THE JUBILEE CENTRE

FRAMEWORK FOR
VIRTUE-BASED
PROFESSIONAL ETHICS

JAMES ARTHUR
KRISTJÁN KRISTJÁNSSON
AIDAN THOMPSON
ALI FAZEL

WWW.JUBILEECENTRE.AC.UK
 JUBILEE CENTRE
FOR CHARACTER
AND VIRTUES
The Jubilee Centre for Character and Virtues is
a unique and leading centre for the examination
of how character and virtues impact upon
individuals and society. The Centre was founded
in 2012 by Professor James Arthur. Based at the
University of Birmingham, it has a dedicated team
of over 20 academics from a range of disciplines,
including: philosophy, psychology, education,
theology, and sociology.

With its focus on excellence, the Centre has a

robust, rigorous research and evidence-based
approach that is objective and non-political. It
offers world class research on the importance of
developing good character and virtues and the
benefits they bring to individuals and society. In
undertaking its own innovative research, the Centre
also seeks to partner with leading academics from
other universities around the world and to develop
strong strategic partnerships.

A key conviction underlying the existence of

the Centre is that the virtues that make up good
character can be learnt and taught, but that these
have been largely neglected in schools and in the
professions. It is also a key conviction that the
more people exhibit good character and virtues,
the healthier our society. As such, the Centre
undertakes development projects seeking to
promote the practical applications of its
research evidence.

University of Birmingham 2023

2 The Jubilee Centre for Character & Virtues

 THE JUBILEE CENTRE
FRAMEWORK FOR
VIRTUE-BASED
PROFESSIONAL ETHICS
CONTENTS
Introduction 6
1.1 Purpose 6
1.2 Aims 6
1.3 Background 6
1.4 Clarification of Concepts 8
The Idea of Professionalism 8
2.1 Professions and Professionals 8
2.2 Professional Practice as Moral Practice 9
2.3 Flourishing as a Professional 9
Virtues in the Professions 9
3.1 Personal and Ideal Virtues 10
3.2 Professional Purpose 10
3.3 Moral Reasoning 10
Professional Codes of Ethics 10
4.1 Nature of Ethical Codes 11
4.2 Professional Codes: Similarities and Differences 11
4.3 Limits of Codes 11
Professional Identity, Purpose and Phronesis 11
5.1 Identity 11
5.2 Purpose 12
5.3 Phronesis 12
Leadership 12
6.1 Leadership, Culture and Character 13
6.2 Teamwork and Collective Phronesis 13
Virtue-Based Professional Education 13
7.1 Virtue-based Approach 13
7.2 Caught Virtues 13
7.3 Cultivating Practical Wisdom 15
7.4 Research-informed 15
Acknowledgements 15
References

4 The Jubilee Centre for Character & Virtues

The Jubilee Centre for Character & Virtues 5
 The Jubilee Centre
Framework for Virtue-Based
Professional Ethics

INTRODUCTION
1.1 Purpose diminish responsibility for exercising personal
This Framework develops ideas initially presented judgement’ (Committee for Standards in
This document provides a generic framework in the Statement on Character, Virtue and Practical Public Life, 2022: 9). George, Urch, and Cribb
for a virtue-based approach to professional Wisdom in Professional Practice (Jubilee Centre, (2023: 1) express the same misgiving in terms
ethics. It is intended to initiate discussion, 2016), which sought to clarify and re-affirm of codes encouraging professionals to adopt
contribute to the creation of codes of ethics, the morally imbued contribution to the public strategies to ‘game the system’ rather than
facilitate excellence in professional decision- good of a wide range of human occupations, developing professionalism.
making, and inform professional education therefore acknowledging their aspiration to
programmes. professional status. This Framework presents, therefore, practical
wisdom in the professional domain as a
1.2 Aims The Framework concludes with Table 2, which helpful way to reinvigorate professional
breaks down various aspects of the ethical ethics, replacing the sterility of rule-and-
A virtue-based approach to professional ethics professional, bringing together knowledge, code-based formalism, and a culture of mere
emphasises the role of practical wisdom character and practice in the pursuit of compliance. This Framework asserts that in the
(phronesis) in the ethical decision-making of professional betterment and acquiring context of modern ideas of managerialism,
professionals. It focuses on virtuous leadership professional purpose. accountability, efficiency, public scrutiny, and
and the creation of virtuous communities of increased workplace pressures, professionals
people. It also prioritises the notion of the 1.3 Background need to (re)envisage the ethical nature of
development of the professional person as their work. This can be achieved by paying
intrinsically constitutive of, rather than merely Throughout most of the 20th century, the attention to what a profession aspires to be,
instrumentally connected to, the creation of maximisation of societal wellbeing and what constitutes professional practice, and how
true professionalism. In other words, to be a rationally grounded rules and codes justified external factors shape the standing and work
professional is to be a person with a distinctive the role of the professional and provided of professions today.
set of character strengths as well guidance in the conduct of practical
as an expertise. professional ethics. Detailed ethical codes This said, a cautionary note is needed. We
prescribing correct behaviour, as well as learn from experiences, including from our
This Framework introduces a neo-Aristotelian procedures and sanctions to secure such mistakes, but holding ourselves to impossibly
approach to professional ethics that informs behaviour, were the preferred means of high standards can have negative implications.
professional ethics education and training regulating professional agents and ensuring Perfectionism is linked to burn out, anxiety
by providing a rationale for the ethical their reputation and legitimacy with the wider and depression. A virtue-based approach to
dimensions of professional practice. public. We believe that the vast majority professional ethics should be a lifelong concern
of professionals are of good standing. The for us all in civic society.
This Framework holds two main aims: occurrence of various scandals within all the
main professions has shaken the foundations 1.4 Clarification of Concepts
1. to reassert and prioritise the moral; of this conviction. It suffices here to mention
dimension of professional practice; and those responsible for the 2008 financial crisis Explanations of key theoretical concepts
and the recent revelations of corruption used in this document appear at the relevant
2. to advocate for a focus on virtuous within police forces in the UK and USA. junctures. The terms ‘character’
professional practice and education. Such scandals have eroded public trust in and ‘virtue’, and derivatives of those
professionals to an all-time low, particularly as concepts, such as ‘character caught,
the reporting of scandals far outweighs any taught and sought’, are fully defined and
The Framework explores the advantages reporting of virtuous practice. explained in The Jubilee Centre Framework for
and disadvantages of professional codes Character Education in Schools (see Arthur and
of ethics and how these relate to a virtue ethical This perception of the moral fallibility of Kristjánsson, 2022).
approach. Key concepts such as ‘professional professionals has motivated a growing concern
identity’, ‘professional purpose’, and among professionals about the weakening of • Character is understood to mean the morally
‘professional phronesis’ are defined. professional judgement and its replacement evaluable, reason-responsive, and educable
with managerialist orthodoxies that reduce part of individual personhood: of who
The Framework concludes in addressing judgement to formalistic accountability and we are as persons. It connotes a moral
the nature of virtuous leadership in a compliance. The Committee for Standards in component, is not understood solely in
professional context and the methods by which Public life reported in 2022 that ‘There is a behavioural terms, but as including the use
virtue-based professional ethics, with a focus on risk that rules on their own may be perceived of discernment, sensitivity, and the ability to
practical wisdom can be cultivated. as something to be navigated, which can hold morally grounded motivations.
6 The Jubilee Centre for Character & Virtues
• Virtues are specific excellences of human • Virtue Perception: Noticing situations • Virtue Identity: Understanding oneself as
character that constitute settled states, making involving or standing in need of the virtues. strongly committed to the virtues.
up one’s character, and enabling humans and
their communities to flourish. • Virtue Knowledge and Understanding: • Virtue Motivation: Having a strong
Understanding the meaning of virtue terms desire to act on the virtues.
They are sometimes referred to as ‘character and why the virtues are important.
strengths’, as well as other terms, and can be • Virtue Reasoning: Discernment and
categorised as moral virtues, intellectual virtues, • Virtue Emotion: Feeling the right virtue deliberative action about virtues, including
civic virtues, and performance virtues, as depicted relevant emotion in the right situation in in situations where virtues conflict or
in Figure 1. The specific integrative function of the right way. collide.
phronesis is introduced later in this Framework.
• Virtue Action and Practice: Doing the
Virtues, then, are comprised of a network of right thing in the right way.
components, each identifiably distinct but which
combine to form the full virtue. The Jubilee
Centre has identified the following components:

Figure 1: Flourishing Professionals, Organisations and Society

FLOURISHING PROFESSIONALS, ORGANISATIONS AND SOCIETY

Practical Wisdom
The integrative virtue developed through experience and critical reflection. It involves doing the right
thing at the right time and involves virtues of discernment and good judgement.

Intellectual Civic Moral Performance

Virtues Virtues Virtues Strengths

Those that relate Those that relate Those that relate to Character traits that
to the pursuit of to the engagement an ethical awareness have an instrumental
knowledge, truth and of institutions and in academic work value in enabling the
understanding. individual students in and wider university intellectual, moral
their local, national life, coupled with and civic virtues.
Examples: and global contexts. a sense of purpose
curiosity, open- that orders ambition Examples:
mindedness, patience. Examples: within a commitment confidence,
civility, service, to the common good. determination,
charity. motivation,
Examples: perseverance,
honesty, courage, resilience, teamwork.
compassion, justice.

The Jubilee Centre for Character & Virtues 7

 When it comes to looking in more detail at
the developmental and educational aspects of Caught: the professional workplace (leadership, colleagues, workplace ethos) must
virtue-based professional ethics, the concepts provide the example, culture, and inspirational influence that motivates and promotes
of character ‘caught’, ‘taught’, and ‘sought’ character development.
stand out. They refer to the different ways in
which professional virtues can be acquired, Taught: professional leadership must provide direct educational experiences (through
transmitted, and consolidated. CPD courses and other learning opportunities) that equip professionals with the
language, knowledge, understanding, skills, and attributes that enable character
The final concept to be clarified in this section development.
is that of flourishing: a state professionals
reach when they are able to cultivate virtues Sought: the professionals themselves must acquire the deliberate motivation to form
harmoniously in the service of the common positive character traits and commitments. These motivations – and the sense of
good; have found an alignment between their purpose and moral identity they furnish – help professionals over time to desire and
personal and professional virtues, and have freely pursue their own character development.
gained a sense of professional purpose.
This does not happen only through personal
effort exerted by individual professionals.
It also requires the existence of various
propitious workplace conditions and a
wider socio-political context where
professional expertise and excellences
are valued and encouraged.

2. THE IDEA OF PROFESSIONALISM

2.1 Professions and Professionals when they are absent. Indeed, the idea of a to junior colleagues;
good or excellent, but exploitative or abusive, • upholding the reputation and values of the
The criteria below are often used to professional is conceptually incoherent. profession;
summarise how professions are defined: •b  eing ready to identify and disclose
• a profession requires formal qualifications, 2.2 Professional Practice as conflicts of interests or witnessed cases of
a high level of education, and a prolonged Moral Practice professional misconduct, acting as a ‘whistle-
period of training/induction; blower’, if necessary;
• a profession provides a public service; Professions are deemed inherently ethical • seeking to continue to develop professional
• a profession is, and professionals are, held in occupations because they place high moral expertise and practical wisdom throughout
high esteem within society; demands on the conduct of those who one’s career.
• professions are guided by a code of conduct participate in them. These ethical and moral
and ethics specific to that profession. demands – which include care, integrity, In addition, some professions have been
fairness, and diligence – can be viewed as a given responsibilities that go beyond the self-
More specifically, we can use the additional defining feature of a professional. This reminds improvement of the relevant professionals,
criteria below to define ‘a professional’: us that they are concerned with morally to include the improvement of others. The
• a professional possesses a certain degree of evaluable human actions and interactions. clergy are perhaps the most obvious example
theoretical and practical expertise in a given Such demands and standards may also but teaching and policing are also examples
discipline or practice; be expected to engender trust between of professions that have a ‘Janus-faced’
• a professional adheres to the ethical professional practitioners and those they serve moral mission. For example, a large part of
standards established in any professional and/or who employ their services. In short, modern policing is not about apprehending
code of conduct and ethics; the public is entitled to expect professionals criminals but about creating – through
• a professional acts with integrity, care, to be trustworthy; and trust is undermined by ‘proactive policing’ – the character virtues in
honesty and trust, exhibiting a level of moral failures and public scandals. the public that are conducive to peace and
professional autonomy and judgement. order in society. Similarly, insofar as character
Often, the virtues described as necessary for education is an aim of schooling, teachers
Professions contribute to the common good ethical professional practice are everyday have the role of helping students cultivate
through activities that are constitutive of virtues applied in a professional context. For intellectual, moral, civic, and performance
complex societal practices, such as health, example, the trust between a doctor and virtues.
education, law, and commerce. The essential patient, or a teacher and a pupil, has the same
difference between a profession and a non- overall specification as trust between human Taking on this ‘Janus-faced’ mission places
professional occupation is that the former beings in general. Yet the ethical conduct additional expectations on the professionals
cannot be defined in terms of its technical expected of professionals goes beyond the in question, which explains why the public
proficiency alone. There are additional contextual application of generic human is particularly sensitive to professional
requirements and responsibilities to do virtues, to include various other specific misconduct perpetrated by these categories of
one’s job to both a high technical standard ethical aspirations such as: professionals.
and a high ethical standard. These ethical
standards may be more difficult to evidence • being a role model, setting an ethical
and evaluate, but are often most obvious example and being ready to act as a mentor

8 The Jubilee Centre for Character & Virtues

2.3 Flourishing as a Professional experience times when virtues conflict, away from their families and home.
where they are unable to act on all relevant At worst, unresolved virtue conflicts can
The ideal of ‘professional flourishing’ is virtues at the same time. Such occasions of lead to professional burn-out – which is the
about professionals confidently cultivating conflict can lead to subsequent feelings of antithesis of professional flourishing.
their virtues harmoniously in the service of moral disempowerment and are frequently
the public good, having found an alignment attributed to a lack of time to do one’s It is through practice and attempting to
between their personal and professional job well, or of a lack of adequate staffing reconcile these conflicts and pressures that
virtues, and having gained a sense of and resources, or an over-burden of one’s sense of flourishing as a professional
professional purpose. bureaucracy. Professional virtue conflicts can may emerge. Professional development
be exacerbated where there are perceived opportunities are essential for enhancing a
These goals may seem clear and conflicts between an individual’s professional sense of professional purpose.
commendable, but they all contain and personal virtues, such as where acting
complexities. Most professionals will diligently at work requires one to spend time

3. VIRTUES IN THE PROFESSIONS

3.1 Personal and Ideal Virtues from six discrete professions self-ascribe their That said, there were a number of
own personal virtues, and which virtues they discrepancies between the virtues highlighted
With a recent resurgence in the recognition perceive to be the ideal virtues within their in surveys and those highlighted in interviews
that character informs the moral performance profession, reveals that honesty and fairness with participants. For example, doctors
of professionals, there have been numerous appear in the top three personal virtues interviewed reported the virtues they most
studies dedicated to professional ethics in for all six of the professions. hope to demonstrate as care, trustworthiness,
general. The differences between professions and having a good relationship with patients
cannot be underestimated, particularly Table 1 shows the top three cited personal (Arthur et al., 2015b), whereas business and
between public and private sector professions. and ideal virtues for each profession from finance students interviewed did not mention
This is a tension of professional ethics survey results. honesty as important. Instead, they
research that seeks to engage all professions, spoke of competence-based skills such as
but also seeks to remain particular and In colour-coding these in terms of their communication or leadership (Kristjánsson
specific enough for particular professions, ‘type’ of virtue, one notices a proliferation of et al., 2017a). There is, of course, a desire
educators, and regulators to take notice moral virtues, in pink, as important personal to be employable, the received wisdom
of findings. This Framework seeks to draw qualities of character, which is contrasted by among business and finance students is that
attention to context, but it encourages those a mix of intellectual, moral and performance the business sector is more concerned with
leading work in ethics in each profession virtues, as important to the ‘ideal’ performance rather than moral virtues.
to take responsibility for embodying an professional. This highlights a disconnection
understanding of the good in a professional between ideas of professional virtues and Key: Virtue Type
context. the ideal of professions serving the public
good. Policing and nursing were the only Moral Intellectual
Analysis of the data collected from Jubilee professions in which the personal and ideal
Civic Performance
Centre-led studies into how participants virtues largely coincided.

Table 1: Top Personal and Ideal Character Strengths

Character Business and

Nursing Medicine Law Teaching Policing
Strenghs Finance

Honesty Kindness Fairness Fairness Fairness Honesty

Top three
personal Fairness Honesty Honesty Honesty Honesty Fairness
virtues

Teamwork Fairness Kindness Humour Humour Teamwork

Leadership Kindness Fairness Judgement Fairness Honesty

Top three
Judgement Honesty Honesty Honesty Humour Fairness
‘ideal’ virtues

Teamwork Teamwork Judgement Perseverance Love of learning Teamwork

The Jubilee Centre for Character & Virtues 9

 3.2 Professional Purpose The conditions required to facilitate are guided by virtue-based reasoning
virtuous professional practice, across the to differing extents. According to those
In interviews with 510 aspiring and professions, were identified as workplace culture, studies, professionals rely most heavily on
practising professionals, participants inclusive of support from colleagues, positive team deontological (rule-and-code or duty-based)
were asked questions across three areas: dynamics and leadership (Arthur et al., 2015a; reasoning. Virtue ethical reasoning comes
professional purpose, facilitators to, and Kristjánsson et al., 2017b; 2021b). Autonomy to second, with utilitarian reasoning third.
barriers discouraging virtuous professional make decisions was also important, Notably, lawyers, teachers, and business and
practice. The perceived professional purpose incorporating notions of empowerment, and trust finance professionals relying on virtue-based
of practitioners across the six professions, of one’s professional judgement as essential in reasoning to a greater extent than the others
defined in these studies as ‘a personal virtuous professional practice. (Arthur et al., 2014; 2015b; Kristjánsson et al.,
commitment, volition, and motivation 2017a).
to do useful work for the betterment of Barriers to displaying virtuous practice were
others and society, which sees beyond also identified, although there were greater Arthur et al. (2021) examined standardised
immediate individual or organisational profession-specific examples given. For mean differences in professional purpose
goals’, was analysed (Arthur et al., 2019). example, nurses reported lack of staff, time, and across different character-judgement profiles.
resources as barriers to displaying good Participants (2,340 professionals
This research has shown that teachers and character. Business and finance professionals from medicine, teaching, business and
nurses reported statistically higher perceived emphasised the perceived overregulation of the nursing) were asked to rank their top six
professional purpose when compared with the sector (Kristjánsson et al., 2017a), and law virtues from a given list of 24, and also
other professions (doctors, lawyers, business professionals reported financial and business to rate how strongly they agreed or disagreed
and finance professionals, and police officers). pressures as having an impact upon displaying with six statements on their feelings of
Conversely, lawyers reported statistically virtue. Teachers described a similar picture, professional purpose. From the ranked
lower perceived professional purpose than with time constraints and policy changes character qualities, four distinct character-
the other professions. However, these results regularly cited as barriers to practising virtue judgement profiles were identified; alternative
at times conflicted with the qualitative findings in the workplace. When these barriers are character (those who valued character and
in interviews with professionals. For example, paired with the facilitators, a picture emerges judgement below the sample average),
interviews conducted with those in the police of the importance of professionals being judgement-only (those who valued judgement
profession typically reported higher levels provided with the support, freedom to make above the sample average), character-only
of professional purpose than of those that decisions and capacity to express their (valued character above the sample average),
responded to the survey. Taking bias into (good) character. and character-judgement (valued character and
account – those who agreed to be interviewed judgement concurrently).
may have had already a stronger sense of 3.3 Moral Reasoning
professional purpose than those who declined – In simple language, the findings suggest that
the findings still paint a picture of professionals Other findings indicated that virtue-based those who value both moral and intellectual
(pre- and in-service) having morally-focussed moral reasoning plays an important role in virtues are most likely to experience a sense of
aspirations, but recognising that a mix of virtue guiding professionals towards ethical courses professional purpose.
types are necessary to do one’s job well. of action, in the context of professional moral
quandaries. However, the professions

4. PROFESSIONAL CODES OF ETHICS

4.1 Nature of Ethical Codes professional ethics codes by reflecting on: that addresses both compliance and
virtuous choices (integrity, excellence).
Professions have typically aimed to capture • what virtuous character amounts to in the
the moral dimensions of their practice in profession; There is a requirement for codes of
the form of codes of professional ethics. • how professionals’ character influences their professional ethics to be clear, purposeful,
Professions have also established governance practice; and yet concise, and present a meaningful
institutions to formulate professional policy, • how character develops through professional and aspirational message in terms that
to educate, and discipline those who deviate ethics education. professionals can understand and respond
from the standards. to. If the message is unclear, it is likely to
The terms ‘code of professional ethics’ and be misinterpreted, or result in unnecessary
Codes of professional ethics take various ‘code of conduct/behaviour’ are often used conflict. The language used should be
forms and are expressed in different ways. interchangeably, but there are important accessible to all and avoid, where possible,
Where previously codes might have listed differences. Codes of conduct clearly state overly abstract, legalistic, philosophical, and
rules of behaviour and their corresponding which actions are appropriate and which technical terms. Codes written from within a
sanctions for breaking them, more recently, are not. They are guidelines for acceptable virtue ethical approach focus on choices that
there has been a move towards encouraging workplace actions and behaviours. However, result in doing the right thing, for the right
individuals to monitor their own behaviour, they cannot necessarily provide a guarantee reason; encouraging professionals to own
promoting a climate of moral responsibility, that professionals will act morally. Codes of the decisions they make, rather than simply
and greater self-regulation. From a virtue professional ethics provide guidance on adhering to wrules and requirements.
ethical perspective, codes of behaviour and values and choices and cover a broad range
conduct should incorporate professional ethics of themes. They encourage professionals Codes can be used to convey to members of
that promote moral character, rather than to consider what actions best reflect who a particular profession that they are required
as a set of codifiable rules. Character virtues they are and who they want to become. to follow specified rules and normative
provide a rich resource for constructing These codes contain aspirational language standards, which are reinforced by sanctions

10 The Jubilee Centre for Character & Virtues

where these rules are broken, or competencies Further, the majority of codes view ‘respect’ most cited virtues were ‘respect’, ‘care’, and
are not met. Words such as ‘duties’, ‘rules’, as a matter of equality and fairness, with a ‘judgement’. In the private sector, they were
‘obligations’, and ‘competencies’ are minority expressing the concept in terms of ‘responsibility’, ‘service’, and ‘honesty’.
popular in many variations of codes across an individual’s feelings, wishes and rights.
professions. Such language is an example of 4.3 The Limits of Codes
a rule-based code, rather than encouraging There is also a difference between the virtue
virtue-based reasoning from professionals. terms that are contained within written While ethical codes are useful, their
These words also set a minimum expectation codes provided by professional bodies effectiveness relies on professionals becoming
or standard for professionals, rather than, on and those selected by practising members familiar with them. Effectiveness is not only
their own, providing inspiration to achieve of the professions, as studied in Jubilee predicated on awareness of codes, but also
excellence. Centre research. Of the top eight most on professionals seeing them as useful, and of
frequently selected virtues by professionals valuing good ethical practice in its own right.
4.2 Professional Codes: (when presented with a list of 24 ‘character Of course, deliberate professional misconduct
Similarities and Differences strengths’), the terms that also appeared in the can still occur. This tells us that the education
written codes were ‘honesty’, ‘teamwork’, and and training of professional practitioners
The Jubilee Centre undertook a survey of ‘judgement’. ‘Honesty’ was the virtue selected requires more than an acquaintance with
50 ethical codes from U.K. professions in most frequently by professionals and also codes of conduct or formal lessons in
2023. While all the codes stipulated that featured in 70% of professional codes. Yet, compliance. Exemplary practice requires
practitioners should demonstrate good ‘humour’ was ranked fourth by professionals, practitioners who not only have theoretical
judgement and accountability, there were but did not appear in any professional code. knowledge of the values and principles of
considerable differences between the codes their occupations, but who are also agents
in terms of length, definitions employed, Importantly, when categorising the virtues of moral character: in other words, we
content, and structure. Our review relating identified in the 50 codes into the Jubilee need lawyers, doctors, nurses, teachers, etc.,
to the virtue words used in them revealed Centre typology of virtues, moral virtues who are honest, caring, compassionate,
little agreement regarding definitions. featured more prominently than intellectual, courageous, and fair.
Integrity is, for instance, cited by 68% of civic, and performance virtues in the written
the codes, but definitions of what ‘integrity’ codes, as well as being the most prioritised as In summary, while this Framework is not
is, when provided, vary. Firefighters, for ‘personal’ and ‘ideal’ virtues in Jubilee Centre meant to underestimate the value of
example, see integrity as being ‘open, honest research (Table 1). professional codes, it holds that such codes
and consistent’, while the Police view it as are necessary but not sufficient for good
doing the ‘right thing’. Childminders view There were also differences in the cited professional practice.
integrity as ‘acting in line with [one’s] beliefs’, virtues in the codes of the private and public
while the Air Force see it as ‘being honest’. professions. In the public sector, the three

5. PROFESSIONAL IDENTITY, PURPOSE AND PHRONESIS

5.1 Identity job one is doing and how well one perceives principles we hold dear. We all have an
that to be going. Professional practices innate drive to find meaning and fulfilment
So far, this Framework has focused on the are practices where one’s identity in our lives, and our professional endeavours
character traits of professionals, and in is variously intertwined with strong can play a crucial role in fulfilling this drive.
particular on the stable traits of character emotional experiences. The way we view ourselves, the way we
called virtues. What matters for virtuous see ourselves in relation to the world, is a
functioning as individuals or professionals, Moral identity can be a two-edged sword, fundamental aspect of our moral identity.
however, is not only who we are, but also however, both at the professional and personal Our professional purpose, being the intention
who we think we are; in other words, our levels (Krettenauer, 2022). For example, if behind the work we choose to do, is rooted in
‘identity’. It is the internal mirror in which mainly driven by external motivation, it our broader moral identity.
our character, our core selfhood, is constantly can foster moral hypocrisy (where one acts
reflected. A close correspondence between professionally only in the hope of external A person with a strong moral identity is
identity and selfhood (of who we think we rewards): low levels of abstraction in one‘s likely to be more aware of the impact of
are and who we really are) produces ‘self- conception of purpose can promote moral their professional choices on society and the
knowledge’; disharmony between the two licensing (where the professional fails to see world and seek out opportunities that align
engenders ‘self-deception’. the bigger picture); and an orientation to with their values and beliefs. They may be
prevent loss of purpose can foster moral drawn to careers in fields that promote the
Identity holds the key to professional disengagement (where the professional acts common good. In addition, a person with a
self-esteem – the professional’s sense of reactively rather than proactively). strong moral identity is also likely to have a
the ratio of their perceived accomplishments greater awareness of the ethical implications
to aspirations – and moral identity has been 5.2 Purpose of their professional choices. They may take
shown to have a moderate effect on actual a more critical view of the way organisations
moral behaviour. A professional’s moral One’s professional purpose is deeply and companies operate and may choose to
identity will reflect the degree to which connected to one’s broader ideal moral work for those that align with their values
being a moral person is important to the identity, as explained above. This is because and beliefs. They will also be more likely to
professional’s sense of self. Further, one’s the way we choose to spend our time, energy, consider the impact of their work on society
professional identity is often tied up with and resources through our professional and the environment and make choices that
various emotions experienced towards the endeavours is a reflection of the values and reflect their moral and ethical values.

The Jubilee Centre for Character & Virtues 11

 The culmination of professional flourishing • feelings of inadequacy in negotiating adjudicates upon the different moral, civic,
is gaining a sense of professional purpose. dilemmas in the workplace; and performative virtues. Phronesis is the
For that to happen, various educational, • a sense of belonging to a profession that conductor of the orchestra of virtues.
institutional, administrative, and wider socio- is not considered as worthy by the general
political conditions must be in place. The public or by employers. Reimagining the ideal of professional phronesis
professional must experience the worth of means re-equipping professionals with the
their activities and their contribution to the Purpose is a multi-faceted construct and capacity, and sense of responsibility to make
greater good in a context within which it is a large number of the possible factors excellent ethical decisions themselves, building
worth operating. constitutive of the concept need to coincide on their moral/civic virtues, and their insights
in order for the professional to achieve full into situational complexities – something that
A lack of professional purpose can be caused professional purpose. Even so, a profession’s referring to a code can never do.
by various intrapersonal and interpersonal ultimate goal should be to ensure that as
factors. The list below, taken from the Jubilee many of its actors as possible experience a Without phronesis, the different aspects of
Centre’s research, provides some examples: sense of purpose. a professional’s virtuous make-up will fail
to become integrated. A lack of attention
• a perceived inability to be able to act out 5.3 Phronesis to phronesis thus amounts to an act of de-
one’s personal moral character traits in the professionalisation. Rules will only take any
given professional context; The concept of phronesis (practical wisdom), professional organisation so far, whereas
• a general sense of one’s professional in general, and professional phronesis, in helping professionals focus on the values
context not being conducive to particular, is the key concept that holds that can guide them, and how to integrate
professional development; together the approach of virtue-based those, can facilitate wise decision-making in
• a sense of an overbearing and inflexible professional ethics represented in this response to changing circumstances.
managerial structure that does not allow Framework. Phronesis is the moral agent’s
for practical wisdom; intellectual meta-virtue that integrates and

THE FOUR FUNCTIONS OF PHRONESIS

Constitutive Function and are shaped by their understanding Integrative Function
and experience of their professional life.
Phronesis involves the cognitive ability to This amounts to a blueprint of Through phronesis, a professional integrates
perceive the ethically salient aspects of a professional flourishing. different components of a good life, by
situation and to appreciate these as calling for way of a process of checks and balances,
specific kinds of responses. Emotional Regulative Function especially in circumstances where different
ethically salient considerations, or different
This ability can be cultivated in professionals Professionals foster their emotional kinds of virtues or values, appear to be in
and amounts to the capacity to ‘read’ a wellbeing through phronesis by bringing their conflict. In some cases, integration may call
situation by seeing what is most important or emotional responses into line with their for a ‘blended’ or ‘synchronised’ virtuous
central. understandings of the ethically salient aspects response, such as being compassionately
of their situation, their judgement, and honest or honestly compassionate; in other
Blueprint Function their recognition of what is at stake in the cases, a virtue may have to be put on hold
moment. For example, a professional might completely in a given situation in light of the
The integrative work of phronesis operates in recognise that their appraisal of the situation overriding requirement of a conflicting virtue.
conjunction with the professional’s overall is problematic, giving rise to an emotional Therefore, this function allows the person to
understanding of the kinds of things that response that is inappropriate to the situation. engage in the adjudication of moral matters
matter: the professional’s own ethical identity, The emotional regulative function can then when conflicting desiderata arise.
aims, and aspirations, their understanding help them adjust their appraisal and
of what it takes to live and act well and their emotion by, for instance, giving herself an
need to live up to the standards that shape inner ‘talking to’.

6. LEADERSHIP
6.1 Leadership, Culture and Character outdated. Insights into leadership often making, modesty, friendship, happiness
fail adequately to explain its complex and (flourishing), and the ability to remain calm.
The nature of leadership is changing, contextual nature. The virtue-based view
becoming less dependent on role-based of leadership may assist in addressing this Virtuous leaders should be ethical stewards
power. The perception of leadership as deficiency. It outlines six qualities of good who seek to create organisational relationships
being dependent on one person is considered leadership: experience, sound decision- and systems that build trust and justice and

12 The Jubilee Centre for Character & Virtues

earn the commitment of others. To this end, collective phronesis, underpinned by a shared processes value diversity in personalities
the leader must understand the importance notion of purpose. and character strengths. In addition, it is
of individual purpose and strive to foster an important to have a diverse hiring team
environment in which others may also develop Much of contemporary virtue-based involved in all stages of the recruitment
their understanding of the concept. The professional ethics remains individualistic in process. By having a team that represents a
virtuous leader should respect the individual focus. The lesson from a virtue-based focus on variety of perspectives, it is more likely that
whilst taking into account the interests of the collective phronesis, however, is that individual candidates will be evaluated holistically and
group as a whole. To do this leaders should leaders may fail to see all the parts of the that unconscious biases will be minimised.
build teams based on friendship and shared whole, and that leaders operating in groups, We know that teams perform best when they
endeavour. Leaders craft a narrative that and pooling their individual phronesis, are are composed of individuals with diverse
motivates others to join with them in action, more likely to see the whole picture. Through capacities but not so different so as to create
and cultivate practical wisdom in themselves a process of presenting their vision to one polarisation. It is reasonable to suppose that
and in their employees. another, reflecting upon it, and modifying it in these general findings will carry over into
light of the conclusions of their dialogue, they any study involving the creation of collective
6.2 Teamwork and Collective Phronesis have a chance to come up with a solution that phronesis forums or leadership teams. Any
is more coherent and universal, and less easily plausible account of leadership derived from
Most significant professional decisions corruptible, than any single person’s vision. an approach of virtue-based professional
nowadays, especially at a leadership level, ethics is thus bound to have a lot to say about
are made by leadership teams, rather than One way to foster collective phronesis through the value of teamwork and diverse and
individual leaders. This encourages a recruitment is to ensure that recruitment distributed decision-making.

7. VIRTUE-BASED PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION

7.1 A Virtue-based Approach following a code and making the code organisational culture. Practical wisdom will
relevant to professionals. not be caught from a learning environment
Ethics education and training is extremely • Considering which the key virtues at that is inimical to virtue development.
important in an increasingly complex stake are. For example, integrity, Whatever the quality of teaching materials or
world. We need to educate, train, and trustworthiness, etc. delivery of ethics, no significant learning will
develop people so that they acquire the • Developing ethical reasoning skills, take place unless the workplace culture that
understanding, skills, and capacities that help i.e. phronesis. surrounds it is conducive to such learning.
them navigate the ethical dilemmas that they • Understanding the nature and limitations
will encounter in their professional lives. This of a solely compliance focus to ethical Role-modelling is an effective mode of ethical
should be integrated with other professional practice, and the role that whistleblowing education, role models can be drawn from
development so that it can assist in helping can play. great literary narratives, from the close family,
best develop ethical practice. from popular culture and current affairs, or
There is no comprehensive list of skills that from other aspects of life. Role models can be
Historically, professional education has such introductory ethics courses can seek presented through biographies and narratives
reduced its focus on ethics, focussing instead to develop, but it is certainly the case that that focus on the trials and tribulations that
on teaching technical skills and knowledge, undertaking one training session should not they may experience, the ethical scenarios
and has excluded any explicit focus on be seen as sufficient to ‘complete’ one’s that they encounter, and the qualities of
developing any notion of practical wisdom. ethical education. character and examples of practical wisdom
A refocussing of ethical education around that they show in their decision-making.
practical wisdom should involve teaching Graduate entry to a number of the The best role models for professional ethics
individuals how to make ethical decisions, professions includes university short courses education are attainable and relatable ones
navigate complex professional situations in professional ethics. Pre-service professionals (Han et al., 2017). Indeed, the ideal moral
where virtues may clash, and to balance are required to cultivate certain ethical exemplars are not literary figures, but people
competing demands. perspectives and commitments appropriate to who are already close to the moral learner,
their chosen profession. Traditional university such as university tutors and workplace
A virtue-based professional ethics course courses, however, often treat ethics as an area colleagues who serve as models for emulation.
could include the following: of theoretical content, privileging cognitive
outcomes – reasoning, interpretive, evaluative, 7.3 Practical wisdom
• Defining ethics in philosophical and and critical abilities about moral issues. This
professional contexts. approach is concerned with knowledge, Methods of developing practical wisdom
• Identifying different approaches to and analysis and is far removed from the should always aspire to cultivate a sought
professional ethics; prioritising professional aspiration that the student becomes ethical in approach from students, whereby they pursue
application over abstract philosophy in the sense of being a certain kind of person. opportunities for personal moral development
explaining the main alternatives. The ethical life of pre-service professionals is independently. This is not straightforward,
• Articulating the mission, vision, and seldom a subject of discussion or study. and, indeed, may explain – in part – why
culture of the organisation – considering current ethics courses remain theoretically
who is responsible for ethics and its 7.2 ‘Caught’ Virtues focussed.
applications
in practice. Much of professional ethics will be caught The professional ethics courses available
• Honing the organisation’s code of from the workplace environment and currently, and accessible to open online
professional ethics – understanding and

The Jubilee Centre for Character & Virtues 13

 searches, appear to have a heavy focus on or reference to specific virtues, (often they reflective and thoughtful; being able to
the practical implementation of ethics in the are referred to as ‘values’), this is often not identify and articulate moral issues; being
workplace. Whilst there is also some focus on linked to the idea of developing a collective conscious of cultural context; understanding
knowledge of ethical theories, this is not as professional practical wisdom, or for a the potential consequences of moral issues
prominent as the practical side of the courses. wider notion of flourishing. Often, notions and being aware of rules and policies. Table
of personal and professional ‘values’ are 2 outlines three interconnected components
There is less of a focus on developing presented as separate. that, when integrated into professional
professionals of good character, who possess education programmes, help build ethical
the right virtues, with no mention at all (in There is no official list among ethical professionals. The three components are
the selected ethics programmes searched) educators of the precise set of skills and intended to be indicative of the key principles
of empowering individuals to use their own principles an ethics course should develop. relevant to each component. Virtue propels
moral reasoning to make the right ethical We propose that they should seek a number action and action in turn creates virtues.
decisions. Where there is mention of ‘virtue’, of outcomes, including; professionals being

Table 2: Becoming an Ethical Professional

Components
Aspects of an
Ethical Professions
Knowledge/Expertise Good Character Good Practice

1 Virtue Intellectual virtues Moral virtues Performance virtues

Being a person with Doing a certain kind of job with

2 Competence Knowing a certain kind of expertise
self-awareness competence

Transferring knowledge and skills that are

Gaining appropriate theoretical and Percieving ourselves
3 Self-Knowledge aided by practical wisdom into ethical
technical knowledge as we are
practice

Developing your sense of who you are

Developing reasoning Aspirations that are acquired through
4 Moral Identity and how you want to be
and judgement practice
in the world

Balancing education and

Cultivating motivation to link ethical Doing the right thing and having the
5 Motivation training to not over train
judgement and action determination to complete the task
or under-educate

Practical Cultivating knowledge that helps to Gaining practical

6 Wisdom illuminate and propel you on the path to wisdom through Virtuous professional action
(Phronesis) professional competence formational experiences

Attaining emotional intelligence Holding personal values

7 Internalisation Learning from doing
and cognitive abilities and goals

Acquiring knowledge, understanding Possessing purpose Successfully applying

8 Application
and skills and meaning and implementing

9 Action Knowing how and when to act Discerning how best to act Having the disposition to act

If ethical education only focus on imparting development programme. The content matter of rationality, objective reasoning,
knowledge and expertise, it can become presented in Table 2 strikes a balance between curiosity, and critical thinking. Philosophy
disconnected from professionals’ day-to- calls for more ethics and less philosophy and teaches us to think critically and to reason
day experiences. Knowledge by itself does between more practice and less theory. about difficult questions. We need to retain
not necessarily lead to ethical practice. The some degree of careful analysis of moral
integration of all three of the components More practical ethics usually means an concepts and the study of normative theories
presented above is essential in any pre-service emphasis on professional decision-making. and principles within any ethical course.
education and continuing professional However, we also need to treat ethics as a We also need to recognise that practical

14 The Jubilee Centre for Character & Virtues

ethics cannot be limited to a classroom or being theoretical in a virtue-based sense; i.e., their sense of professional purpose and o
online session and must involve a practical it is grounded in extensive empirical research consolidate their understanding of the nature
experience in a workplace environment. into how professionals in the UK make ethical and value of practical wisdom, in the service
decisions, value certain virtues in themselves of both their own personal and professional
7.4 Research-informed and others, and find (or lose) ethical purpose flourishing for the common good.
within their profession. It is hoped that the
The Jubilee Centre’s approach to virtue-based present Framework will aid professionals –
professional ethics is data-driven, as well as in the UK and elsewhere – to articulate

8. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
As well as being based on theoretical In particular, we would like to express sincere
and empirical work carried out at the thanks to Dr John Upton for his extensive
Jubilee Centre since 2012, this Framework advice on the preparation of this Framework.
was developed through consultation with
professionals, educators, policy makers, The Framework was discussed at a consultation,
professional organisations and academics. held at Ditchley Park on 9-10 May 2023, with
a group of experts.

9. REFERENCES
Arthur, J., Earl, S., Thompson, A., and Ward, J. (2019) Repurposing the Professions: The Role of Professional Character: Initial Insights, Birmingham:
Jubilee Centre for Character and Virtues, University of Birmingham.

Arthur, J., Kristjánsson, K., Cooke, S., Brown, E., and Carr, D. (2015a) The Good Teacher: Understanding Virtues in Practice: Research Report,
Birmingham: Jubilee Centre for Character and Virtues, University of Birmingham.

Arthur, J., Kristjánsson, K., Thomas, H., Kotzee, B., Ignatowicz, A., and Qiu, T. (2015b) Virtuous Medical Practice: Research Report,
Birmingham: Jubilee Centre for Character and Virtues, University of Birmingham.

Jubilee Centre for Character and Virtues (2022) The Jubilee Centre Framework for Character Education in Schools, Birmingham: Jubilee Centre for
Character and Virtues, University of Birmingham. Available at: www.jubileecentre.ac.uk/framework [Accessed 22 March 2023].

Committee on Standard is Public Life (CSPL) (2022) Standards Matter: A Review of Best Practice in Promoting God Behaviour in Public Life,
Available at: www.gov.uk/government/publications/standards-matter-a-review-of-best-practice-in-promoting-good-behavior-in-public-life
[Accessed 22 March 2023].

George, J. T., Urch, C. E. and Cribb, A. (2023) ‘A Virtuous Framework for Professional Reflection’, Future Healthcare Journal, vol. 10, pp. 1-4.

Han, H., Kim, J., Jeong, C., and Cohen, G. L. (2017) ‘Attainable and Relevant Moral Exemplars Are More Effective Than Extraordinary
Exemplars in Promoting Voluntary Service Engagement’, Frontiers in Psychology, vol 8, Article 283.

Jubilee Centre for Character and Virtues (2016) Statement on Character, Virtue and Practical Wisdom in Professional Practice,
Birmingham: Jubilee Centre for Character and Virtues, University of Birmingham.

Krettenauer, T. (2022) ‘When Moral Identity Undermines Moral Behavior: An Integrative Framework’, Social and Personality Psychology Compass,
vol. 16, no. 3.

Kristjánsson, K., Arthur, J., Moller, F., and Huo, Y. (2017a) Character Virtues in Business and Finance: Research Report, Birmingham: Jubilee Centre for
Character and Virtues, University of Birmingham.

Kristjánsson, K., Fowers, B., Darnell, C., and Pollard, D. (2021a) ‘Phronesis (Practical Wisdom) as a Type of Contextual Integrative Thinking’,
Review of General Psychology, vol. 25, no. 3, pp. 239-257.

Kristjánsson, K., Thompson, A., Maile, A., Ritzenthaler, S., and Moller, F., (2021b) Character Virtues in Policing: Research Report,
Birmingham: Jubilee Centre for Character and Virtues, University of Birmingham.

Kristjánsson, K., Varghese, J., Arthur, J., Moller, F., and Ferkany, M. (2017b) Virtuous Practice in Nursing: Research Report,
Birmingham: Jubilee Centre for Character and Virtues, University of Birmingham. 

The Jubilee Centre for Character & Virtues 15

This project was made possible through the support
of a grant from the John Templeton Foundation.

The Framework is based on research that was

conducted by the Jubilee Centre for Character
and Virtues, part of the School of Education at
the University of Birmingham.

For more information about the Framework, or

to view published research and resources, or to
get involved with the work of the Jubilee Centre,
please visit www.jubileecentre.ac.uk