J Indian Soc Remote Sens

DOI 10.1007/s12524-015-0482-0

RESEARCH ARTICLE

Visualization of Urban Growth Pattern in Chennai Using

Geoinformatics and Spatial Metrics
Bharath H. Aithal 1 & T. V. Ramachandra 1,2,3

Received: 13 May 2014 / Accepted: 13 July 2015

# Indian Society of Remote Sensing 2016

Abstract Urban growth is the spatial pattern of land devel- sprawl at peri-urban regions, it also has the tendency to
opment to accommodate anthropogenic demand that influ- form a single patch, clumped and simple shaped growth
ences other land uses (e.g.: open spaces, water bodies, etc.). at the core. During this transition, substantial agricultural
Driven by population increase, urban growth alters the and forest areas have vanished. Visualization of urban
community’s social, political and economic institutions with growth of Chennai for 2026 using cellular automata indi-
changing land use and also affects the local ecology and en- cates about 36 % of the total area being converted to urban
vironment. India’s urban population has increased by 91 mil- with rapid fragmented urban growth in the periphery and
lion between 2001 and 2011, with migration, the inclusion of outskirts of the city. Such periodic land-use change analy-
new/adjoining areas within urban limits, etc. Evidently, the sis monitoring, visualization of growth pattern would help
percentage of urban population in India has increased tre- the urban planner to plan future developmental activities
mendously: from 1901 (10.8 %) to 2011 (31.16 %). Chen- more sustainably and judiciously.
nai has an intensely developed urban core, which is
surrounded by rural or peri-urban areas that lack basic Keywords Urban sprawl . Spatial patterns . Spatial metrics .
amenities. Studying the growth pattern in the urban areas Cellular automata
and its impact on the core and periphery are important for
effective management of natural resources and provision of
basic amenities to the population. Spatial metrics and the Introduction
gradient approach were used to study the growth patterns
and status of urban sprawl in Chennai city’s administrative Urbanisation is the physical growth of urban areas or the ter-
boundary and areas within a 10 km buffer, for the past forty ritorial progress of a region as a result of increase in popula-
years. It is found that though Chennai experiences high tion due to migration or peri-urban concentration into cities.
The transition happens from rural to urban in terms of industry
structure, employment, living environment and social security
(Weber 2001; Bhatta 2009). Urbanisation may be planned
* T. V. Ramachandra
[email protected] with basic infrastructure or organic it occurs as individual,
commercial establishment, and the government makes efforts
1
to improve the opportunities for jobs, education, housing, and
Energy & Wetlands Research Group, CES TE15, Centre for
transportation. Only 14 % of the world’s population lived in
Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012,
India urban areas in 1900, which increased to 47 % by 2000
2 (Brockerhoff 2000; Ramachandra et al. 2015b). Specifically
Centre for Sustainable Technolgies (astra), Indian Institute of
Science, Bangalore 560012, India if looked at Indian case in 2011, 31.16 % of India’s 1.2 billion
3 people lived in urban areas (http://censusindia.gov.in) and this
Centre for infrastructure, Sustainable Transportation and Urban
Planning [CiSTUP], Indian Institute of Science, is projected to reach 60 % by 2030. Unplanned urban growth
Bangalore, Karnataka 560 012, India has a considerable impact on the natural resources and has led
 J Indian Soc Remote Sens

to urban sprawl: a pressing issue in several metropolitan areas. The spatial characteristics of land use features are measured
(Ji et al. 2006; Alsharif and Pradhan 2013; Arsanjani et al. using spatial metric, which explains the physical characteris-
2013; Ramachandra et al. 2015a). tics of the land use (such as urban) forms and its pattern
Urban sprawl refers to the uneven development along the (Herzog and Lausch 2001; Herold et al. 2002; Herold et al.
highways, surrounding the city or in the peri-urban region 2003a, b; Chang 2003). Further modelling based on these
resulting in the destruction of agricultural land and ecological changes would help in understanding future changes. Models
sensitive habitats (Chang 2003; Ramachandra, et al. 2012a). specific to urban growth have been used along with remote
Rapid economic development during the last two decades has sensing data and have proved to be important tools to measure
resulted in high urban sprawl across India (Ramachandra et al. land-use change in peri-urban regions (Clarke and Gaydos
2013a). The fragmented urban patches at the fringes originate 1998; Herold et al. 2003a,b; Mundia and Murayama 2010).
from multiple nuclei, resulting in urban growth with serious Torrens (Torrens 2000) suggests the use of cellular automata
environmental and social issues. Timely and accurate detec- (CA) for urban growth modelling and in simulating land use
tion of changes to the Earth’s surface is vital to understand changes as population migration and evolution can all be
relationships and interactions between anthropogenic and nat- modeled as automation, while the pixel and its neighbors
ural phenomena and thereby promote better decision-making can account for various changes such as demographic data
(Sudhira et al. 2004; Lu and Weng 2007; Bhatta 2010; etc., neighborhoods as part of the city can be simulated by
Rahman et al. 2011; Setturu et al. 2012; Ramachandra et al. the cells on the lattice based on predefined site-specific rules
2012a, b). This leads to better urban form and a positive rela- that represent the local current transitions that are raster-based
tionship between a city and its surrounding areas. As conven- for modeling urban expansion for discrete time steps (Guan
tional methods of detecting changes are expensive, time con- et al. 2008). Further it can be noted that standalone CA
suming and lacks precision (Opeyemi 2008), geo-informatics models lack the ability to account for the actual amount
with temporal–spatial data acquired remotely through space of change since it cannot account for specific transitions
borne sensors have been adopted during recent years to map of change in the region. Eastman (Eastman 2009) sug-
and monitor specific regions (Jensen 1986; Singh 1989; gested coupling of Markov chains (MC) and CA. This
Ramachandra et al. 2014). coupling helps in quantifying future likely changes based
Remote sensing provides vital data for monitoring land- on current and past changes which essentially addresses
cover changes and its impacts on the environment at local, the shortcoming of CA such as spatial allocation and the
regional and global scales (Johnson 2001; Kumar et al. location of change (Arsanjani et al. 2013). These studies
2011a). This aids in monitoring the changes in the region apart have failed to link agents of changes that are main driving
from understanding the role of prominent causal factors. Re- forces (He et al. 2008; He et al. 2013). Further, some
mote sensing is perhaps the only method for obtaining the studies have used agents or drivers of changes that can
required data from inaccessible regions on a cost and time- be transition potential using multi-criteria evaluation
effective basis (Dessì and Niang 2008; Sharma and Joshi (MCE) techniques. However, this approach failed due to
2013). Remote sensing technology with geographic informa- shortcoming in calibration techniques (Eastman 2009).
tion system (GIS) is ideal to understand the changes in the Hence it is necessary to calibrate the model and associate
landscape and help the planners to visualize likely implica- the agents of changes and driving forces in order to un-
tions with the future developments (Pathan et al. 1991; Ep- derstand and develop accurate transition potential maps.
stein et al. 2002; Civco et al. 2002; Herold et al. 2003a; Fuzzy-AHP technique of weighing agents was then pro-
Matsuoka et al. 2004; Yorke and Margai 2007; Yang et al. posed to obtain such accurate calibrations (Ramachandra
2008; Anindita et al. 2010; Kumar et al. 2011b). Spectral et al. 2013a, b). First, fuzzy clustering is used to group the
and spatial details in the remote sensing data aid in delin- spatial units into clusters based on certain attribute data.
eating land use categories to understand the surface land Analytical Hierarchal process (AHP) is then used to as-
characteristics (Ramachandra and Kumar 2008). Land- sign weights to these spatial units thus based on various
scape dynamics have been understood by implementing inputs. Then once the weights are assigned Cellular
empirical studies focusing on monitoring, planning and Markov models with the help of transition probability
landscape design which failed to emphasize pattern of matrix inherits past states of land use types to predict
growth specifically (O’Neill et al. 1999; Nassauer et al. future state (Praveen et al. 2013). Land use transitions is
1999; Leitao and Ahern 2002; Ramachandra et al. 2012a; simulated and validated for the year 2012. Further, pre-
Wentz et al. 2014). The land use dynamics can be under- diction for the year 2026 considering City Development
stood using temporal data acquired remotely through Plan [CDP] and without CDP were carried out from the
space borne sensors. Land use changes reflect the varied validated data.
intensity and measure the spatial extent of the urban The objective of the current communication is to vi-
growth. sualize the urban growth patterns in Chennai. Chennai’s
J Indian Soc Remote Sens

rapid urbanization has resulted in increased population Materials and Methods

density, traffic congestion and poor environmental qual-
ity, within and surrounding the city. Thus, planners need Chennai’s urban growth patterns have been assessed using
to understand and visualize future plans to address these temporal remote sensing data of Landsat satellite
problems and ensure that basic infrastructure and ame- downloaded from public domains at Global Land Cover Fa-
nities are available in the city. The multi-temporal re- cility (GLCF) (http://www.glcf.umd.edu/index.shtml) and
mote sensing data have been used to study the urban United States Geological Survey (USGS) Earth Explorer
structure and its dynamics. The spatial characteristics of (http://edcsns17.cr.usgs.gov/NewEarthExplorer/). Table 1
the urban pattern is analysed through gradient approach describes the data used, including remote sensing data and
using spatial metrics. collateral data. The Survey of India (SOI) topographic maps
of 1:50,000 and 1:250,000 scales were used to generate base
layers such as the city boundary. Chennai’s administrative
Study Area boundary is digitized from the city administration map ob-
tained from the municipality. Ground control points to reg-
Chennai, previously known as BMadras^ is the capital city ister and geo-correct remote sensing data were also collected
of the Indian state of Tamilnadu and the fourth metropoli- using hand held pre-calibrated GPS (Global Positioning Sys-
tan area in India (Dowall and Monkkonen 2008). It lies at tem) devices, Survey of India topographic maps and Google
120 9′ to130 9′ N and 800 12′ to 800 19′ E at the eastern earth (http://earth.google.com, http://bhuvan.nrsc.gov.in).
coast and southern peak of India. The average elevation of The method adopted to assess the urban growth patterns
the city is about 8 m above the mean sea level. The average includes preprocessing, generation of land cover and land
temperature ranges from 380 to 420 C in summer and 180 to use and a gradient-wise zonal analysis of Chennai, is repre-
20 °C in winter. As per the 1971 census, Chennai’s popu- sented in Fig. 2.
lation was 0.3 million, which has increased to more than 8
million (as per census 2011). The population density has
increased steadily from 769 persons per sq.km to 1041 Preprocessing
(1981), 1315 (1991), 1558 (2001) and 2109 (2011) persons
per sq.km. Chennai is one of the more industrialised and The remote sensing data obtained was geo-referenced, geo-
economically developed cities in India. Major industries corrected, rectified and cropped pertaining to the study area.
include automobile, software, textiles, and post the Remote sensing data from different sensors (with different
1900s, information technology. Urban growth patterns spatial resolutions) was resampled to 30 m in order to maintain
have been assessed considering the administrative bound- uniformity in spatial resolution. The study area includes the
ary of Chennai with a10 km buffer (Fig. 1) to account for Chennai administrative area and 10 km buffer from the ad-
dispersed growth in peri-urban areas. ministrative boundary.

Fig. 1 Study area - Chennai ad-

ministrative boundary and a
10 km buffer
 J Indian Soc Remote Sens

Table 1 Data used in the

Analysis Data Year Purpose

Landsat Series Thematic mapper 1991, 2000 Land use, Land cover [LULC] analysis, landscape
(28.5 m) dynamics, urban growth patterns
IRS P6 – LISS III MSS data 2012 LULC analysis, landscape dynamics, urban growth
(23.5 m) patterns
Survey of India (SOI) topographic maps To Generate boundary and Base layer maps.
of 1:50,000 and 1:250,000 scales
Field visit data –captured using GPS For geo-correcting and generating validation dataset
Aster GDEM of 1 arc-second (30 m) grid 2010 Extraction of Drainage lines, Slope analysis.
City developmental plans, location of 2005, 2015 Extraction of various agents of growth using
various agents Google earth and ancillary data

Land Cover Analysis region. Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) was
found suitable and was used for measuring vegetation cover
Land Cover analysis was performed to understand the changes (Ramachandra et al. 2012a). NDVI values range from −1 to +
in the vegetation cover during the study period in the study 1. Very low values of NDVI (−0.1 and below) correspond to

Fig. 2 the procedure adopted for

classifying the landscape,
computation of metrics and
modelling
J Indian Soc Remote Sens

soil or barren areas of rock, sand, or urban built up. Zero accepted methods to test the effectiveness of classifications
indicates the water cover. Moderate values (0.1 to 0.3) repre- (Lillesand and Kiefer 2002; Congalton and Green 2009).
sent low-density vegetation, while high values (0.6 to 0.8)
indicate thick canopy vegetation. Zonal Analysis

The study area (city boundary with 10 km buffer region) is

Land Use Analysis
divided into 4 geographic zones based on direction– Northeast
(NE), Southwest (SW), Northwest (NW) and Southeast (SE)–
Land use categories were classified using supervised tech-
as a city or its growth is usually defined directionally. Zones
nique with Gaussian Maximum Likelihood classifier
were sub-divided using centroid as a reference (Central Busi-
(GMLC). The spatial data pertaining to different time frame
ness District). The growth of the urban areas in each zone was
were classified, using signatures from training sites for the
studied and understood separately, by computing urban den-
land use types listed in Table 2. The training polygons were
sity for different periods.
compiled from collateral data of corresponding time period.
Latest data were classified using signatures (training poly-
Gradient Analysis
gons) digitized with the help of Google earth. False color
composite of remote sensing data (bands – green, red and
(Division of zones into concentric circles): To visualise the
NIR), was generated to visualise the heterogeneous patches
process of urban growth at local levels and to understand the
in the landscape. 60 % of the training data was used for clas-
agents responsible for changes, each zone was divided into
sifying remote sensing data while the balance has been used
concentric circles that are 1 km apart and radiate from the
for validation or accuracy assessment.
city-center. The analysis of urban growth patterns at local
Data is classified on the basis of training data through
levels help the city administrators and planners identify the
GMLC a superior method that uses probability and cost func-
causal factors of urbanization in response to the economic,
tions in its classification decisions (Duda et al. 2000;
social and political forces and visualizing the forms of urban
Ramachandra et al. 2012a). Mean and covariance matrices
growth with sprawl.
are computed using the maximum likelihood estimator. Land
use was analysed using the temporal data retrieved from the
Urbanisation Analysis
open source program GRASS - Geographic Resource Analy-
sis Support System (http://ces.iisc.ernet.in/foss). Signatures
To understand the growth of the urban area in specific zone
were collected from field visit and Google earth. Classes of
and determine whether it is compact or divergent, the
the resulting image were reclassified and recoded to form four
Shannon’s entropy (Sudhira et al. 2004; Ramachandra et al.
land-use classes (Table 2).
2012a) was computed for each zone. Shannon’s entropy (Hn),
given in Eq. 1, explains the development process and its char-
Accuracy Assessment acteristics over a period of time and indicates whether the
growth was concentrated or aggregated.
Accuracy assessment has been done for the classified data to Xn
evaluate the performance of classifiers (Ramachandra et al. Hn ¼ − i¼1
Pi logðPiÞ ð1Þ
2012a). This is done through using kappa coefficients
(Congalton et al. 1983). Overall (producer and user) accura- Where, Pi is the proportion of the built-up in the ith con-
cies were computed through a confusion matrix. Assessing centric circle. The lowest value of zero reflects the distribution
overall accuracy and computing Kappa coefficient are widely is maximally concentrated. Conversely, the maximum value
equivalent to log n indicates of sprawl with even distribution
Table 2 Land use classification categories adopted among the concentric circles.
Land use Land uses included in the class
Class Computation of Spatial Metrics

Urban This category includes residential area, industrial area, Spatial metrics have been used to quantify spatial characteris-
all paved surfaces (road, etc.) and mixed pixels
having major share of built up area.
tics of the landscape. Selected spatial metrics were used to
Water bodies Tanks, lakes, reservoirs.
anlayse and understand the urban dynamics. FRAGSTATS
(McGarigal and Marks in 1995) was used to compute metrics
Vegetation Forest, nurseries.
at three levels: patch level, class level and landscape level.
Others Rocks, cropland, quarry pits, open ground at building
sites, un-metaled roads. Table 3. below gives the list of the metrics along with their
description considered for the study.
 J Indian Soc Remote Sens

Table 3 Landscape metrics used in the current analysis (McGarigal and Marks in 1995; Aguilera et al. 2011; Ramachandra et al. 2012a; Ramachandra
et al. 2015b)

Indicator Formula

PLAND
∑n a
PLAND ¼ Pi ¼ j¼1 i j=A
Pi =proportion of the landscape occupied by patch type i.
aij =area (m2) of patch ij, A=total landscape area (m2).
Number of patches (Built-up) - NP N=ni, Range: NP≥1
Patch Density (PD)
PD ¼ ni
A ð10; 000Þ ð100Þ, Range: PD>0
Largest patch Index (Built-up) (LPI)
maxnj¼1 ðai j Þ
LPI ¼ A ð100Þ, Range: 0<LPI≤100
Normalised landscape shape Index (NLSI) ei −minei
NLSI ¼ max ei −minei
Range: 0 to 1
Landscape shape Index (LSI)
LSI ¼ mne
ei
i
, Range: LSI≥1, without limit.
Interspersion and Juxtaposition Index (IJI)    
−∑K¼1
m e ik eik
ln
∑m
k¼1 eik ∑m
k¼1 eik
I JI ¼ lnðm−1Þ ð100Þ
Range: 0<IJI≤100
eik=total length (m) of edge in landscape between patch types I and k.
m=number of patch type present in landscape.
Clumpiness Index (Clumpy) 0  1
Gi – P i
B f or G i < P P
i i < 5; else C
CLUMPY ¼ B @
Pi CG i
A
Gi – P i
" 1 P i #
gii
¼  m 
∑k¼1 gik −minei
Range: Clumpiness ranges from −1 to 1
Aggregation Index (AI) h i
gii
AI ¼ maxg ð100Þ
ii

gii =number of like adjacencies (joins) between pixels of patch type (class) i based
on the single-count method. max-gii =maximum number of like adjacencies
(joins) between pixels of patch type (class) i based on the single-count method.
Percentage of Like Adjacencies (PLADJ)  
gi j
PLADJ ¼ ð100Þ *
∑k¼1 gik
m

gii =number of like adjacencies (joins) between pixels of patch type

(class) i based on the double-count method.
gik =number of adjacencies (joins) between pixels of patch types
(classes) i and k based on the double-count method.
 
∑n P i j h i
Patch Cohesion index
Cohesion ¼ 1− n j¼1 p2 ffiffiffiffi 1− p21ffiffiAffi −1 *100
∑ j¼1 PI J ai j

Visualisation of Urban Growth in Chennai by 2026

Table 4 Agents and constraints considered for modelling
Agents of urbanisation and constraints (listed in Table 4) with
Agents Industries, proximities to roads, railway stations, metro
temporal land uses were taken as base layers for modelling
stations, educational institutes, religious places etc.
and visualisation. Data values were normalized through
Constraints Drainage lines, slope, water bodies, costal regulated
areas, catchment areas etc. fuzzification wherein the new values ranged between 0 and
255, 255 indicating maximum probability of change in land
J Indian Soc Remote Sens

Fig. 3 Temporal land cover analysis using NDVI

use in contrast with 0 for no changes. Fuzzy outputs thus

derived are then taken as inputs to AHP for different factors
into a matrix form to assign weights. Each factor is compared
Fig. 4 Output of land use analysis in the study region
with another in pair wise comparison followed by enumera-
tion of consistency ratio which should be preferably less than
0.1 for the consistency matrix to be acceptable. Once weights
are determined MCE was used to determine the site suitability Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI).
considering two scenarios i). Restrictions based on City De- Figure 3 depicts the vegetation cover based on NDVI
velopment Plan (CDP); ii). As usual scenario without CDP. for Chennai region during 1991–2012. Table 5 tabulates
These suitability change maps were considered in the MC-CA the vegetation cover dynamics, which show that the
model. Considering earlier land uses, transition potentials percentage of vegetative cover has drastically reduced
were computed using a Markovian process. Using and hexag- by 22 % during the past two decades, with the increase
onal CA Filter of 5 × 5 neighborhood with variable iteration at in non-vegetative area (buildings, open space, water,
every step until a threshold is reached. Careful model valida- etc.). As per the LC analysis, the current vegetation
tion through kappa statistics was conducted to assure accuracy cover is about 48.18 %. To understand the status of
in prediction and simulation. Built-up areas were predicted for various land use (LU) classes in the region classification
2012 were cross-compared with the actual built-up areas in of temporal remote sensing data were done using
2012 using classified data. The kappa index of 0.9 shows a GMLC. LU analysis helps to demarcate the different
good agreement accuracy of the model. Future patterns of classes and LC provides only the details of vegetative
urban expansion were then simulated for the years 2026. cover (which might be vegetation and also cropland).
figure 4 depicts land use changes, based on the analysis of
temporal remote sensing data using Gaussian Maximum Like-
Results and Discussion lihood Classifier (GMLC). Table 6 provides land use statistics,
which reveals that the area under vegetation declined from 70
Land cover (LC) of the region is assessed using the to 48 % with an increase in urban (paved) surfaces from
preprocessed temporal remote sensing data using 1.46 % to about 18.5 %. Table 7 tabulates overall accuracy

Table 5 Vegetation cover Table 6 Land use in the study region

changes in Chennai Year Vegetation Non-
(%) vegetation Land Use category Built-up Vegetation Water body Others
(%) Area (%) Area (%) Area (%) Area (%)

1991 70.47 29.53 1991 1.46 1.38 27.64 69.52

2000 56.7 43.27 2000 2.52 0.8 27.25 68.35
2012 48.18 51.82 2012 18.55 1.51 28.15 51.38
 J Indian Soc Remote Sens

Table 7 Accuracy assessment from confusion matrix and kappa statistics

Category 1991 2000 2012

Producer’s Accuracy User’s Accuracy Producer’s Accuracy User’s Accuracy Producer’s Accuracy User’s Accuracy

Built-up 92.04 93.02 90.42 97.38 78.23 93.02

Vegetation 99.31 92.49 97.75 99.42 98.98 79.49
Water body 91.50 93.84 91.65 89.52 99.47 93.84
Others 96.28 92.45 92.70 98.82 39.50 76.45
Overall Accuracy 92 91 97
Kappa 0.92 0.9 0.93

and kappa statistics obtained for classified images– these re- dispersed fragmented growth or sprawl in all directions.
sults show that the classified and ground truth data are closely This indicates a fragmented outgrowth and mostly in
related. Overall accuracy and kappa statistics showed a good North west direction. Increased patches in all zones in-
relation of the classified data with ground truth data. dicate that the city is heading towards higher
figure 5 illustrates the urban growth pattern during 1991 to fragmented outgrowth and more clumped inner core.
2012, derived from the classified data. Further this pattern is analysed using landscape metrics
for better understanding at each gradient and zone.

Shannon’s Entropy (Hn)

Analysis of Spatial Metrics
Shannon’s entropy aids in assessing the urbanisation
pattern and was calculated for each zone considering Results of all metrics are given in Fig. 7a to i; the X-axis
the gradients and as shown in Fig. 6. The values closer represents the gradients considered and Y-axis, the Metric
to 0 indicates of a compact growth, as in 1991. All value.
zones show a compact growth or more concentrated
growth towards the central business district as even seen
in classified data. The Shannon’s entropy values have Percentage of Landscape (PLAND)
increased temporally to 0.4 indicating the tendency of
PLAND equals the proportion of landscape comprised of the
corresponding class patches. Built up proportion was comput-
ed to understand the ratio of built up in the landscape. The
results given in Fig. 7a, reveal that the proportion has in-
creased during the three decades with the tremendous growth
in the central circles. The outer gradients show a slight but
significant increase, which indicate sprawling development in
the periphery and buffer. The NW shows a relatively higher
increase as compared to that in the NE and SW.

Fig. 5 Urban growth in the study region Fig. 6 Shannon entropy

J Indian Soc Remote Sens

Fig. 7 a Percentage of landscape (PLAND). b: Number of Patches (NP). g. Clumpiness index (CLUMPY). h. Aggregation Index. i. Patch cohe-
c: Patch Density (PD). d: Largest Patch Index (LPI). e: Landscape shape sion index. j. Percentage of like adjacencies metric
index (LSI) - directionwsie. f: Normalized Landscape shape index (LSI).
 J Indian Soc Remote Sens

Fig. 7 (continued)
J Indian Soc Remote Sens

Fig. 7 (continued)
 J Indian Soc Remote Sens

Fig. 7 (continued)
J Indian Soc Remote Sens

Fig. 7 (continued)
 J Indian Soc Remote Sens

Table 8 Predicted land use statistics for the year 2026 The declining trends at the gradients away from the city center
Categories / Year Predicted 2026 Predicted 2026 at fringes or peri urban areas indicates of fragmented urban
with CDP without CDP patches.

Builtup 36.6 36.5 Landscape Shape Index (LSI) and Normalized Landscape
Vegetation 2.4 2.4 Shape Index (NLSI)
Water 27.9 27.8
Others 33.1 33.3 Landscape shape index provides a simple measure of class
aggregation or disaggregation. Aggregation is measured via
class edge. Normalized landscape shape index is similar to
Number of Patches (NP)
landscape shape index but this represents the normalized val-
ue. figure 7e and f depicts LSI and NLSI respectively indicate
NP equals the number of built up patches in a landscape. It
that lower values in the gradients at the city center during post
indicates the level of fragmentation in built up landscape.
2000 highlights of simpler shapes with compact urban patches
Figure 7b depicts the significant increase in number of urban
compared to the fringes which show complex shape with the
patches during two decades in all directions in all gradients,
fragmented outgrowth.
indicating the fragmentation of landscape during post 2000.
Patches at the city centre are combining to for single clumped
Clumpiness (CLUMPY) and Aggregation Index (AI)
dominant patch, whereas in outer gradients is more
fragmented.
Clumpiness index represents the status of urban landscape and
is the measure of patch aggregation. It measures the
Patch Density (PD) clumpiness of the overall urban patches. Clumpiness ranges
from −1 to 1 where Clumpy is −1, when the urban patch type
Patch density was computed as an indicator of urban frag- is maximally disaggregated, Clumpy is 0 when the patch is
mentation. As the number of patches increase, patch den- distributed randomly and approaches 1 when urban patch type
sity increases representing higher fragmentation. Figure 7c is maximally aggregated. Aggregation Index gives the similar
shows the trends in patch density and comparable to the indication as clumpiness i.e., it measures the aggregation of
number of urban patches i.e., fragmented urban patches the urban patches, Aggregation index ranges from 0 to 100.
towards the fringes in all directions and a clumped An analysis of clumpiness index for the year 1991, explained
patched growth at the center. that the city, except a few patches in the outskirts and buffer,
had a simple clumped growth at the center business district
Largest Patch Index (LPI) with the values close to 0. Analysis for the year 2012 indicated
a high fragmented growth or non-clumped growth at outskirts
Largest Patch Index (LPI) was computed to represent the per- and more clumped growth in the center. The aggregation in-
centage of landscape that contain largest patch. Figure 7d il- dex showed the similar trend as the clumpiness index.
lustrates that gradients at the center are with higher values due Figure 7h, also revealed that the center part of the city is
to the larger size urban patches indicating compact growth. becoming single homogeneous patch whereas the outskirts

Fig. 8 Predicted land use

categories for the year 2026

Predicted 2026 with CDP Predicted 2026 without CDP

J Indian Soc Remote Sens

are growing as fragmented patches of urban area destroying and of dispersed growth– factors essential for urban planning.
other land uses and forming a single large urban patch. The spatial metrics reveal a significant increase in number of
urban patches in all directions and gradients during two de-
Patch Cohesion Index cades, indicating landscape fragmentation post 2000. Patches
at the city center are combining to form a single clumped
figure 7i measures the physical connectedness of the urban dominant patch, whereas in outer gradients is more
patches. Higher cohesion values in 2012 indicate of higher fragmented. The analysis of urban growth patterns emphasize
urban patches while lower values (in 1991) illustrate of fewer the need for judicious land-use transformation, as well as the
urban patches in the landscape. formulation of urban development policy with an emphasis on
the sustainable utilization of natural resources.
Percentage of Like Adjacencies (PLADJ)
Acknowledgments We are grateful to NRDMS Division, The
Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India;
This indicates the percentage of cell adjacencies of the corre-
ISRO-IISc Space Technology Cell, Indian Institute of Science;
sponding patch type. Figure 7j depicts that the urban patches Centre for infrastructure, Sustainable Transportation and Urban
in the landscape are most adjacent to each other in 2012, and Planning (CiSTUP), Indian Institute of Science for the financial
were fragmented in 1991 and 2000. This illustrates that urban and infrastructure support. Remote sensing data were downloaded
from public domain (http://glcf.umiacs.umd.edu/data). We are also
land use is dominant in 2012 and is in the process of forming a
thankful to National Remote Sensing Centre, Hyderabad (http://
single patch. nrsc.gov.in) for providing the latest data of IRS 1D.

Visualisation Using Fuzzy AHP CA-Markov

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