, Table 8.7 is prepared for calculating UFP
Table 3,7; UFP Calculation
‘UFP Calculation Measurement Factor ‘Count Weight Factor | Total
Average
Number of extemal Inputs (£1) | 3 4
Number of extemal outputs (EO) « 5
‘Number of extemal inquines (EQ) y 4 1
Number of Incernal Files (LP) | & 1
Number of external and imernal interfaces) 2 7 \
(EIF) NZ
Total OFF a)
—~\
ELS AWE) + (EO*AWE) + (EQ*AWE) HILECAWE) HEL (WE)
204 HOF SE 5 Op
= 80 +200> 16+ 50+ La
UFP = 360
2. Calculation of DI = Average of ive complen factor
= average of J.T 32.54.3.3.3, 1.2.54 a9 given in the problem
= ASeLt bs Sededele2eseavid
= apie)
DI~ 2857
4. Calculate TDI sue 8t \ oY
pee)
4. Catulate WAR = ) Months
Semi-detached : Tdev = 2.5(2ffort}*™® Months
Embedded =: Tdev = 2.5(Effort)""* Months
Example Assume thar the size ofan organic typeof software product his been estimated ts
32.0 lines of source eode, Assume that theavsrage salary of software engincers is Rs. 18,000
Per month, Determine the effort réquired to develop the software product and the nomunal
development time
tion:
From the basic COCOMO-csiimation formula for organic software:
Effort = 24 x (A205 891 FAD
Nominal developmeni ving ~ 2.8 (91)0.38 —14 months
cost required (oWevielop the: product = 14 © 15,000
= Rs, 210, 00046
2) Intermediaye COCOMO model
The bac COCOMO model determines efforts wang LOC which |x oily a tinction of th
fpumiber of lines of code and seme, Bat in practice, oly LOC eanaot be used to determine any
‘systern’s efforts and schedule Cither factors such os experience, capability, snd reliability must
be cotisidered should be used in estimating efforts, These factors are known a> amaltiplicrs
cost drivers. There are 14 such drivers used! in Gost estimation,
‘The cost drivers are classified Iayed on the autnbutes of the following items
1 Product: The complexity and telaability of the product are considered au this atan bute.
om puter: The coafiguration of the computer such asexccatinn speed. memory storage.
s considered in this antribure 4, Pers
considered in this attrib
4, Development Environment: The ficilities available far software develapment are
considered in this auribute, One of the imporunt features that are required in this attribus
ts CASE lool used for the readymade availability of the software components,
The experience af the snftware develuper, knowledge. and analytical ability ts
3) Camplete COCOMO made!
In the basic and intirmedists COCOMO made, the software product is A Gannt Chant for completing a final year project for a student is given in Figure 3.5, igure 3,5 Gantt Chart for Project Complenon
PERT Chart: -
1. PERT stands for Program Evaluation and Review Technique)
2. PERT chart isa project management tool used to schisdule, organize. and coondinate tasks within
4 project. p
3-ILis a useful tool to identity the tasks involved. i cemploting a project
4. It helps find the minimum time necded to snmp he tomal project.
Figure-3.6 PERT Chart for Software Development Life Cycle
In Figure,3.6) sone activities are sequential, and a few are in a parallel fashion, The source is 1
and the destination is 6, In the Figure, the rectangles with numbers ate milestones or events. The
sirection “oF the arrow indicates thatthe evemts must occur sequentially. The dotted lines indicate
othr fo need for tesources, and these are dummy activities.
~~ SLALProj ject Staffing
SS, The different project teams are organized in scheduling using the project staffing technique. The
right persons are identified for handling the project and assigning responsibilities, The skill setand
talents of the people are identified. Every project is unique and requires distinet knowledge and skill, The proper selcction of software engincers affects
software tearm. The udvaniages of projcet siafling are:
overall productivity of the entire
2. Good recruitment and placement
3 Training and development
4. Developing a human sousee in the company
3.12 Self-Assessment Questions and Activities
QL-Explain the mangement spectram,
Q2.Describe the hey feaiures of a COCOMO for cost estimation,
Q3.Discussthe LOC metnes,
4, What isa function point? Explain its imponance,
(Q5.Esplain the different parameters in function point analysis.
(Q6 Explain the types offrisks in SPM
Q7.A suitable diayranndlescribes project planaing ia SPM
(QS.Explaim the msk management process with a surtable dt pram)
Q9.AWhat ate the principles of project scheduling?
QLD, Explain Project soheduling activities with a enitable diagran
QI. Daxw a GANTT chart for completing hose comsamncticn
QI2, Propare a PERT chart for completing a project relsted to ATM acdivities,
3.13 Multiple Choice Questions (MICQs)
Q1.LOC and FP calculation is used for
a} Manpower
b) Duratien
ce} Cost
d) Software Size S
Q2.The correctnéts if measured using:
a) Cost per LOC
b) Qocuments fir LOC
ch Deleetsper LOC
dj Fume for LOC
(Qa. The software size metric isused for
