UNIT 8 DURABILITY OF CONCRETE

Structure
8.1 Introduction
Objectives
8.2 Permeability of Concrete
8.3 Chemical Attack of Concrete
8.3.1 Sulphate Attack
8.3.2 Sea Water Attack
8.3.3 Oils and Acids Attack
8.4 Thermal Properties of Concrete
8.4.1 Thermal Conductivity
8.4.2 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion
8.4.3 Fire Resistance of Concrete
8.5 Resistance of Concrete to Freezing and Thawing
8.5.1 Frost Effect on Fresh Concrete
8.5.2 Frost Effect on Hardened Concrete
8.5.3 Explanation for Frost Damage
8.5.4 Air Entrained Concrete
8.5.5 Assessment of Prost Damage
8.6 Resistance to Erosion. Abrasion and Cavitation
8.7 Cracks in concrete
8.8 How to Repair the Cracks in Concrete
8.9 Surface Treatment to Concrete
8.10 Carbonation
8.11 Summary
8.12 Key Words
8.13 Answers to SAQs

8.1 INTRODUCTION
Y w have already studied about the properties of Hardened concrete, i.e. strength of
concrete in previous unit. Now you will study about the durability of hardened concrete in
this unit.
It is important for a construction material, specially for a versatile construction material like
concrete to be durable and withstand the conditions for which it has been designed without
deterioration. The durability aspect of concrete is also vital as it has indirect effect on
economy, serviceability and maintenance.
The question then arises, as to what are the factors which affect durability of concrete. The
main factors which stand out are the external factors or the environment and secondly
internal factors or causes within the concrete. Normally, concrete fails due to a combination
of these factors. The environmental factors could be quantified as physical, chemical and
mechanical which could be collectively summarised as :
i) Weatheting,
ii) Occurrence of extreme temperatures; fire and frost effect,
iii) Attack by natural or industrial liquids like sulphate, sea water, acids, oils and
sewage,
iv) Exposure conditions,and
v) Abrasion and cavitation.
The internal factors are the,
i) Alkali- aggregate reaction (discussed under unit 2 - Aggregates),
ii) Differae in thermal properties of aggregate and cement paste, and
iii) Permeability of concrete.
Fresh &Hardened Concrete The major mechanisum through which all these factors affect durability of concrete is the
volume change caused in concrete. Therefore, we will &so study about the Cracks in
Concrete which are due to volume change.
We will start with Permeability of Concrete because it mainly determines the
vulnerability of concrete to external agencies.
Objectives
At the end of this unit, you should be able to :
* describe the factors which affect durability of concrete,
* distinguishbetween effects of different factors,
* describe the sulphate attack and methods to control it,
* describe frost effect on fresh and hardened concrete,
* describe how durability of concrete is affected by different factors through
volume change in concrete, and
* distinguish between different types of cracks and their repair.

8.2 PERMEABILITY OF CONCkETE

Permeability of concrete determines the penetration of aggressive environmental agencies
and hence its vulnerability. For example, the relative ease with which concrete can become
saturated with water, depending upon its ~rmeability,decides the extent to which it will be
affected by frost. Also this ingress of moisture inreinforced concrete, in presence of air
results in corrosion of steel and hence cracking and spalling of concrete. It also decides the
extent to which the aggressive chemicals will be able to attack it. The permeability of
concrete is also of great interest and importance in relation to water tightness of liquid
retaining structures, and roofs and toilets which also are in touch with moisture.
A study of permeability of concrete, necessitates our recalling the structure of hydrated
cement paste which you studied in unit 1 :Cements.
You would recall that the hydrated cement paste consists of gel pores and capillary cavities.
The gel has porosity of 28 %, but its pores are so small that appreciable amount of water
cannot pass through them. In fact the permeability is only 1\100th of that of the paste.
Therefore, you could say that gel pores do not contribute to the permeability of the concrete.
Let us now see what causes permeability in concrete. It is seen that extent of capillary
cavities depends on water-cement ratio. At lower water cement ratio, the capillary cavities
are less in diameter as well in extent. l'hey get filled up within a few days by the hydration
products of cement. On the other hand due to higher water-cement ratio (>6"f)tmduly large
cavities are formed, which gel is unable to fill and they remain empty and are responsible
for the permeability of concrete. In order to understand the reduction in permeability with
progress of hydration, see the Table 8.1.
Table 8.1 :Reduction in Coefficient of Permeability of Cement Paste
(Water / Cement=0.7)with Progress of Hydration.
Sl. No Age Coefficient of Permeability
@a~s) (m / sec)
1) Fresh 2 x lo-6

Ultimate 6 x 10- l3 (Calculated) 1

 Dumbility of Concrete
The value of coefficient of permeability even at 8 days is 4 x 10-". metrelsecond is so
small and comparable to a rock like granite that physically no water will permeate through it
in a perceptible manner. But then this is contrary to what is observed in actual practice,
whereln concrete exhibits much more permeability than stated above, Is it due to the
aggregates ? Well in general, it is seen that the aggregates obtained from rocks like quartz,
granite, sand stone etc. are as impermeable as the paste. Therefore, it is clear that the fault '
112sclsewhere i.e. there are other causes, which have been listed below :
a) Formation of micro-cracks due to long-term drying shrinkage.
b) Rupture of bond between Interface of paste and aggregate due to differential
thermal stresses.
c) Cracks developed on account of structural stresses.
d) Entrapped &-due to insufficient compaction.
e) Volume change in concrete on account of various reasons.
There are several ways by which impermeability of concrete can be improved :
i) By use of poz7ollonic materials, the leaking of calcium hydroxide is prevented
and hence porosity is controlled.
ii) By air-entrainment upto 6%.
111) High pressure steam cured concrete exHibils better impermeability due to
coarser gel and hence lower dryuig shrtnkage.

8.3 CHEMICAL ATTACK OF CONCRETE

In normal building construchon, concrete is not exposed to my serious chemical attack.
However in certain specialist situations like structures in sea, sulphate infested soils,
tanneries and industries producing, handling and storing chermcals. the concrete is exposed
to the chemcal attack to different degrees. In order to ensure that proper concrete is
prepared for such structures, it is necessary to understand the mechanism of these attacks,
whch we will do now.
83.1 Sulphate Attack
Sulphate attack on concrete takes place when the structure is in contact with soils containing
alkali, magnesium and calcium sulphates which are in solution form due to ground water.
i) Mechanism
The sulphates of various bases react with cement in different ways.
a) Sodium, potassium and anlmonium sulphates first react with Ca(ON), to form gypsum
which m turn reacts with hydrated calcium aluminates to form calcium - sulpho -
alumnate.
This chemcal reachon is as below :
Ca ( OH ), + N%SO, 10 H20 *--+ CaS0,. 2 H2 0 + 2 NaOH + 8 H20
3 CaO A1203.19H20 + 3 ( CaS0,. 2H20 ) + 16 H20 ---, 3 CaO . 2A120,. 3CaS0,. 31H20

The extent to which the first stage reaction proceeds depends on the ambient condition
and concentration of sulphates. Gypsum (CaSO,) also forms Calcium Sulpho aluminate
directly as per the second stage of reaction.
b) Magnesium sulphate has much more active action as lt reacts not only with calcium
hydroxide and hydrated calcium alurmnates as shown above, but also decomposes the
hydrated calcium silicates completely. In reaction form this can be written as :
3 CaO 2Si0, aq + 3 MgSO,. 7 H20 -3 CaSO4.2H2O+ 3 Mg(OH), + 2 Si02.aq
ii) Adverse Effects
The products of reactions, 1.e. gypsum and calcium sulpho alumnates have
considerably greater volume than the compounds they replace and hence the sulphate
attack leads to expansion and consequent disruption of concrete. In case of Magnesium
sulphate, because of very low solubility ot magnesium hydroxide, the reaction proceeds
to completion and hence is very severe compared to olher sulphate attacks. Also the rate
of sulphate attack increases with the Increase in the strength of the solution A saturated
E'resh &Hardened Concrete solution of magnesium sulphate can cause serious damage to concrete with higher water
cement ratio, in a relatively short time; while low water cement ratio concrete can
withstand this attack for 2 to 3 years. Further, the rate of attack also depends upon the
rate at which the sulphate consumed in the reaction is replenished. This situation could
be visualized by you, when you could imagine a structure retaining sulphate bearing
water on one side. In a sea structure this could happen due to alternate wetting and
drying as a result of tidal variation or spraying.
Let us now examine various methods and techniques which could help you in
controlling the sulphate attack on structures, you may be planning to build in future.
iii) Methods of Controlling Sulphate Attack
a) Use of Sulphate Resisting Cement
We have discussed this in detail in Unit 1, Cements. Here the cement used possesses
low C3A content, which provides the most efficient method of resisting sulphate attack.
High resistance to sulphate attack has been found for portland cements containing not
more than 5.5 per cent C3A.
b) Quality Concrete
It is a well known fact that a well designed, mixed, placed and compacted concrete
would be dense and impermeable and would exhibit higher resistance to sulphate attack.
To be dense, the concrete must have a low watertcement ratio.
c) Addition of Pozzolona
Improved resistance to sulphate attack is obtained by addition of pozzolonas to cement.
This helps in removing Ca(OH), and thus increasing imperviousness of concrete.
d) use of Air-entrainment
Air entrainment to the extent of six per cent has beneficial effects towards sulphate
resistance. This is perhaps due to resulting reduction in segregation,bleeding, improved
workability and general improved impermeability of concrete.
e) High Pressure Steam Curing
This curing method improves sulphate resistance by changing C3A H6 into a less
reactive phase and also by removal of calcium hydroxide through use of silica. Silica is
always mixedused when high pressure steam curing method is adopted.
Minimum cement content and maximum water cement ratio recommended are available
in Table 8.2 given below for concrete exposed to sulphate attack.
Table 8.2 :Requirements for Concrete Exposed to Sulphate Attack
Requirements for
Dense, fully
Concentration of Sulphates Compacted Concrete
Expressed as SO3 made with Aggregates
Complying with
Class Type of Cement -
IS :383 1970
SO3 in Minimum Max. Free
2:l In Cement Water1
In Soil Water Ground Content Cement
Extract Water Ratio
(grit) (kg/m31
1) Ordinar Portland cement or < 0.2 - < 30 280 0.55
porllar*Yslagcement or
Portland pozzolana cement.
2) Ordinar Portland cement or 0.2 to 0.5 - 30 to 120 330 0.50
~ o r t l a n i s l cement
a~ or
Portland pozzolana cement.
Supersulphate Cement. 310

3) Supersulphate Cement. 0.5 to 1.0 2.9 to 3.1 120 to 250 330 4.50

Note : This table applies only to concrete made with 20 mm aggregates complying
with the,requirements of IS : 383 - 1970. For 40 mrn aggregate value may be
reduced by about 15 per cent and for 12.5 mm aggregate value may be
increased by about 15 per cent.
 8.3.2 Sea Water Attack ~urabilityor Concrete,

Concrete is extensively used in the construction of marine structures like harbours, docks,
break waters and jetties. The concrete in sea water environment may suffer :
a) Due to attack of dissolved chemicals on the product of hydration.
b) Crystallisation of salts within the concrete under conditions of alternate wetting
and drying.
c) Mechanical attrition and impact by waves.
d) Corrosion of reinforcement.

These attacks render the concrete more vulnerable to other agencies of destruction.
a) You have already studied in 8.3.1 (b) the adverse effects of magnesium sulphate
on concrete. This has also been assumed to be one of the primary factors
responsible for chemical attack of concrete by sea water by expansion.
However in case of sea water the deterioration has been found to be
predominantly due to erosion or loss of constituents due to bleeding. Therefore
summing up, one can say that sea water attack consists both of expansion due to
sulphates and leaking due to chlorides.
b) You may also note that
i) most severe attack in sea water occurs just above the level of high
water,
ii) the portion between low and high water marks is less affected, and
iii) the area below the low water level which are continuously immersed in
sea jvater are least affected. The most severe attack mentioned above at
(i) is due to crystallisation of salts.
c) Frost action affects durability in cold climatic regions where the pore water at
the spray level of concrete freezes thus causing disrupting. This freezing of
water may also take place between the low and high tidal levels.
d) In shallow zones of the sea, the sea water holds certain quantity of silt and sand.
These materials together with impact and mechanical force of wave action
cause abrasion of concrete thus affecting durability.
e) As far as corrosion is concerned, it is predominant in concrete reinforced with
redorcement. This occurs due to percolation and attack of sea water on steel
reinforcement which results in higher volume thus exerting pressure on
, surrounding concrete causing lack of durability.

The above mechanisms also act as pointers in formulating steps to improve durability of
concrete to be used in sea water. These pointers are :
i) Use cement with low C3A content and concrete should have low waterlcement
ratio and richer mix.
ii) Provide adequate cover to reinforcement.
iii) Use of pozzolonic materials improves durability.
iv) Where possible, use high pressure steam cured prefabricated concrete panels.
As a guidance, the Table 8.3 which follows give the minimum cement content of concrete to
ensure durability under specified conditions of exposure.
Further Table 8.4 which follows gives the lowest compressive strength recommended for
various exposure conditions.
8.33 Oils and Acids Attack
We will study this aspect of durability for mineral organic oils, acids, vegetable and animal
oils and fats, action of molasses and action of sewage on concrete.
X a) Action of Mineral Oils
It is observed that mineral oils like petrol and petroleum distillates in general seriously
affect the hardening process of fresh concrete but do not attack. Also lubricating oils
which are entirely of mineral origin do not attack concrete. However, cresotes which
contain phenols may have some adverse effects on concrete. You might have observed
~ k s &Hardened
h Crmente that at places concrete tanks have been used for storage of mineral oils. In such
situation, durability is improved through improvement of imperviousnessof concrete by.
using rich concrete and through surface treatments like applicationof four coats of
sodkmsilicate.
Table 8.3: Minimum Cement Content Required in Cement Concrete to Ensure
Durability under Specified Conditions of Exposure.

Plain concrete Reinforced concrete

SI. Exposure ' Min. Max. Min. Max.
No Cement WIC Cement WIC
Content Ratio Content Ratio
(Kg/m3) (Kg/m3)
1) -
Mild for example, completely protected 220 0.7 250 0.65
against weather, or aggressive conditions,
except for a brief per~odof exposure to
normal weather conditions during
construction.
2) -
Moderate for example, sheltered from
heavy and wind driven rain and against
250 0.6 290 0.55
frezung, whilst saturated with water ;buried
concrete and concrete in soil and concrete
continuously under water.
3) Severe - for example, exposed to sea water, 310 0.5 360 0.45
a1ternate we ttmg and drymg and to freezmg
whilst wet, subject to heavy condensation or
corrosive fumes.

Table8.4 :Lowest Characteristic Compressive Strength Recommended for Particular

Conditions of Exposure and Nominal Cover to Reinforcement.

Lowest CharactersticCompressive Strength

Exposure
w em2
S1.
No. Nominal cover ** (mm)
15 20 25 30 40 50 60
1) -
Mild for example, completely
protected against weather, or
300 250 200 200 200 200 200
aggressive conditions, except for a
bnef period of exposure to normal
weather conditions during
construction.
2) Moderate - for example, sheltered NA 500 400 30 250 250 250
from severe rain and against frezzing
while saturated with water. Buried
concrete continuously under water.
3) dnying -
Severe for example, exposed to
rain, alternate.wetting and
NA NA 500 40 300 250 250
mg to freezlng while wet. Subject
"?b
to eavy condensationor corrosive
fumes.
4) Very severe - exposed to seawater or NA NA NA NA NA 500 400
moorland water and with abrasion. NA NA 500 500 400*, 300' 300'
Subject to salt used for de-icing.
NA indicates that the combination of strength and cover 1s not adv~sed.
* only appl~cabled the concrete has entraned iur. .
** These values should be increased by 10 mm whenever the table is applied to hght we~ghtmncrefe, except for
internal nonoormsive condihons.

b) Action of Organic Acids

The action of organic acids on concrete is corrosive. While Formic Acid is more
corrosive, the tannic acid and phenols are only mildly corrosive. Further Oleic and
Stearic acids, though insoluble in water, have some corrosive action on concrete. In case
of acetic acid, lacticacid and butyric acid, the severity of attach depends upon their
concentration and temperature.
 c) Action of Vegetable and Animal Oils and Fats Durability of Concrete

Most of the vegetable oils cause slow deterioration of concrete due to presence of small
amounts of fatty essence. Rancid animal oils containing considerable acid content,
produce corrosive action which is also true in case of some fish oils. Also, laboratory
observations indicate that cotton-seed oils rapidly attack portland cement concrete.
d) Action of Molasses
Concrete talnks have been used satisfactorily for storage of molasses, thus indicating that
action of their sugar content is not of much consequence, though it causes gradual
corrosion. All that you have to ensure is that the concrete is well cured at least for
28days and that additional imperviousness is imparted to the inner surface of concrete
tank by treating it with tar or asphalt or sodium silicate.
e) Action of Sewage
It has been seen that if the sewage contains more than 150 ppm of soluble sulphate salts,
sulphate attack may occur. But, domestic sewage rarely contains this amount-of
sulphate salts and hence is not detrimental. However, hydrogen sulphide gas emanating
from sludge digestion tank can promote the formation of sulphuric acid which can
attack the concrete surface above the liquid level. Concrete sewers running full are not
attacked. Certain industrial wastes containing higher concentration of sulphates are
injurious to durability of concrete.
You may ensure that concrete pipes used for sewage are made from well compacted rich
concrete of, low water cement ratio. The formation of sulphuric acid can be avoided by
ensuring sufficient quantity of flow, proper ventilation of sewers and by avoiding stagnation
of sewage.

SAQ 1
a) What is the effect of permeability on dural~ilityof concrete ?

b) Ho-w can you improve durability of concretc In sza water ?

c) How does sewage affectconcrete dur;ibiility ?

dj What is the minimum cement content specified for Reinforced C'!)ncrcte in mild
exposure conditions ?

e! How does addition of pozzollona help in improving registance of sl-l!ph;ite

attack ?

8.4 THERMAL PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE

Concrete is used extensively in situations where temperatures are either very high or low.
Some of these are fuepit, chlrnney, chemical factory, nuclear reactor, constructions in hot
regions and cold storages. The study of thermal behaviour of concrete in these situations
I gives us a good understanding of durability of concrete. This is now discussed.
I
8.4.1 Thermal Conductivity of Concrete
You must be aware that the ability of the concrete to conduct heat is indicated by its thermal
conductivity aid is measured in joules per second per square metre of arca of concrete when
the temperature difference is 1°C per metre thickness of concrete. The thermal conductivity
depends upon the composition of concrete with respect to
b b ' & ~ a eCOOC~P(~
d i) Type of aggregate,
Amount of aggregate, and
ii)
iii) Moisture content.
The effect of type of aggregate on thermal conductivity can be best judged firom the Table 8.5.
Table 8.5 : Values of Conductivity Recommended by London And Stacey

Conductivity, ~ m / m
s O ~C
For Concrete Protected from Weather For Concrete Exposed To Weather
Sl. Aerated Light Light Normal Aerated Light Light Normal
No. concrete Weight Weight Weight Con- Weight Weight Weight
eight
concrete Concrete Aggregate crete Concrete Concrete Aggre-
with With Concrete With With gate
Foamed Expanded Foamed Expanded Concrete
kg/m3
Slag Clay Or Slag ' Clay Or
Slintered Slintered
Fly Ash Fly Ash
1) 320 0.109 0.087 0.130 0.123 0.100 0.145
2) 480 0.145 0.116 0.173 0.166 0.130 0.187
3) 640 0.203 0.159 0.230 0.223 0.173 0.260
4) 800 0.260 0.203 0.303 0.273 0.230 0.332
5) 960 0.315 0.260 0.376 0.360 0.289 0.433
6) 1120 0.389 0.315 0.462 0.433 0.360 0.519
7) 1280 0.476 0.389 0.562 0.533 0.433 0.635
8) 1440 0.462 0.678
S) 1600 0.549 0.794 0.706 0.808
10) 1760 0.649 0.952 0.838 0.952
11) 1920 1.056 1.194
12) 2080 1.315 - 1.488
13) 2240 1.696 1.904
14) 2400 2.267 2.561

You must have observed from this table that the thennal conductivity variation with density
in case of normal weight concrete is not appreciable, while it varies considerably in case of
light weight concretes because of appreciable quantity of air contained in them.
Cjenerally, we can note that basalts have low conductivity, dolomite and lime stone have
average co~iuctivity*-\I- quartzs possess high conductivity.
However, m ~ i ~ t u.antent
ie of concrete is an important factor and conductivity increases
with increase in moisture content. .
We now discuss (-oeff'cientof thermal expansion which affects the stability and durability
with variation ir, ' I wrature.
8.4.2 Coefficbent of Thermal Expansion
You are alreauj awart: from the Unit on Aggregate that too much of thennal incompatibility
between the ag;.regatc and paste (the two important phases of concrete) causes differential
expansion and contrac.~onresulting in disruption of interface bond in these two phases.
IIenc ifaffect3 the durability of concrete. The Table 8.6 gives the coefficient of thermal
I*,

lxpa P ! )n of ctmcrete at high tempearatwes.

 Table 8.6 :Coemcient of Thermal Expansion of Concrete at High Temperatures.

Linear Coemcient of Thermal

Expansion at the Age of
Sl. Curing Water1 Cement Aggregate
No. Cement Content 28 days 90 days
Ratio
Below Above Below Above
(kg/m3 260"C 430°C 260"C 430"C
1 0 4 "C 1 0 4 OC '1041OC 104P C
0.4 435 7.6 20.3 6.5 11.2

1) Moist 0.6 310 Calcareous 12.8 20.5 8.4 22.5

0.8 245 gravel 11.0 21.1 16.7 32.8

2) Air 0.4 435 7.7 18.9 12.2 20.7

3) 5Oper 0.6 310 Calcareous 7.7 21.1 8.8 20.2
cent
4) relative 0.8 245 Gravel 9.6 20.7 11.7 21.6
humidity
5) Moist air 0.68 . 355 Expanded 6.1 7.5 - -

0.68 355 Shale 4.7 9.7 5.0 8.8

It can be observed that the coefficient increases with increase in waterlcement ratio and
varies with type of aggregate used.
8.4.3 Fire Resistance of Concretes
Fire resistance of concrete structures is primarily dependent on three factors :
i) Capacity of concrete to withstand heat,
ii) Conductvity of concrete, and
iii) Coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete.
In the case of reinforced concrete, the type of concrete and cover to reinforcement play a
major role. The high temperarature gradient causes differential expansion and separation
between surface and interior. Heating of reinforcement and consequent expansion causes
loss of bond and loss of strength of reinforcement.
The best fire resistant aggregates are basalts, dolerites, dense limestone, blast furnace slag
aggregate and even broken brick aggregate.
Concrete does not show appreciable loss of strength upto a temperature of 300' C, but the
loss of strength may be 50 per cent or more at about 500°C .
While we have studied the effects of high temperatures, let us now examine the behaviour
and effect on durability of concrete due to Freezing and Thawing.

1 8.5 RESISTANCE OF CONCRETE TO FREEZING AND

THAWING
I
I1
In India, certain regions experience sub zero temperaturesin winter. Concrete structures in
such regions undergo cycles of freezing and thawing and their durability is affected due to
frost action. Let us first examine the effect on fresh concrete.
8.5.1 Frost Effect on Fresh Concrete

/
I
Fresh concrete contains considerable quantity of fresh water which gets converted into ice
lenses at freezing temperatures. The ice lense formation in fresh concrete results in about
9% increase in volume and causes permanent datnage to concrete and the structural integrity
cannot be recovered even if the concrete is made to harden later at higher temperatures.
'
Even during hardening, the concrete should be protected from extrzmely low temperatures.
Therefore, you may make a note that while concreting in cold weather, ensure that the
temperature of fresh concrete is maintained above 0°C.
Fresh &Hnrdened Coaerete 8.5.2 Frost Effect on FulIy Hardened Concrete
The concrete is vulnerable to frost damage even when it is fully hardened. It has been
estimated that freezing of water in hacdened concrete could exert pressures of about 140 Kg
per sq cm and if strength of concrete is less than this it could get damaged severely. The
damage increases due to alternate cyclzs of freezing and thawing. Further. the damage
multiplies when more than one face of the concrete structure is exposed to frost and it
remains wet for a long time. Some examples could be, roof parapets, road kerbs, isolated
columns, and concrete members in hydraulic structuresjust above water level.
8.5.3 Explanation for Frost Damage
There are several theories to explain frost damage.
a) One theory attributes the damage lo non-accommodation/insuffickntaccommodation of
increase in volume caused due to freezing of free water held in concrete, because of less
empty space available.
b) Another theory links the failure to the production of pressure due to the growth of ice
lenses parallel to the surface of the concrete owing to the migration of water from
capillaries where the freezing point is depressed.
c) The next theory explains the failure to generation of water pressure within the capillary
cavities with the growth of ice crystals. This hydraulic pressure can only be relieved by
flow of water in other spaces as the ice formed on the surface seals the exterior. This
- local pressure causes damage to concrete when it exceeds the tensile strength of
concrete. In general, we can state that the resistance of concrete to frost action depends
upon :
i) Strength of the paste,
ii) Waterlcement ratio (see Figure 8.1).
iii) Type of aggregate used,
'

iv) Age of concrete,

v) Duration and extent to which the concrete is subjected to freezing action, and
vi) Degree of saturation of concrete.

WaterICemant Ratio

Flg. a1 :Muerne ot Watedcemmt Ratio on The had Resis@na of Concrete M o i s t s c l d For 28 Days.

8.5.4 Air Entrained Concrete

In ordinary concrete, there may exist big voids interconnected by capillaries which may be
formed by bleeding. However, in air entrained concrete, though the total air voids are more,
the voids are in the form of minute, discrete bubbles of comparatively uniform size and
regular spherical shape. This air void system reduces the tendency of formation of large
crystals of ice in the concrete. Also the interconnected air void system acts as buffer space
to relieve the internal pressure.
8.5.5 Assessment of Frost Damage Durability of Concmte

There are several methods to assess frost damage. One method assesses it through loss of
weight of a concrete s-le subjected to a certain number of cycles of freezing and
thawing. Another method assesses it through change in the dynamic modulus of elasticity.
Blanks uses durability factor for this purpose and defines it as Number of cycles of freezing
and thawing to produce failure divided by one hundred. However, A.S.T.M. calculates
durability factor by continuing freezing and thawing for 300 cycles or until the dynamic
modulus of elasticity is reduced to 60% of its original value, whichever occurs fust.
Number of cycles at end of the test x % of original modulus of elastisity
Durability factor =
300

'SAQ 2
a) .&lidif. ihc rn:.:hxl~sm of sulphate attack ?

b) What steps would you tnke as site engineer to combat sulphate attack ?

c) How does the frost effect on fresh concrete differ from that on hardened
concrzte ' I

d) Desc -"ar,y one theoiy to illustrate the mechanism of trost damage to

con(;, 2 ?
i - p

8.6 RESISTANCE TO EROSION, ABRASIONAND

CAVITATION
We now move on to examine another aspect of durability. Let us fust recapitulate the
various terms. Erosion refers to the wearing action by fluids while abrasion occurs through
friction. Cavitation refers to damage which occurs due to non-linear flow of water at
velocities greater than 12 metres per second. You will fmd such action p~ominentlyin roads,
pavements, industrial flow and in hydraulic structures.
The resistance to these damaging actions could be quantiqed as below :
a) The resistance is related to compressive strength of concrete and hence use
concrete with higher compressive strength.
b) Rough and angular aggregate which possess better bond and inter locking effect
resist the abrasion very well. Also these aggregates should be well embedded in
the cement paste matrix.
C) To avoid cavitation, provide smooth surface free from irregularities. Use well
cured, smooth fmished high strength concrete. Epoxy screeding and polymer
application to the surface improves resistance against cavitation.
&Hardeoed Concrete
8.7 CRACKS IN CONCRETE
Concreteis subjected to tensile stresses in structures. However the concrete cracks when
these tensile stresses exceed its tensile strength. This happens often and cracks tend to
become one of the inherent defects. The reasons for cracking in concrete are many and have
been listed for pre-hardening and hardened stage separately in the Tables 8.7 and 8.8
respectively.
Table 8.7; Types and Causes of Concrete Cracks in Prehardening.

Primary Secondary Example or

Classification Classification Cause Contributing Remedy
Conditions

Subgrade Settlement of Moisture changes in

subgrade Subgrade or lack of Control of subgrading
Constructional compaction of subgrade
Movements
Formwork Movement of Swelling of wood or Construction of
formwork pressure of wet concrete adequate forms
Reinforcement Settlement of Settlement around Dense mixes with
Settlement or formwork concrete obstructions, mix too low water content
Shrinkage obstructions during setting fluid and adequate
compachon of low
lifts
plastic Chemical Cracks occur soon after Remedy not clear but
shrinkage reactions placing and under moist refloating eliminates
Setting . conditions cracks
Shrinkage
in^ Rapidsetting
drying Cracking of exposed
shrinkage whle surfaces due to high Roper protection
occurs wmd low humdity or
temperature differential

Table 8.8 : Types and Causes of Concrete Cracks after Hardening.

Primary Secondary Example or

Classification Classiflcatlon Cause Contributing Remedy
Conditions

Drying Loss of water Crackin of building Dense mixes with

slabs an%walls low cement and water
shrinkage

resulting in
action
Corrosion of Thick and dense
reinforcement layer of protective
concrete
~nternal Differential Heat of hydration of Low heat cement and
ex ansions cement : aggre ates of control of
an5
contractions
norma!the
expansion
d * temperature rise :
aggregates of normal
Temperature thermal expansion
External Climatic
changes / L s e slabs or walls.
wltfout adequate jomts I Adequate expansion
contractionjoints
Frost and ice
raction
Excessive
Spalling of surface

Building settlement,
I Air entrain- ment and
sound effects

Structural Tensile excessive loads, Correct design or

stresses due to vibration, ezpthquakes, structure
failure loads and msufficient
reinforcement

However, these defects could be overcome by following certain good rules listed below for
your ready reference :
a) Strength Durability of Concrete

Use high strength concrete with low waterlcement ratio, using good clean fine and
coarse aggregates with corrfct proportioning. Ensure that fresh concrete is not subjected
to drying by hot sun or.dry wind which can cause plastic shrinkage cracks. Ensure that
the formwork is sound and rigid and there is no sagging or bulging. Take care against
sulphate attack, alkali-aggregate reaction and action of frost as discussed earlier.
b) Joints
The location of construction, expansion and constructionjoints should be well thought
out to reduce cracks. Minimise construction joints, while expansion and contraction
joints should be provided at smtable intervals considering factors like thickness,
temperature variation, coefficient of thermal expansion etc.
c) Mass Concrete
Heat of hydration in mass concrete causes expansion and shrinkage resulting in
development of tensile stresses in the interior of mass concrete. So proper care like use
of low heat cement should be resorted to. In an extreme case you have to resort to
precooling, post cooling, insulating the exposed surfaces during cold weather and
designing to minimise strains around galleries and other openings.
d) Drying Shrinkage
Concrete undergoes dryiig shrinkage whenever its surfaces are exposed to low
humidity air. The most effective way to reduce cracking in this regard is to reduce water
content, use adequate and properly positioned reinforcement and by use of control joints.
While lower water content is passible with efficient vibration, the properly positioned
reinforcement through bond stresses distributes the cracks mns reducing their size.
e) Control Joints
The use of control joints or dummy joints is one of the effective methods to prevent
formation of unsightly cracking. Large areas of walls, slabs and pavements, if not
provided with dummy joints, would do so by developing cracks at random in order to
accommodate the shrinkage. However by providing dummy joints at locations of your
choice, you are able to guide the crack development at predetermined locations.
f) Permissible Cracks Widths, Reinforced Concrete
The Table 8.9 is based on recommendations of American Concrete Institute Committee
224 and gives a general guidance for tolerable crack widths at the tensile face of
reinforced concrete structures.
Table 8.9 :Permissible Crack Widths, Reinforced Concrete

S1.No Exposure Conditions Maximum Allowable Crack Width

(mm)
1) Dry or protective membrane 0.03
2) Humidity, Moist air, Soil 0.30
3) De-icing chemicals 0.18
4) Seawater and Seawater spary; wetting 0.15
and drying
5) Water retaining structures 0.09

8.8 HOW TO REPAIR CRACKS IN CONCRETE

At the outset, let us bear in mind that all possible precautions should be taken during
concreting itself to achieve quality concrete. The repair situation should arise only as a
special case and should not become a routine matter.
Some details about crack repairs are described below :
i) To begin with, the crack is cut into V shaped groove and all loose material is removed.
The groove is then watered and kept wet for sometime. When this water has dried and
the concrete is still in moist condition, a thin cement slurry is poured or brushed into the
h b &Hardened Cooemte groove followed by mortar of 1:3 or 1:4 composition . After proper mortar filling, the
location is covered with wet hessian cloth for about 24 hours. After this water curing is
done. To obtain better results shrinkage grout or expensive cement may be used. Several
chemical bonding agents are also available which provide strong bond between old and
new concrete. These have been described in Unit 02 in Engineering Materials.
ii) In case cracks are too fme, then you may fill them up with pure epoxy compound. Also
epoxy mixed with clean sand has been found to be very successful in sealing both major
and minor cracks. But if the cracks are deep, then you may nave to do grouting with
cement slurry, cement mortar or epoxy under pressure so as to reach all the nooks and
comers of the crevices.
The durability of the concrete can also be increased particularly on the surface by
applications of different materials which make it water-proof hardened and resistant to
chemical attack. We will persue these now.

8.9 SURFACE TREATMENT TO CONCRETE

Some of the commonly used surface treatments are :
i) Sodium silicate, magnesium or zinc flouride
ii) Drying oils like Tung or Linseed oil
iii) Chlorinated rubber paints and neoprene paints
iv) Epoxy paints
v) Silican Fluoride treatment
vi) Polymer impregnation
The surface of the hardened and dry concrete can be made abrasion resistant and less dust
generating by application of solutions of sodium silicate, magnesium or zinc sulphates or
silico fluorides. Drying oil like tung oil or linseed oil can be used. Alternatively,
carbocundum or fused alumina or finely divided iron aluminium chloride preparations may
be added in the surface layer while placing the fresh concrete.
Floor paints also provide reasonable durability if the traffic on floor is not heavy. Paints
containing synthetic resins particularly polyurethanes or epoxies or chlorinated rubber
provide greater resistance to wear. They also protect against solutions of salts and dilute
acids.
Sodium silicate and silico fluoride applications provide protection against mild conditions
of attack by aqueous solutions or organic liquids. Bitumen and coal tar gives protection
against insects and borers. Some plastic materials, rubber latex glass fibre coatings and PVC
liniigs have also been successfully employed to improve durability of concrete.
Ocrate Process is another important surface treatment in which the concrete member is
impregnated with sillco fluoride under pressure. This process is very useful in improving
durability of precast concrete pipes for sewage disposal and piles for foundation.
Another modem method of improving durability is the polymer impregnation of concrete.
Here precast conventional concrete is used and dried in oven or by dielectric heating. The
air in open cells is removed by vacuum. Then a low viscosity monomer is diffused into the
open cells and polymerised by using radiation, application of heat or by chemical initiation.
It has been observed that this process results in highly improved freeze-thaw resistance,
resistance to sulphate attack, acids, abrasion and wear and skid.

8.10 CARBONATION
It has been established that the increasing environmental stress is one of the essential factor
I
which cause concrete damage. The cause of this kind of damage is explained in more detail
below.
It is recognised that steel embedded in a heavily alkaline medium with pH-values from 9
upwards will not rust. During the setting of concrete, cement begins to hydrate, this
chemical reaction between cement and water in the concrete causes calcium-hydroxide to be
formed from the cement clinker. This ensures the concrete's alkalinity, producing a
pH-value of more than 12.6 which renders the steel surface passive.
Protection of the reinforcement from corrosion is thus provided by the alkalinity of the Durability of Coocmtc
concrete, which leads to a passivation of the steel. The reserve of calcium-hydroxide is very
high, so there is no need to expect steel corrosion even when water penetrates to the
reinforcement of the concrete. Because of this, even the occurrence of small cracks (up to
O.lrnm in width) or blemishes in the concrete need not necessarily lead to damage.
Environmental influences and carbon dioxide in particular, will reduce the concrete's
pH-value (carbonation) and thus remove the passivating effect, in conjunction with existing
humidity, the result is corrosion of the reinforcement.
The carbonation of concrete :

Ca(OH),
calium
-
+ Cog + H.0 ,
-&yo,te CaCO~ + 2Ha0

+ 2 x water
hydroxide+ %?%e + watV ,

1st phare : ditfwion inwards

1 + relative air rate Of
carbonation
of carbon dioxide humidity
h d phaae : reaction between carbon
dioxide and water molecules less than 30% low
3rd phase : reaction between rerultant
carbonic acidr and the 40 to 75% high
allrallne components of lo*
concrete m. than 76%

pH-value
$:;{;:;,:ts5<:.; ., 4 . ,. 5.
"., ....
i*.i-'a :.. ::_. . -- _.:- ... . . . ;.. . .:.
. i,.: . -
acid natural alkaline
C-
t t -I
I I-
C
protective coating required CaCOB Ca(OH)g
over concrete in the caae of carbonated daline con-te
very severe attack by acid concrete active corrosion
media protection for reinforcement

SAQ 3
a) What cC-ps wou!d you lakc to nlinimise cracks in ccncr~tc"

b) What are d e 'permissiblecrack widths for reinforced conactc '?

c) What proccdurr: would you follow to repair cracks in co11~rc:i::!

dl How can you improve resistance of concrete against cavitation '?

(Note : Check your answers with the information given ~qL\C preccdinz Lexi .!
b h &Hardened Concrete
8.11 SUMMARY
The durability of concrete refers to its ability to withstand both external factors like
weathering, extreme temperatures, attack by natural or industrial liquids, abrasion and
cavitation and internal factors like alkali-aggregate reaction, thermal properties of
constituents of concrete and permeability of concrete.
We have learnt that the permeability of concrete plays an important role in determining the
durability as it determines the degree of penetration of aggressive environmental agencies
and hence the vulnerability of concrete .This is particularly true in regard to attack of
chemicals like sulphates, oils and acids, sewage and molasses and seawater. The abrasion,
erosion and cavitation mainly affect the surface layers of concrete and it is seen that high
compressive strength, well cured smooth finished concrete coupled with selective surface
treatments impart sufficient durability to combat these agencies.
You have also studied that temperatures whether extremeloigh or low, both are
detrimental to concrete durability. It is seen that concrete does not show appreciable loss of
strength upto temperatures of 300 degree C, but the loss may be 50 per cent or more at
about 500 degree C. The effect of frost damage is related to cycles of freeze and th2w and
the damage depends upon whether it is fresh or hardened concrete. Air entrained concrete is
a very practical solution in these situations.
Cracks are inherent in concrete and the reason for cracking are differentfor prehardening
and hardened stages of concrete. But then you have seen that the solution to avoid Ulen lies
very much with the site engineer in the form of production of quality concrete with due
regard to its placement, joints, drying, shrinkage etc. Repair of these cracks when required,
as you must have appreciated, can be done by filling or grouting with cement based or
chemical based bonding agents. And lastly, we examined as to how surface treatments can
improve durability of concrete.

8.12 KEY WORDS

Abrasion : Wearing action by friction.
Erosion : Wearing action by fluids.
Durability : Ability to resist certain external and internal agents.

8.14 ANSWERS TO SAQs

Check your Answers of all SAQs with preceeding text.