Pailan College of Management & Technology

B. Tech Division (College Code-156)

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CA-II Examinations
(REPORT WRITING)
(Full Marks=25)
Student Name Arijit Nandi
University Roll No 15601321002
Subject Name Engineering Hydrology
Subject Code CE(PC)502
Semester 5
Department Civil Engineering

Instructions:
1. Please don’t change the formatting and font.
2. Topics should be selected based on the syllabus covered in the class.
3. Convert the word into PDF before submission.

Module/ Topic Measurement of Precipitation

Explanation :
In meteorology, precipitation is any product of the condensation of atmospheric water vapor that falls
under gravitational pull from clouds. The main forms of precipitation
include drizzle, rain, sleet, snow, ice pellets, graupel and hail. Precipitation occurs when a portion of the
atmosphere becomes saturated with water vapor (reaching 100% relative humidity), so that the water
condenses and "precipitates" or falls. Thus, fog and mist are not precipitation but colloids, because the
water vapor does not condense sufficiently to precipitate. Two processes, possibly acting together, can
lead to air becoming saturated: cooling the air or adding water vapor to the air. Precipitation forms as
smaller droplets coalesce via collision with other rain drops or ice crystals within a cloud. Short, intense
periods of rain in scattered locations are called showers.
Rain Gauge : A rain gauge (also known as udometer, pluvia metior, pluviometer, ombrometer,
and hyetometer) is an instrument used by meteorologists and hydrologists to gather and measure the
amount of liquid precipitation over a predefined area, over a period of time. It is used for determining
the depth of precipitation (usually in mm) that occurs over a unit area and thus measuring rainfall amount.
Types of Rain Gauge : There are two types of rain gauges, non-recording type and recording type.
(A) Non-Recording Type Rain Gauge : Symons Rain Gauge Non-recording type rain gauge is most
common type of rain gauge used by meteorological department.
(B) Recording Type Rain Gauges : There are three types of recording rain gauges a) Weighing bucket
type b) Tipping bucket type c) Floating or natural syphon type rain gauge.
I. Weighing bucket type: Weighing bucket type rain gauge is most common self-recording rain
gauge. It consists of a receiver bucket supported by a spring or lever balance or some other
weighing mechanism. The movement of bucket due to its increasing weight is transmitted to a pen
which traces record or some marking on a clock driven chart. Weighing bucket type rain gauge
instrument gives a plot of the accumulated (increased) rainfall values against the elapsed time and
the curve so formed is called the mass curve.
II. Tipping bucket type : Tipping bucket type rain gauge is a 30cm sized circular rain gauge adopted
for use by US weather bureau. It has 30cm diameter sharp edged receiver and at the end of the
receiver is provided a funnel. Pair of buckets are pivoted under this funnel in such a manner that
when one bucket receives 0.25mm of precipitation (rainfall),it tips discharging its rainfall into the
container, bringing the other bucket under the funnel. Tipping of bucket completes an electric
circuit causing the movement of pen to mark on clock driven receiving drum which carries a
 recorded sheet. These electric pulses generated are recorded at the control room far away from the
rain gauge station. This instrument is further suited for digitalizing the output signal.
III. Floating or natural syphon type rain gauge : The working of this type of rain gauge is similar to
weighing bucket rain gauge. A funnel receives the water which is collected in a rectangular
container. A float is provided at the bottom of container, and this float raises as the water level
rises in the container. Its movement being recorded by a pen moving on a recording drum actuated
by a clock work. When water rises, this float reaches to the top floating in water, then syphon
comes into operation and releases the water outwards through the connecting pipe, thus all water
in box is drained out. This rain gauge is adopted as the standard recording rain gauge in India and
the curve drawn using this data is known as mass curve of rain fall.
Rain Gauge Network : Rain-gauge networks are often used to provide estimates of area average rainfall
or point rainfalls at ungauged locations. The level of accuracy a network can achieve depends on the total
number and locations of gauges in the network.
As per IS 4987: 1994 , the This standard lays down recommendations for distribution, density and
representativeness of network of rain gauge for hydrometeorological studies.

Module/ Topic Processing of Rainfall Data

Explanation : Rainfall - Rainfall is a measurement of how much water falls as rain in a certain period of
time, for example, a week or a month. Rainfall is measured by collecting rain water across different areas
and times, as the amounts may differ between locations and times.
Estimation of Missing Rainfall Data- The point observation from a precipitation gage may have a short
break in the record because of instrument failure or absence of the observer. Thus, it is often necessary
to estimate the missing record using data from the neighboring station. The following methods are most
commonly used for estimating the missing records.
1. Simple Arithmetic Method
2. Normal Ratio Method
3. Modified normal ratio method
4. Inverse distance method
5. Linear programming method
Mass Curve of Rainfall - It's a graph of cumulative rainfall against time (after it's been arranged in
chronological order). Rainfall is measured in terms of mass-curve by float type and weighing type rain
gauges, but exclusively in terms of depth by Symon type rain gauges. To prepare the mass-curve, the
rainfall data obtained by non-recording type rain gauge is processed (i.e. in the form of cumulative w.r.t.
time). The following information about the rainfall at a specific location can be extracted using mass
curves.
Hyetograph- A hyetograph is a graphical representation of the distribution of rainfall intensity over time.
For instance, in the 24-hour rainfall distributions as developed by the Soil Conservation Service, rainfall
intensity progressively increases until it reaches a maximum and then gradually decreases.
Point Rainfall - The rainfall during a given time interval (or often one storm) measured in a rain gage, or
an estimate of the amount which might have been measured at a given point.
Mean Precipitation over an Area - A single point precipitation measurement is quite often not
representative of the volume of precipitation falling over a given catchment area. A dense network of
point measurements and/or radar estimates can provide a better representation of the true volume over a
given area. A network of precipitation measurements can be converted to areal estimates using any of a
number of techniques which include the following:

1) Arithmetic Mean - This technique calculates areal precipitation using the arithmetic mean of all the
point or areal measurements considered in the analysis.

2) Isohyetal Analysis - This is a graphical technique which involves drawing estimated lines of equal
rainfall over an area based on point measurements. The magnitude and extent of the resultant rainfall
areas of coverage are then considered versus the area in question in order to estimate the areal
precipitation value.
3) Thiessen Polygon - This is another graphical technique which calculates station weights based on the
relative areas of each measurement station in the Thiessen polygon network. The individual weights are
multiplied by the station observation and the values are summed to obtain the areal average precipitation.

Module/ Topic Losses from Precipitation

Explanation : Evaporation happens when a liquid turns into a gas. It can be easily visualized when rain
puddles “disappear” on a hot day or when wet clothes dry in the sun. In these examples, the liquid water
is not actually vanishing it is evaporating into a gas, called water vapor. Evaporation happens on a global
scale.
Evaporation Process : Evaporation occurs when energy (heat) forces the bonds that hold water molecules
together to break. When you’re boiling water on the stove, you’re adding heat to liquid water. This added
heat breaks the bonds, causing the water to shift from its liquid state to its gaseous state (water vapor),
which we know as steam.
Water easily evaporates at its boiling point (212° F, 100° C) but evaporates much more slowly at its
freezing point because of the heat energy required to evaporate the water.
The opposite of evaporation is condensation. Condensation is the process of water vapor turning back
into liquid water. Condensation occurs when saturated air is cooled, such as on the outside of a glass of
ice water.
Factors affecting Evaporation :
1. Temperature: On increasing the temperature the rate of evaporation also increases.
At higher temperatures, the molecules are moving faster; therefore, it is more likely for a molecule to
have enough energy to break away from the liquid to become a gas.
2. Wind speed: Wind speed and rate of evaporation are directly proportional to each other. As the wind
speed increases, the rate of evaporation also increases.
3. Surface area: As the surface area increases, the rate of evaporation also increases. The more area is
exposed to air, allowing water molecules to acquire more heat energy from the surroundings.
4. Humidity: Humidity and rate of evaporation are in inverse relation to each other. As the humidity
decreases, the rate of evaporation increases.
The two methods for measurement of evaporation are: (i) Direct methods {Water budget technique,
Lysimeter, Pan evaporation} and (ii) Indirect methods {Aerodynamic method or Mass Transfer Method,
Energy budget method, Penman equation, Blaney criddle method, Jensen Haise method, Hargreaves
method}
Infiltration : Infiltration is the process by which water on the ground surface enters the soil. It is
commonly used in both hydrology and soil sciences. The infiltration capacity is defined as the maximum
rate of infiltration. It is most often measured in meters per day but can also be measured in other units of
distance over time if necessary. The infiltration capacity decreases as the soil moisture content of soils
surface layers increases. If the precipitation rate exceeds the infiltration rate, runoff will usually occur
unless there is some physical barrier.
Factors Affecting Infiltration :
⚫ Precipitation- Precipitation can impact infiltration in many ways. The amount, type and duration of
precipitation all have an impact. Rainfall leads to faster infiltration rates than any other precipitation
events, such as snow or sleet. In terms of amount, the more precipitation that occurs, the more infiltration
will occur until the ground reaches saturation, at which point the infiltration capacity is reached. Duration
of rainfall impacts the infiltration capacity as well. Initially when the precipitation event first starts the
infiltration is occurring rapidly as the soil is unsaturated, but as time continues the infiltration rate slows
as the soil becomes more saturated. This relationship between rainfall and infiltration capacity also
determines how much runoff will occur. If rainfall occurs at a rate faster than the infiltration capacity
runoff will occur.
⚫ Soil characteristics- The porosity of soils is critical in determining the infiltration capacity. Soils that
have smaller pore sizes, such as clay, have lower infiltration capacity and slower infiltration rates than
soils that have large pore size, such as sands. One exception to this rule is when clay is present in dry
conditions. In this case, the soil can develop large cracks which leads to higher infiltration capacity.
Soil compaction also impacts infiltration capacity. Compaction of soils results in decreased porosity
within the soils, which decreases infiltration capacity. Hydrophobic soils can develop after wildfires have
happened, which can greatly diminish or completely prevent infiltration from occurring.
⚫ Soil moisture content- Soil that is already saturated has no more capacity to hold more water, therefore
infiltration capacity has been reached and the rate cannot increase past this point. This leads to much
more surface runoff. When soil is partially saturated then infiltration can occur at a moderate rate and
fully unsaturated soils have the highest infiltration capacity.
⚫ Organic materials in soils- Organic materials in the soil (including plants and animals) all increase the
infiltration capacity. Vegetation contains roots that extend into the soil which create cracks and fissures
in the soil, allowing for more rapid infiltration and increased capacity. Vegetation can also reduce surface
compaction of the soil which again allows for increased infiltration. When no vegetation is present
infiltration rates can be very low, which can lead to excessive runoff and increased erosion levels.
Similarly, to vegetation, animals that burrow in the soil also create cracks in the soil structure.
⚫ Land cover- Relationship between impervious surfaces and infiltration
If land is covered by impermeable surfaces, such as pavement, infiltration cannot occur as the water
cannot infiltrate through an impermeable surface This relationship also leads to increased runoff. Areas
that are impermeable often have storm drains which drain directly into water bodies, which means no
infiltration occurs. Vegetative cover of the land also impacts the infiltration capacity. Vegetative cover
can lead to more interception of precipitation, which can decrease intensity leading to less runoff, and
more interception. Increased abundance of vegetation also leads to higher levels of evapotranspiration
which can decrease the amount of infiltration rate. Debris from vegetation such as leaf cover can also
increase infiltration rate by protecting the soils from intense precipitation events. In semi-arid savannas
and grasslands, the infiltration rate of a particular soil depends on the percentage of the ground covered
by litter, and the basal cover of perennial grass tufts. On sandy loam soils the infiltration rate under a
litter cover can be nine times higher than on bare surfaces. The low rate of infiltration on bare areas is
due mostly to the presence of a soil crust or surface seal. Infiltration through the base of a tuft is rapid
and the tufts funnel water towards their own roots.
⚫ Slope- When the slope of land is higher runoff occurs more readily which leads to lower infiltration
rates.

Module/ Topic Streamflow Measurement

Explanation : Streamflow, or channel runoff, is the flow of water in streams and other channels, and is a
major element of the water cycle. It is one component of the movement of water from the land to
waterbodies, the other component being surface runoff. Water flowing in channels comes from surface
runoff from adjacent hillslopes, from groundwater flow out of the ground, and from water discharged
from pipes. The discharge of water flowing in a channel is measured using stream gauges or can be
estimated by the Manning equation. The record of flow over time is called a hydrograph. Flooding occurs
when the volume of water exceeds the capacity of the channel.
Streamflow is measured as an amount of water passing through a specific point over time. The units used
in the United States are cubic feet per second, while in most other countries cubic meters per second are
utilized. There are a variety of ways to measure the discharge of a stream or canal. A stream gauge
provides continuous flow over time at one location for water resource and environmental management
or other purposes. Streamflow values are better indicators than gage height of conditions along the whole
river. Measurements of streamflow are made about every six weeks by United States Geological Survey
(USGS) personnel. They wade into the stream to make the measurement or do so from a boat, bridge, or
cableway over the stream. For each gaging station, a relation between gage height and streamflow is
determined by simultaneous measurements of gage height and streamflow over the natural range of flows
(from very low flows to floods). This relation provides the streamflow data from that station. For
purposes that do not require a continuous measurement of stream flow over time, current meters or
acoustic Doppler velocity profilers can be used. For small streams — a few meters wide or smaller —
weirs may be installed.
The most common method used by the USGS for measuring velocity is with a current meter. However,
a variety of advanced equipment can also be used to sense stage and measure streamflow. In the simplest
method, a current meter turns with the flow of the river or stream. The current meter is used to measure
water velocity at predetermined points (subsections) along a marked line, suspended cableway, or bridge
across a river or stream. The depth of the water is also measured at each point. These velocity and depth
measurements are used to compute the total volume of water flowing past the line during a specific
interval of time. Usually a river or stream will be measured at 25 to 30 regularly spaced locations across
the river or stream.