MEMORY: TYPES

1. Types: Sensory memory; Short Term Memory, Long Term Memory & its Types
2. Memory Processes: Encoding and Transfer of information, retrieval
3. Processes and theories of forgetting
4. Determinants of memory
5. Application: Memory improvement techniques

Types: Sensory memory; Short Term Memory, Long Term Memory & its Types
Memory: Memory is our ability to encode, store, and retrieve information. There are three
main types of memory: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory, each
with its subtypes.
1. Sensory memory: It is a type of memory that holds information from our senses for a
very short period, usually less than a second. It is divided into two subtypes:
• Iconic memory: It stores visual information from our eyes for a very short
period, allowing us to perceive motion and continuity.
→ For example: when we see a moving object, such as a car passing by, our
iconic memory helps us see it as a continuous motion rather than a
series of still images.
• Echoic memory: It stores auditory information from our ears for a brief period,
allowing us to understand speech and other sounds.
→ For example: when someone asks us a question, our echoic memory
allows us to repeat the question to ourselves before answering.

2. Short-term memory: It is also known as working memory, and has a limited capacity
of about 7 plus or minus 2 items. Information stays in short-term memory for about
20-30 seconds unless rehearsed, and it is responsible for our ability to hold
information in our minds while working on it. Short-term memory has several
subtypes:
• Verbal memory: stores information we hear or speak, such as phone numbers
or lists of items.
→ For example: when someone gives us a phone number, we rely on our
verbal memory to remember and dial it correctly.
• Visual-spatial memory: stores information about the location and appearance
of objects, such as the layout of a room or the details of a picture.
→ For example: when we navigate through a new environment, our visual-
spatial memory helps us remember where we have been and where we
need to go.
 3. Long-term memory: It is where we store information for a longer period, sometimes
indefinitely. It is divided into two main types:
• Declarative memory: stores facts and events that we can consciously recall,
such as our first day of school or the name of the current president.
→ For example: when we are asked to name the current president, our
declarative memory provides us with stored information.
• Procedural memory: It stores how to perform tasks and skills that we have
learned, such as riding a bike or playing an instrument.
→ For example: when we ride a bike, our procedural memory helps us
remember the motor movements necessary to balance and steer.
Long-term memory also has several subtypes, including:
• Episodic memory: stores personal experiences and events, such as a
memorable vacation or a significant life event.
→ For example: when we remember our last vacation, our episodic
memory helps us recall the sights, sounds, and emotions associated with
the experience.
• Semantic memory: stores general knowledge and facts about the world, such
as the capital of a country or the definition of a word.
→ For example: when we recall the capital of France, our semantic memory
provides us with stored information.

Memory Processes: Encoding and Transfer of information, retrieval.

Memory processes are the mental operations that occur as we create, maintain, and recall
memories. These processes are essential for learning and remembering information. The
three main stages of memory are encoding, transfer of information, and retrieval.
1. Encoding:
• Encoding is the first process in memory formation where information is taken
in from the environment and converted into a form that can be stored in the
brain.
• This process is essential for memory formation, as information that is not
encoded properly will not be remembered later.
• During encoding, attention plays a critical role in selecting and processing
information for storage.
• Attention allows for the filtering out of irrelevant information and the focusing
on important information.
 • Examples of encoding include paying attention to a lecture in class, taking
notes, or repeating a phone number in your mind until it can be stored in short-
term memory.
• Different types of encoding, such as semantic or visual encoding, may be more
effective for different types of information.
2. Transfer of Information:
• Transfer of information in memory is a critical process for converting short-
term memories into long-term memories.
• It involves the movement of information from one stage of memory to another,
which can occur in different ways.
• Example when reading a book, the information from the page is first encoded
in sensory memory, then transferred to short-term memory as the words are
read and processed, and then potentially transferred to long-term memory if
remembered later.
• Similarly, when learning a new skill, information moves from short-term to
long-term memory through practice and repetition.
• Understanding how information is transferred between different stages of
memory is essential for effective learning and memory consolidation.

3. Retrieval:
• Retrieval is the final stage of the memory process, where stored information is
accessed and brought to conscious awareness when needed.
• It is a critical component of memory function as it enables us to retrieve
previously learned information for use in current situations.
• Retrieval can occur in two ways - recognition and recall. Recognition involves
identifying information that is presented to us, such as recognizing a familiar
face.
• Recall, on the other hand, involves retrieving information from memory
without any external cues, such as recalling a phone number from memory.
• An example of retrieval is recalling the name of a childhood friend when
reminiscing about memories.

Processes and theories of forgetting.

Forgetting: Forgetting is the inability to retrieve or recall previously stored information in
memory, which can occur due to various reasons such as time, interference, and encoding
or retrieval failures. Although it can be frustrating in daily life, forgetting can also be
adaptive by allowing individuals to focus on what is currently important. Understanding the
mechanisms of forgetting can help improve memory management and implement effective
memory strategies.
Here are some points and examples of the processes and theories of forgetting:
1. Decay Theory: This theory suggests that memories fade away over time due to the
natural decay of connections between neurons in the brain.
→ For example: If you learned a new language in high school but never used it
again, you may have forgotten much of what you learned over time.
2. Interference Theory: This theory suggests that forgetting occurs when new memories
interfere with the retrieval of old memories, or when old memories interfere with the
retrieval of new memories.
→ For example: If you recently learned a new phone number, you may have
trouble recalling your old phone number because the new information is
interfering with the retrieval of the old information.
3. Retrieval Failure: Sometimes forgetting occurs simply because the information cannot
be retrieved from memory, even though it is still stored there. This can happen due to
various factors such as stress, distractions, or lack of cues.
→ For example: You may forget a person's name because you are in a noisy
environment with distractions and not able to focus on the cues that would
help you remember.
4. Repression: This theory suggests that people may forget traumatic events as a
defence mechanism to protect themselves from emotional harm.
→ For example: a person who experienced a traumatic event in their childhood
may not remember the details of the event until many years later.
5. Neurological Factors: Forgetting can also be caused by neurological factors, such as
brain damage or diseases like Alzheimer's.
→ For example: a person with Alzheimer's disease may forget the names of their
loved ones or even how to perform basic daily activities.
Overall, there are many processes and theories of forgetting, and the causes of forgetting
can be complex and multifaceted.
Determinants of Memory
1. Attention: The ability to selectively focus on specific information, such as paying
attention in class to remember the lecture.
→ For example: focusing on a speaker's words while tuning out background noise.

2. Level of processing: The depth at which information is processed, such as

remembering information better if it is processed more deeply, such as relating it to
personal experiences.
→ For example: remembering a word's meaning by associating it with a personal
experience or story.
3. Emotional significance: The emotional impact of an event or information, such as
remembering a traumatic experience more vividly than a routine one.
→ For example: remembering a car accident but forgetting what you had for
breakfast.

4. Rehearsal: The act of repeating information to maintain it in memory.

→ For example: repeating a list of words or numbers to remember them for a
short period.

5. Organization: The way information is structured and related to other information.

→ For example: organizing a grocery list by food categories.

6. Contextual cues: Environmental or situational factors that can help trigger memory
retrieval.
→ For example: remembering a conversation when visiting a place where it
occurred.

7. Motivation: The drive to remember information, such as studying for an important

exam.
→ For example: putting extra effort into studying for an exam to achieve a good
grade.

8. Time: The amount of time that has passed since the information was first encoded.
→ For example: forgetting the details of a past event that happened years ago.

9. Emotional state: Our emotional state can affect memory formation and retrieval.
→ For example: memories associated with intense emotional experiences tend to
be more vivid and long-lasting.

10.Sleep: Sleep plays a critical role in memory consolidation.

→ For example: having difficulty remembering new information after a sleepless
night.

11.Age: Memory abilities tend to decline with age.

→ For example: having difficulty remembering new information as you get older.

12.Nutrition: Certain nutrients have been linked to better memory function.

→ For example: eating foods rich in omega-3 fatty acids, such as fish, may
improve memory.
 13.Medications and substances: Some medications and substances can impair memory
function.
→ For example: experiencing memory problems as a side effect of a medication.

Application: Memory improvement Techniques

Memory improvement techniques include:
1. Mnemonic devices: Techniques used to aid memory by associating new information
with something more familiar.
For example: remember the order of planets with the acronym "My Very Eager
Mother Just Served Us Nine Pizzas" (Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn,
Uranus, Neptune, Pluto).
2. Visualization: Creating mental images to help remember information.
For example: visualizing a grocery list as items placed in specific locations throughout
a familiar room.
3. Chunking: Breaking up information into smaller, more manageable chunks.
For example: remember a long number by breaking it up into smaller groups (such as
a phone number: 123-456-7890).
4. Repetition: Repeating information to strengthen memory.
For example: repeating a person's name after meeting them to remember it.
5. Association: Linking new information to existing knowledge to help remember it.
For example: remember a person's name by linking it to something they have in
common with you.
These memory improvement techniques can be applied in various contexts, such as
studying for exams, remembering important dates, or learning new skills. Mnemonic
devices and visualization techniques can be particularly helpful for memorizing lists or
sequences while chunking and repetition can be useful for remembering numbers or
details. Association techniques can be applied to all types of information to make it more
memorable.

Aditi Gaikwad
M.A Part 1