Contents and Introduction Table of Contents Legal Information Number Theory How to Use This Book ‘Acknowledgements 1 Integers: The Basics 14 Introduction 1.2 Making Integers Out of Integers 1.3 Integer Multiples 1 4 Divisibility of Integers 15 Divisors 1 6 Using Divisors 1.7 Mathematical Symbols 1.8 Summary Review Problems ‘Challenge Problems 2 Primes and Composites 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Primes and Composites 2.3 Identifying Primes | 2.4 Identifying Primes Il 25 Summary Review Problems Challenge Problems 3 Multiples and Divisors 3.1 Introduction 3.2. Common Divisors 3.3 Greatest Common Divisors (GCDs) 3.4.Common Multiples 3.5 Remainders 3.6 Multiples, Divisors, and Aritimetic 3.7 The Euclidean Algorithm 3.8 Summary Review Problems Challenge Problems 4 Prime Factorization 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Factor Trees 4.3 Factorization and Muitiples 4.4 Factorization and Divisors 4.5 Rational Numbers and Lowest Terms 4.6 Prime Factorization and Problem Solving 4,7 Relationships Between LCMs and GCDs 4.8 Summary Review Problems Challenge Problems 5 Divisor Problems 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Counting Dvisors 5.3% Divisor Counting Problems 5.4% Divisor Products 5.5 Summary Review Problems Challenge Problems 6 Special Numbers 611 Introduction 6.2 Some Special Primes 6.3 Factoriels, Exponents and Divisibilty 6.4 Perfect, Abundant, and Deficient Numbers 6.5 Palindromes 6.6 Summary Review Problems Challenge Problems 7 Algebra With Integers 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Problems 7.3 Summary Challenge Problems 8 Base Numbers 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Counting in Bundles 8.3 Base Numbers 8.4 Base Number Digits 8.5 Converting Integers Between Bases 8.6% Unusual Base Number Problems 8.7 Summary Review Problems Challenge Problems 9 Base Number Arithmetic 91 Introduction 9.2 Base Number Addition 9.3 Base Number Subtraction 9.4 Base Number Multiplication 9.5 Base Number Division and Divisibility 9.6 Summary Review Problems Challenge Problems 10 Units Digits 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Units Digits in Arithmetic 10.3 Base Number Units Digits 10.4 Units Digits Everywhere! 10.5 Summary Review Problems ‘Challenge Problems 11 Decimals and Fractions 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Terminating Decimals 11.3 Repeating Decimals 11.4 Converting Decimals to Fractions 11.5% Base Numbers and Decimal Equivalents 11.6 Summary Review Problems Challenge Problems 12 Introduction to Modular Arithmetic 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Congruence 12.3 Residues 12.4 Addition and Subtraction 12.5 Multiplication and Exponentiation 12.6 Patterns and Exploration 12.7 Summary Review Problems Challenge Problems 13 Divisibility Rules 18.1 Introduction 13.2 Divisibllty Rules 13.3% Divisibilty Rules With Algebra 13.4 Summary Review Problems Challenge Problems 14 Linear Congruences 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Modular Inverses and Simple Linear Congruences 143 Solving Linear Congruences 14.4 Systems of Linear Congruences 14.5 Summary Review Problems: ‘Challenge Problems 15 Number Sense 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Familiar Factors and Divisibilty 15.3 Algebraic Methods of Arithmetic 15.4 Useful Forms of Numbers 155 Simplicity 15.6 Summary Review ProblemsCopyright © 2006, 2008, 2011, 2013, 2015 AdPS Incorporates. All Rants Reserved. x Reprocuction ot ary perton of ts book wktnoUt the writen parnission of AOPS Incorpcrated s strictly prohboted, except Tor “alr use" or other noncommelt uses a8 detinea in Sections 107 and 108 ofthe U.S. Copyngnt Act. ‘This omine nook may be used solely under the terms of 2OPS Incorporated Online Book License Agreement, avallable HERE Publishes by -AGPS Incorporated 10865 Rancho Bemardo Rd Ste 100 ‘San Diego, A 92127-2102, (858) 675.4555, bocksgarterprapiensoiving.con Print Version ISBN: 978-1-934124-12 (text), 978-1-998124-12-0(solutions) ‘Cover image designed by Amanda Jones using KalegoTile aofoware. Cover includes e etelite image of the Missisiopi River Detta from NASA Earth Oocervatory, ‘epicatons of Eaytianhieroalyphics by Amanda Jones, nd two matrices of binary dias.Re Po Number meod’S What are integers? Which integers are interesting? What can we do with them? How do we use them? How do they relate to mathematics? How do we use them to count more easily? What numbers can we make with them? How do we use them to virite secret messages? How do we use them to read secret messages? How do we use them to run computers? How do we use them ‘torun computers more effiotently? How do they help us with physies? What do they have to do with blology? How do we use them to talk with our spacecrafts? ‘These ate questions about the subject of number theory. Number theory is the study of integers. As encient as number theory humans are still uncovering mysteries behind integers and learning to use them In powerful new ways. Integers: sey 74,8, 2,1, 0, 1, 2,3, 4,555. Natural Numbers: 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10, .. Prime Numbers: 2,3,5, 7,11, 13, 17, 19,23, ... Composite Numbers: 4,6,8,9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 16,.. Even Numbers: +146, -4,-2,0, 2,4, 6,8, 10, 12,.. ‘Odd Numbers: sy “7,-5,-3,-1,1,8, 5, 7,911, .. Perfect Squares: 0, 1, 4,9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100,... Negative Cubes 1, -8, 27, ~64, -125, -216, -343, Powers of 2 1,2,4,8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256, 512, 1024, .. ‘Abundant Numbers: 12, 18, 20, 24, 30, 36, 40, 42, 48, 54, Palindromes: 11, 313, 838, 3443, 7447, 57875, 10000001, .. Fibonace! Numbers: 1,2,3,5,8, 13, 21,34, 55, 89, Base Numbers: Jo, 45, 1546, 101102, 2A41,2, Modulo 8 Residues 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7 Each of these types of integers has stories~some that go back thousands of years. Since we use integers to describe so many things, knowing these stories helps us understand the world around us Notation - Writing in the Language of Mathematics Notations are the symbols we use when expressing an idea in writing, Mathematical notation is rich, complex, and highly useful~ though often frustrating to students with less experience reading it or using it to write mathematics. Hopefully this book conveys mathematical ideas as simply as possible, and introduces new notations clearly and in a timely manner. However, we list here a number of the more common notations used throughout this book to give students a basic guide to understanding the language of mathematics as we use it for the main content of this book alb ‘The vertical line is @ symbol that denotes a relationship of alvisibilty. Instead of writing “a divides b” or “a Is @ divisor of b,” we write “a |B.” For example, 6 | 24,” means "6 divides 24." a>b This double-right arrow means “implies.” For instance, instead of writing “a -+1=4 implies that x= “et1=4>2=3" we write When immediately following a posttive integer, this “factorial” symbol lets us know to multiply the positive integer by all the positive integers less than it:5! = 5-4- 3-2-1. ged(a, b) When we write ged (a, b), we mean the greatest common divisor of the integers a and b. For instance, zed (8, 12) = 4 Jem{a, b] We write lem|a, b]to mean the least common multiple of the integers a and b. For instance, lern|8, 12] = 24 max(a,b) When the term “max’ precedes a group of real numbers, it refers to the maximum of that group of real numbers. For instance, max(1,2,3,5,8) =8. min(a,b) When the term “min” precedes @ group of real numbers, it refers to the minimum of that group of real numbers. For example, min(1,2,3,5,8) » (mod m) When we write “a = b (mod rn),’ we mean that a and h are congruent modulo m. In other words, the difference between a and b is a multiole of m. For instance, since 13 ~ 1 = 12 and 6 | 12 we say that 13 = 1 (mod 6), (Note: We begin discussing modular arithmetic in Chapter 12.)How to Use This Book ©” This book is probably very different from most of the math books that you have read before. We believe that the best way to learn mathematics is by solving problems. Lots and lots of problems. In fact, we believe that the best way to lean mathematics is to ‘try to solve problems that you don't know how to do, When you discover something on your own, youll understand it much better ‘than If someone just tells It to you. Most of the sections of this book begin with several problems. The solutions to these problems will be covered in the text, but try to solve the problems before reading the section. If you can't solve some of the problems, that's OK, because they will all be fully solved as you read the section. Even if you solve al of the problems, I's stil portant to read the section, both to make sure that your solution is correct, and also because you may find that the book's solution is simpler or easier to understand than your own If you find that the problems are too easy, this means that you should try harder problems. Nobody leams very much by solving problems that are too easy for them. Navigating This Book From any page in the book, you can click on the image of the book's cover in the top-left comer to view the table of contents. On large-sereen devices, you can also click anywhere on the left-side navigation bar to jump to the corresponding section of the book. You can use the left and right arrows at the top of the page to move to the previous or next chapter or section of the book. Most sections begin with all of the problems that appear in the section, as explained in the “Learn by Solving Problems” subsection above. Clicking on the 4 Jump to Solution link will jump forward in the section to where that problem and its solution ‘appeer in the text. Hovering over a paragraph will create a small j icon in the left margin. Clicking on that icon will pop up a window with a permanent ink to that paragraph. You can cut-and-paste ths link into an email message or community post. Interactive Features There are several interactive features built into the book. All online books are linked to the AoPS community, so that students using the online book can discuss the book with other students. Click on the t Community icon next to a section or problem to View all of the discussions about that section or problem. Click the V New Topic icon to start a new discussion topic about the section or problem, This book is also linked to Alcumus, Art of Problem Solving's innovative online learning system. Clicking on the 9 Alcumus link at the top of a section takes you to Alcumus. This gives you the opportunity to work on additional practice problems that reinforce ‘the material in your current section of the book. (Not all sections are linked to Aleumus, 50 the Icon may not appear at the top of some sections ) To leam more about Alcumus, click here. Explanation of Icons ‘Throughout the book, you will see various shaded boxes and icons. Concept: This will be @ general problem-solving technique or strategy. These are the “keys” to | becoming a better problem soiver! Important: This will be something important that you should leam. It might be a formula, a Pa solution technique, or @ caution. WARNING! Beware if you sze this box! This will point out a common mistake or pitfall Game: Remember, math s fun! This box will contain a garne to think about. Sidenote: This box will contain material which, although interesting, is not part of the main material of the text. I's OK to skip over these boxes, but if you read them, you might eam something interesting! Bogus Solution: Just like the impossible cube shown to the left, there's something wrong with any y “solution” that appears in this box. Extra This is an “Extra!” and might be a quote, some biographical or historical background, or : pethaps an interesting idea to think about. Exercises, Review Problems, and Challenge Problems ‘Most sections end with several Exereises. These will test your understanding of the material that was covered in the section that you just finished. You should try to solve all of the exercises. Exercises marked with ¢ + are more difficult. ‘Most chapters have a section containing Review Problems. These are problems which test your understanding of the material covered in the chapter. Your goal should be to solve most or all of the Review Problems for every chapter — if you're unable to do this, it means that you haven't yet mastered the material, end you should probably go back and read the chapter again All of the chapters end with a section containing Challenge Problems. These problems are generally more difficult than the other problems in the book, and will really test your mastery of the material. Some of them are very, very hard — the hardest ones are marked with a +. Don't necessarily expect to be able to solve all of the Challenge Problems on your first try ~ these are difficult problems even for experienced problem solvers. If you are able to solve a large number of Challenge Problems, then congratulations, you are on your way to becoming an expert problem solver! You can type your solution or notes for any Exercise, Review Problem, or Challenge Problem directly into the book. Your work will ‘automatically be saved. You won't be able to view the solution to a problem until you type something in the solution box. Many problems come with one or more hints. You can view any available hint by clicking on the Aint link after the problem statement, You can then hide the hint by again clicking on the Hint link. It is very important that you first try to solve the problem without peeking at the hints. Only after you've seriously thought about a problem and are stuck should you look at a hint, Also, for problems which have multiple hints, use the hints one at a time; don't go to the second hint until you've thought about the first one. The solutions to all of the Exercises, Review Problems, and Challenge Problems are bullt into the book. Clicking the Show Solution bution will display the solution, but you won't be able to view the solution until you've made an attempt to solve the problem and typed something into the solution box. Once you've viewed the solution, you can add notes to the solution in a ‘separate box. You can also click the Reset button to clear your solution and notes and start fresh. Here are some very important things to keep in mind about the solutions: 1. Make sure that you make @ serious attempt at the problem before looking at the solution. You should think hard about problem before deciding to Give up and look at the solution. Remember, once you view a solution, you can't change what you typed for your solution. 2. Alter you solve a problem, i's usually a good idea to read the solution, even if you think you know how to solve the problem Our solution might show you @ quicker or more concise way to solve the problem, or it might have a completely different solution method that you right not have thought of. 3. If you have to look at the solution in order to solve @ problem, make sure that you make a note of that problem. You can ‘then come back to the problem in a week or two to make sure that you are able to solve it on your own without resorting to ‘the solution. Resources Here are some other good resources for you to further pursue your study of mathematics: = Artof Problem Solving has @ complete library of books (both print and online) specifically designed for avid math students: = The introduction series: Preaigebra, Introduction to Algebre, introduction to Counting & Probability, and Introduction to Geometry, designed for students in grades 6-10. = The Intermediate serles: Intermediate Algebra, Intermediate Counting & Probability, Precalculus, and Calculus, designed for students in grades 9-12. + The Problem Solving series: designed for students preparing for math competitions. In adcition to cur classios the Art of Problem Solving, Volume 1: the Basics (for students in grades 7-10 preparing for MATHCOUNTS and the AMC 8/10/12 contests) and the Art of Problem Solving, Volume 2: and Beyond (for students in grades 9-12 preparing for ‘advanced contests such as the AIME), we also have Competition Math for Middle School. = Beast Academy: a full, rigorous, entertaining curriculum for aspiring math beasts in grades 2-5. = The Art of Problem Solving website contains many other resources for students. = The AoPS Community has tens of thousands of members (if you are reading this online book, you're a member too!) and millions of posts on a variety of math, problem solving, and other fun topics. 1 Alcumus, our free adaptive online learning system containing over 13,000 practice problems. = Forthe Win!, our free interactive online game inspired by the MATHCOLINTS Countdown Round. 1 Our vast video library contains hundreds of videos featuring AoPS founder Richard Rusczyk. = Learn LaTeX, the mathematical typesetting system used by most professional mathematicians end scientists, from our widely-used LaTeX guide, and practice your LaTex skills with the TexeR. = AoPS Community members collaborate to build the AoPSWikl, = We have a collection of articles on a variety of problem-solving topics. = You can hone your problem solving skills (end perhaps win prizes!) by participating in various math contests. Please see the Acknowledgements section of this book for more information. A Note to Teachers We believe that students learn best when they are challenged with hard problems that at first they may not know how to do. This is the motivating philosophy behind this book. Rather than first introducing new material and then giving students exercises, we present problems at the start of each section ‘that students should try to solve before the new material Is presented. The goal isto get students to discover the new material on their own. Often, complicated problems are broken into smaller parts, so that students can discover nevr techniques one piece at a time, Then the new material is formally presented in the text, and full solutions to each problem are explained, along with problem-solving strategies. We hope that teachers will find that many students will discover most of the material in this book on their own by working ‘through the problems. Other students may leam better from a more traditional approach of first seeing the new material, then ‘working the problems. Teachers have the flexibility to use either approach when teaching from this book. The book is linear in coverage. Generally, students and teachers should progress straight through the book in order, without skipping chapters. Sections denoted with a % contain supplementary material that may be safely skipped. In general, chapters are not equal in length, so different chapters may take different amounts of classroom time.Contests ‘We would like to thank the following contests for allowing us to use a selection of thelr problems In this book: = The American Mathematics Competitions, 2 series of contests for U.S. middle and high school students. The AMC 8, AMC 10, and AMC 12 contests are multiple-choice tests that are taken by over 350,000 students every year. Top scorers on the AMC 10 and AMC 12 ate invited to take the American Invitational Mathematics Examination (AIME), which is a more difficult, short-answer contest. Approximately 10,000 students every year participate in the AIME. Then, based on the results of the AMC and AIME contests, about 500 students are invited to participate in the USA Junior Mathematical ‘Olympiad (USAJIMO) and USA Mathematical Olympiad (USAMO), 2-day, &-nour examinations in which each student must show all of his or her work. Results from the USA(J)MO are used to invite students to the Math Olympiad Summer Program, at which the U.S. team for the International Mathematical Olympiad (IMO) is trained. More information about the AMC contests can be found on the AMC website at hctp: //unws.maa.org/nath-conpetitions. = MATHCOUNTSS, the premier contest for US. middle school students. MATHCOUNTS is @ national enrichment, coaching, and competition program that promotes middle school mathematics achievement through grassroots involvement in every US. state and territory, with over 160,000 students participating in 2013-14. President Barack Obama, and former Presidents Bush, Clinton, Bush and Reagan have all recognized MATHCOUNTS in White House ceremonies. The MATHCOUNTS program has also received two White House citations as an outstanding private sector initiative. More information is available at hctp: //umus.mathcounts.org. = The Mandelbrot Competition, which was founded in 1990 by Sandor Lehoczky, Richard Rusczyk, and Sam Vanderveld= The aim of the Mandelbrot Competition is to provide @ challenging, engaging mathematical experience which is both ‘competitive and educational. Students compete both as individuals and in teams. The Mandelbrot Competition is offered at the national level for more advanced students and the regional level for less experienced problem solvers. The Mandelbrot Competition is currently on hiatus until 2017, More information can be found at http:// \wns.mandelbrot.org. = The USA Mathematical Talent Search (USAMTS), which was founded in 1989 by Professor George Berzsenyi. The USAMTS is a free mathematics competition open to all United States middle and high school students. As opposed to most mathematics competitions, the USAMTS allows students a full month to work out thelr solutions, Carefully written justifications are required for each problem, More information is available at http: //mm.usants.ore, = The American Regions Math League (ARML), which was founded in 1976. The annual ARML competition brings together nearly 2,000 of the nation’s finest students. They meet, compete against, and socialize with one another, forming friendships and sharpening their mathematical skils. The contest is written for high school students, although some ‘exceptional junior high students attend each year. The competition consists of several events, which include a team round, @ power question (in which a team solves proof-oriented questions), an individual round, and two relay rounds. More information is available at hit: //arml .com. + The Harvard-MIT Mathematics Tournament (HMMT), which is a twice-annual math tournament for high school students, held at MIT and Harvard. itis run exclusively by MIT and Harvard students, most of whom themselves participated in math contests in high school. More information is available at http: //hmnt .nit edu How We Wrote This Book ‘This book is a collaborative effort of the staff of the Art of Problem Solving. Mathew Crawford was the lead author for this book, and wrote most of the text. Several drafts of this book were read by Richerd Rusczyk, Dr. David Patrick, Naoki Seto, Tim Lambert, and Amanda Jones—ell of whom made many helpful suggestions. Solutions were written by Mathew Crawford with help from Will Nygard and Ruozhou (Joe) Jia. Many of the diagrams were created by Richard Rusczyk and Brian Rice. Amanda Jones designed the cover and also the Egyptian hieroglyphics. Special thanks to Meena Boppana, Ravi Boppana, Gordon Dilger, Larry Evans, and several anonymous students for alerting us to errors in the first edition, ‘The print version of this book was written using the LaTeX document processing system, and the diagrams were prepared using Metapost and Asymptote. We thank the authors of the various LaTeX packages that we used while preparing this book, and also the bnllant authors of The LaTeX Companion for writing a reference book that is not only thorough but also very readable. ‘The source files for the print book were intially converted to this online book using a script written in the Python programming language. Palmer Mebane managed the conversion of this book from print to online, and Paul Salemo also wrote tools used in the conversion, Jason Batterson and the Jacob Tyler Creative Group designed the look and feel of this online book. James Fung, Shelley Garg, Kyle Guillet, Tasha Moyer, David Patrick, Shannan Rogers, Amy Szczepanski, Deven Ware, Phyllis Xu, and Laura Zehender all helped to review and edit the online book content. Dedication For Cindy Wright and Kay Tipton, two math teachers who gave me problems to solve, Their tireless dedication to their students has always been extraordinary.| + || = Mathematics is the queen of the sciences and number thearys the queen of mathematics ~ Car Friecich Gauss CHAPTER 1 rs | Integers: The Basics 1.1 Introduction {mn this chapter we give names to different kinds of integers so that we can more easily discuss them. We also review relationships between integers, their multiples and their divisors. These relationships are essential to nearly every aspect of ‘number theory. We expend on these concepts throughout this book in more and more complex ways. Definitions: The integers can be divided into three groups: positive integers, negative integers and zero: i++ = Fe eS ee ee Positive Integers 0 Zero -1, -2, Negative Integers Important: A number with at least one non-zero digit after its decimal point is not an integer z because we cannot count from zero to that number (forward or backward) 1 unit at a ‘time on the number line. For instance, 2.5, -82.21, and 7 (whieh Is equal to approximately 3.14159) are not integers. Concept: integers are the numbers that we use to count both forward and backward when | counting whole objects euch as people, pennies, cars, etc. Definitions: Positive integers are often called natural numbers and you should become familiar with that term if you are not already. We also sometimes call positive integers counting numbers because we use them to count objects. Sometimes we refer to whole numbers, which include 0 and all positive integers. Most of the time this book deals with naturel numbers, though much of the material also applies to 0 and negative numbers. natural numbers: counting numbers ‘whole numbers: Werning: not all mathematicians agree on these definitions. In particular, some ‘mathematicians consider 0 to be @ natural number. However, in this book, O will never be considered a natural number. OFL+IFI+1+14 210123456 +++ Ft AA FF AH Figure 1.2: Counting from 0 to 6 We use the positive integers to count upward. If we drop a marble into an empty bag, and then drop § more marbles in, one at a time, we end up with 6 marbles. The number line above shows us how many marbles are in the bag after we drop each marble in 6-1-1- 2120123456 ot RPP AAAAAA Figure 1.3: Counting backward from 6 to 0 ‘Similarly, we use the negative integers to count downward. If we start with bag of 6 marbles, and remove them all one at a time, we count backward to 0. Subtracting 6 marbles is the same as adding —6 marbles. Concept: Negative integers describe the backward counting that results when subtracting | ebjects from a group.1.2 Making Integers Out of Integers ® always results in an integer. This fact may seem simple, but the ways in which we use it can get much more interesting and: difficult (as we will see in this book’). Problems Problem 1.1 4 Jump to Solution Explain why each number below is an integer by explaining what each arithmetic operation does to the integers on the number line. 244 2-4 a 2+(-4) 2-(-4) 2 2-4 -2-4 Ba 2-(-4) 2-(-4) Ba Problem 1.2 4 Jump to Solution Let's take a look at the products of some integers with themselves: 1-1 = 1,22 = 4, and 3 L = 9. Find every integer less than 700 that is the product of some natural number multiplied by itself. Problem 1.1 xplain why each number below is an integer by explaining what each arithmetic operation does to the integers on the number lng 244 24(-4) =-2 2-(-4)= ‘The dashed arrows in the last two examples show that we are subtracting the number listed below each arrow. Since addition and subtraction of integers are just “fast counting” any time we add two integers or subtract one from another, the result is an integer. Concept: Addition and subtraction of integers are just fast ways to count forward and | backward Now, let's look at the multiplication problems: 2.(-4) =-8 -2-4=-8 We read 2 - 4 as 2 ‘times’ 4, meaning that we move 4 units to the right of the origin, then 4 more units. We move 4 units a total of 2 times. Likewise, 2 ‘times’ —d results in 2 shifts of —4. We read —2- 4 as —2"times’ 4. We use the dashed arrow to show us that we are reversing 2 shifts of 4 (resulting in 2 shifts to ‘he left of the origin). Likewise, —2"times' —4 reverses 2 shifts of —4 (resulting in 2 shifts to the right ofthe origin). Concept: Since multiplication of integers is just repeated addition, multiplication is also fast | counting. Now we take @ look at the exponential powers of an Integer. An integer to a power that Is @ whole number produces an integer. This is because whole number exponents are simply repeated 1 ers ; oman x 2=2 makpicatio. Since each of these exponential expressions after 2” = Lis simply a product of 2) = 2 ae integers. they all have integer values. = = aed a Pao 2=8 Concept: Since taking an integer to @ power that ie @ whole number is repeated multiplication of | integers, exponentiation is elso fast counting Eonar Find every integer less than 100 thet is the product of some naturel number multiplied by itself ‘Solution for Problem 1.2: We can make a list of the products of natural numbers with themselves: 16 25 36 49 64 81 100 Bowraarene beedaakene As the natural number we use gets larger, so will its product with itself. We don't need to calculate beyond 107 largest perfect square less than 100s 81.0 100. The Definitions: perfect square (or simply square) is an integer that is equal to some integer to ‘the second power. Some examples are 0, 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, and 100. =A perfect cube (or simply cube) is an integer that is equal to some integer to the ‘hid power. Some examples ere 0, 1,8, 27, 64, 125, 216, 343, and 512. o = 0 B= 27 6 = 26 B= # = 64 P= 33 eG = 125 8 = 512 = Apperfect power is en integer that is equal to some integer to a power that is at least 2. Perfect squares and perfect cubes are examples of perfect powers. Some others are = s2 = s¢ = 81 os Exercises If we subtract one natural number from another, is the result always a natural number? ‘Type your solution, notes and/or work here. Is the product of two netural numbers always a natural number? Type your solution, notes and/or work here. If we divide one natural number by another, is the quotient always a natural number? ‘Type your solution, notes and/or work here. Find all perfect squares between 100 and 200. Type your solution, notes and/or work here. Sidenote: Modern arithmetic evolved from the 14°" to the 19 centuries in Europe along with modern systems of commerce, Printing technology using movable characters was n eee te eee tere ante rere en eee communicate and use mathematics. Mathematics textbooks from the earlier part of this timespan teach arithmetic as a tool for tallying money and converting units. For instance. it was important for @ trader from Holland to know both the weight and money systeme of different nations in order to conduct business. As mathematics, particularly arithmetic, developed in Europe, so did the scale of European economies. Europe grew wealthier following the depression that followed ‘the devastation of the bubonie plague. Merchants, bankers, and tradespeople led the rise of @ middle class, leading Europe out of the Middle Ages and into the Renaissance. A new class of wealthy business people, such as the Medici family of Florence, ital, were able to employ many of the artists and architects whose work is famous for this era While understanding of mathematics may have surged in Europe along with financial needs, its influences were cultural as well. Many of the artists and architects were ‘themselves mathematically trained. This shows up both in their work and in the methods behind their productions, Leonardo da Vinci and Paoli Uscello used mathematical sketch work to help develop many of their works of art.1.3 Integer Multiples @ ‘Suppose we counted up from 0, but instead of counting every integer, we only counted evety fourth integer. Our counting would look like this: Od B12 1G 2.20 2.24.28 82. Each number in this listis the result of adding 4 some integer number of times. Problems Problem 1.3 4 Jump to Solution How many 4's must we add together to equal each of the following? (a) 12 b) 28 (©) 44 Problem 1.4 4 Jump to Solution Starting at 0, count by 2's up to 50. The first few numbers in the list are eee eee eee see) IF you kept counting past 50, which of the following integers would be in the list? (@) 52 (©) 60 © 75 (d) 100 () 101 149 (g) 250 (h) 344 ) 546 @ 73 (W881 994 Problem 1.5 4-Jump to Solution Draw 2 6-row tid with 10 dots in each row. Each time you place a dot, label it with the next smallest counting number that you haver't already used as follows: Beeeeesa Pe V4: Courngt 198 Now, suppose you continued adding rows to your grid until there were 100 rows. Which of the following integers would label a dot at the end of a row? @ 70 @) 75 © 9 (d) 100 © 110 ® 170 @ 192 (h) 331 ) 430 @ 79 823 950 Geeuke) De Lay her to equal each of the following? ‘Solution for Problem 7.3: We can simply add 4's together until they equal 12. 28, and 44: 12 = 44444 3-4 2B = 444tdeagagaga TA 44 = 4444444444 4taedtatata = Wd We see that 12, 28, and 44 are each a product of 4 with an integer because multiplication of integers (s just repeated addition of an integer. In fact, we can reverse this process of multiplication using division. We can determine the number of 4's it takes to make 12, 28, and 44 by dividing 4 into each: 3 7 u 4fiz 4p 4[aa- 12 28 4 O° O° q 4 ic Once again we see that it takes 3 added 4s to make 12, it takes 7 added 4's to make 28, and it takes 11 added 4's to make 44,0 Concept: Multiplication of two integers is the same as repeated addition of either one of the | integers. ee Cen en en Solution for Problem 7.4: We beain by taking a look at the first 25 Integers in our ist after 0: 2 4 6 8 W 2 14 6 1 20 22 4 2% 22 30 32 34 363840. 42 44 46 48 (50 Counting by 2 is the same as adding 2's together one at a time to determine each next number in our lst: 2=2 4 = 242 G6 = 24242 8 = 2424242 10 = 242424242 Each sum can be expressed as the product of 2 and another integer: 2= 2-1 4 = 22 6 = 2-3 8 = 2-4 10 = 2-5 ‘The number of 2's we add together can be any natural number. In other words, we can multiply 2 by any natural number to get a number in our list. Ukimately we are making a list of all the positive even numbers and excluding the positive odd numbers, In Problem 1.3 we saw that we could divide by 4 to find the number of 4's needed to add up to 12, 28, and 44. Similarly, we can divide each integer by 2 to find the number of 2's that need to be added together to form each integer in this problem. Let's take a look at a few examples 26 30 30.5 2 [ez 2 [60 2[ 4 60 6 ar) 7 15 12 14 wT “TO 0 oT ‘Anumber that appears in our list must be twice some integer. This means that when we divide it by 2, the quotient is an integer. For instance, 52 and 60 appear in our list, but 75 does not. Division also shows us that 100, 250, 344, 546, and 994 appear in the list, But the rest of the given integers do not. Now that we are done with the solution, do you see a relationship between the integers in our list and their units digite? We will discuss this relationship in great detail later in the book! & Notice that we could also count backward by 2's to include negative integers: $B 6d HBB. We could express each of the numbers in our list 2s 2 multiplied by another integer 2-(-4) -6 2-(-2) 2-(-1) o=0 2-12 2-2 Counting by 2's in both directions, we list every integer that is equal to 2 multiolied by another integer. We call such integers multiples of 2 For instance, -6, 6, 22, and 48 are ell multiples of 2: 2 2 and «2-24 = We can also count by 3's to make a list of multiples of 3: 3-(-4)=-12 3-(-3)= -3 3-0=0 6 3-3=9 34512 Here's another look at this list of multiples of 3 wr12 79. 12 For any integer n we can list multiples of n: AM 66 BM HWM MD Me WM BM AM Fora negative integer n, this list is in reverse order. For n = () all the members of the list are 0 Definition: A multiple of an integer Is the product of that integer with any integer. Important: For any integers mm and n, their product mn is both a multiple of mm and 2 multiple of For example, 3-9 = 27, 0271s amuktiple of 3 and a multiple of 9. lowing integers are multiples of 10? Solution for Problem 1.5: An integer is a muttiple of 10 if its quotient upon division by 10 is an integer. Of the numbers in the list above, the multiples of 10 are 70, 100, 110, 170, 490, and 950. You might have noticed that the multiples of 10 have units digits of 0. This fact will be discussed in greater detail later in this book. Perhaps you already see why this is the result of using a number system with 10 digits. © Exercises 1.3.1: tv Is 22.a multiple of 47 Type your solution, notes and/or work here. ab Pad tv Is 63 a multiple of 9? Type your solution, notes and/or work here acs iad ls 18.2 muitiple of 62 Type your solution, notes and/or work here. cer au Is. 23 a multiple of —13? ‘Type your solution, notes and/or work here. aR s La Find the 10 smallest positive multiples of 7. Type your solution, notes and/or work here. arn ey Find the 10 smallest positive multiples of 10. ‘Type your solution, notes and/or work here. Pie uw Find the 5 smallest positive multiples of 13. Type your solution, notes and/or work here ar i Find the 5 largest negative multiples of 13. Type your solution, notes and/or work here. 1.3.9: ad Make a list of the first 10 positive multiples of 4 and a list of the first 10 positive multiples of 6. Find the smallest positive integer that is @ multiple of both 4 and 6. Type your solution, notes and/or work here. oP Ltd tv Find the smallest positive integer that Is a multiple of both 4 and 7. ‘Type your solution, notes and/or work here.1.4 ity of Integers a If you understand multiples, you understand divisibility.Divisibilty is the same concept from a different point-of-view. Think a that as you work on the problems in this section. isi Problems Problem 1.6 4-Jump to Solution Perform the indicated arithmetic and determine whether or not each of the following values represents an integer @ nie © OF OF © - oO @ w @ 0 Cee ee ek unc a) b) © © @ © wo @ (n) o ‘As we see here, division of one integer by another sometimes results in an integer and sometimes does not. : m Definition: We say that an integer m is divisible by an integer n when the quotient — is an integer. Otherwise, we say that mis not divisible by n. In Problem 1.6 we saw that 5 is not divisible by 2, that 14 is not divisible by 3, that —40 is not divisible by 7, and that 3 is not divisible by 5. Important: We know that 0m = (for any integer n, so 0 is a multiple of every integer. Also. rid Z undefined for any integer n, 50.no integer is divisible by 0. We can see some examples of divisibility in Problem 1.6: ; = 2 4 is divisible by 2 2 = 4 12 is divisible by 3. 35 aos 35 is divisible by 7. -36 a ~36 is divisible by 9. 3 as —30 is divisible by —10. ae Bis divisible by 3. = is divisible by Divisibility and mutiplicity are reelly the same. For instance, 12 is a multiple of 3 and 12 is divisible by 3. In genera, ifm. is ‘vielble by n, then we have the equation where kis an integer. The denominator of the fraction cannot be 0, som # 0. If we multiply both sides of this equation by n we see that m. = nk, showing us that m is a multiple of n. Important: When n # 0, the statement, “mm Is divisible by n,’ means exactly the same thing 2s 2 the statement, "mis a multiple ofr." Lets take a second look at the parts of Problem 1.6 where fractions reduce to integers. Each numerator is the product of the denominator and the quotient: 4 2-2 4is a multiple of 2. 2 = 3-4 12 is a multiple of -35 = 7-(-5) 35 is a multiple of 7 -36 = 9-(-4) 36 is a multiple of 9 -30 = -10-3 —30 is a multiple of -10. 3 a1 3is a multiple of 3. Determine which of the following integers are divisible by 6. @u Type your solution, notes and/or work here. (b) 12 Type your solution, notes and/or work here. () 13 Type your solution, notes and/or work here (d) 20 Type your solution, notes and/or work here. (2 35 Type your solution, notes and/or work here. © 60 Type your solution, notes and/or work here. (@) 7 Type your solution, notes and/or work here. (hy) 198 Type your solution, notes and/or work here. tv integers are divisible by 11 Type your solution, notes and/or work here () 12 Type your solution, notes and/or work here. (oc) 13 ‘Type your solution, notes and/or work here. (ad) 20 Type your solution, notes and/or work here (e) 35 ‘Type your solution, notes and/or work here. 60 Type your solution, notes and/or work here () 7 Type your solution, notes and/or work here (m) 198 Type your solution, notes and/or work here LPH 7 Is 5 divisible by 27 ‘Type your solution, notes and/or work here. are aw 1s 8 divisible by 4? Type your solution, notes and/or work here Lea ay Is 40 divisible by 8? ‘Type your solution, notes and/or work here. AP 7 \s 44 divisible by 8? Type your solution, notes and/or work here. Lew tv Is 60 divisible by 12? Type your solution, notes and/or work here. ea ‘ Is 100 divisible by 127 Type your solution, notes and/or work here. Pa La Is 100 divisible by 10? Type your solution, notes and/or work here.1.5 Divisors B When we say, "12 1s a multiple of 3," we mean that there is an integer that we can multiply by 3 that results in a product Since 12 is divisible by 3, we call 3 a divisor of 12. Problems Problem 1.7 4 Jump to Solution (a) Show that 12 is divisible by each of 1, 2,3, 4, 6,and 12, (b) Show that 12 is a multiple of each of 1, 2,3, 4, 6, and 12. Problem 1.8 4-Jump to Solution (@)_ Find all natural numbers that are divisors of 6 (b)_ Find all natural numbers that ate divisors of 18. (©) Explain how we could know that all the answers from (a) must also be answers to (b) without listing all the answers, Definition: When an integer n is divisible by another integer d, we say that dis a divisor of 7, or that d divides n. Divisors are also known as factors. Important: Negative integers can be divisors too! One of the divisors of 6 is —2 because Z which Is an integer, In introductory number theory, we usually talk about natural numbers (positive integers), but it is important to understond that ‘most number theory concepts apply to all integers. Problem 1.7 (@ Show that 12 is divisible by each of 1, 2,3, 4, 6, and 12. Sa Etat Solution for Problem 7.7. The two parts of the problem are the same, so we solve them both at once. First, we perform division to answer the problem of civisibility 12 12 T 12 2 6 12 12 e? 2m ‘Since each fraction reduces to an integer, 12s divisible by each of 1.2, 3,4. and 12 are divisors of 12. and 12. This is the same as saying that 1, 2,3, 4.6, 12=12-1 12=6-2 2-4-3 1253-4 1252-6 12=1-12 a n When 7 an integer, we can multiply that integer by d to produce m. This means that when dis @ dvisor of m.7.is a multiple of Lkewlse, when ris a multiple of d, dis a divisor of n. Important: When d # 0, the following statements all mean the seme thing 7 (a) nisamultiple of d. (0) nis divisible by a (0) disadivisor of n (d) ddividesn Important: For aninteger n we know that Z nan This means that any integer other than 0 is a divisor of itself Definition: A proper divisor of an integer mis a positive divisor of m other than m itself For instance, 1, 2, 3, 4, and 6 are proper divisors of 12, but 12 is not a proper divisor of 12. ‘Some integers have only a few divisors while some have many. For instance, 60 has 12 positive divisors (and 12 negative divisors), but 82 has only 4 positive divisors (and 4 negative divisors). Important: An interesting and sometimes useful fact is that every integer other than 0 is a divisor Z of 0. We know this is true because for any integer n 7 0, 0 0. ‘The quotient is always 0, which is an integer, so 7 is a divisor of 0. Important: Since there are no muitiples of a positive integer n between 0 and n, we know that cannot be a divisor of any integer between 0 and 7. This means that when hunting for Zz ‘the positive proper divisors of a positive integer m, we must only test the integers. between 0 and m. For instance, we need not test to see whether 36 Is a divisor of 14 because 4 O should become more interesting (and their solutions more valuable). Let's review the basic vocabulary we use when discussing integers: Definitions: platural numbers, counting numbers, end positive integers all refer to the integers ‘on the positive side of zero (0) on the number line. 1 Negative integers refer to the integers tothe left of zero (0) on the number line. = The whole numbers are the integers that are elther 0 or positive. * Aperfect square s an integer that Is equal to some Integer to the second power. # Aperfect cube is an integer that Is equal to some integer to the third power. = A perfect power is an integer that is equal to some integer to 2 power that is at least 2. Perfect squares and perfect cubes are examples of perfect powers. + A multiple ofan integer isthe product of that integer with eny integer m 1 An Integer m is divisible by another integer n when the quotient — is also an n integer. = Aninteger lis 2 divisor of an integer nif and only ifn is civisible by f, Divisors are also known as factors. = Aproper divisor of an integer nis 2 positive divisor of nthat is not n, Important: For any integers mand n, their product rm is both a multiple of m and a multiple of Important: When d # 0, tne following statements all mean the same thing t (a) nisa multiple of d. (b) nis divisible by d. (6) disa divisor of n. () ddivides nm. Let's take a look back at some of the most important facts and concepts from Chapter 1 Concept: integers are the numbers we use for counting indivisible objects such as people, | pennies, and cars. We can think of negative integers as the ones we use to count backward when subtracting objects from a group. A number with at least one non Zero diatt after ts decimal point is not an integer because we cannot count to that ‘number (forvrard or backward) 1 unit at a time on the number line Figure 1.5: Integers on the Number Line Viewing the integers in terms of counting on the number line helps us understand how arithmetic relates integers: Concept: Adgition and subtraction are fast counting. Multiplication is fast addition | Exponentiation is fast multiplication. This means that addition, subtraction, and ‘multiplication of integers are just methods of fast counting and that taking an integer to a power that 18 a whole number (except 0, which is undefined) Is also fast counting ‘This understanding of arithmetic as fast counting helps us recognize fundamental relationships between integers: Concept: _The following statements are all true end mean the same thing: | «= Ifais.a divisor of b and b is a divisor of ¢, then ais a divisor of c. = If bis divisible by a and cle dviible by 6, then cls dlvisole by a. + If}b16a multiple of a anc c is 2 multiple of 6, then ¢ ¢ 2 multiple ofa. + Ifa|bendb | ethena| c Concept: _ It is often helpful in mathematics to see the same facts expressed in two cifferent | ways. This can both help us understand ideas better and apply them to a greater number of problems. We also got a taste of number theory word problems that help us understand how to apply the math we learn to real problems. Concept: Begin working word problems by translating them into the language of math. This | allows you to apply the tools of math to solve the problem. Mathematics helps us to be practical problem solvers! Learning to turn word problems into math problems allows us to connect ‘the math we know with the world in which we Ive. Its also true that we use words to teach and learn mathematics, so learning how to translate between words and mathematics makes learning mathematics easier. Concept: One of the goals of mathematics is to simplify difficult ideas so that we con | understand and use them more easily. We often use notation in statements such as 4+ 3 = 7 and 7 | 42 to represent ideas or facts that take longer to explain with words. Once we are comfortable with these notations it becomes easier to organize and express our thoughts about mathematical ideas. This also makes it easier to learn more and more complex mathematics.Review Problems AS “a Find all the perfect squares between 200 and 300, Type your solution, notes and/or work here. 1.12: t\ Angwer each of the following (@)_ Is 84 divisible by 32 Type your solution, notes and/or work here. (©). Is 84 divisible by 142 Type your solution, notes and/or work here. ()_ 18 193 divisible by 17? Type your solution, notes and/or work here. (O18 1080 divisible by 187 ‘Type your solution, notes and/or work here. (©) 1693. multiple of —27 ‘Type your solution, notes and/or work here () 1s93amultiple of 3? -s and/or work here. Type your solution, no (Is —140amutiple of 7? Type your solution, notes and/or work here (h)_ 1s 142 a multiple of 72 Type your solution, notes and/or work here. (18 30.a multiple of 47 Type your solution, notes and/or work here. (18.3002 multiple of 42 ‘Type your solution, notes and/or work here. aH ad List the 8 smallest positive multiples of 9. Type your solution, notes and/or work here aca ty Find all of the positive divisors of each of the following integers. @ 25 ‘Type your solution, notes and/or work here. (b) 26 Type your solution, notes and/or work here © 7 Type your solution, notes and/or work here © 2 Type your solution, notes and/or work here. chs ty State whether each of the following are true or false. (@ 3/73 ‘Type your solution, notes and/or work here. (®) 3/273 ‘Type your solution, notes and/or work here. (©) 44182 ‘Type your solution, notes and/or work here. © 4/1 ‘Type your solution, notes and/or work here. (©) 6/1182 ‘Type your solution, notes and/or work here. () 1442186 ‘Type your solution, notes and/or work here.Challenge Problems B %, Lucius, Sarah, Brandon, and Scott take Algebra together. On their first exam, Lucius got 2 94, Sarah got a 91, Brandon got a 95, and Scott's score wes between 81 and 87 inclusive. If the average of all four of their scores is an integer, what was Scot's score on the first exam? Type your solution, notes and/or work here. Find all the perfect cubes between 1000 and 2000, Hint Type your solution, notes and/or work here. a Pais Rae ae a ‘What is the largest integer whose cube is less than 10,0007 Hint ‘Type your solution, notes and/or work here. How many integers between 1 and 100 are perfect powers? Type your solution, notes and/or work here. a Prius Re a How many integers 1-9 are divisors of the five-digit number 24,516? Type your solution, notes and/or work here. gral ay Is 11111 divisible by 417 Type your solution, notes and/or work here Pr uw 1s 111111 divisible by 377 Type your solution, notes and/or work here. Find the smallest natural number that is not a divisor of 5040, Type your solution, notes and/or work here. ahs pe ae The diameter of a circle is a whole number. The area of the circle is between 100 and 12 units in the circle’s diameter? 0 square units, What is the number of Hint ‘Type your solution, notes and/or work here,‘Matnemticians have rein vant this day to ciscover some order in tne sequence cf prime numbers, and we have reason to belive that it is a mystery into which the ran mind vill ver penetrate ~ Leonnard Euler CHAPTER 2 1 ——ee EEE and Composites 2.1 Introduction ‘There is a very special group of integers known as prime numbers. Prime numbers provide us with fascinating and practical ways to solve a wide variety of number theory problems, many of which we examine in this book. As we shall see, prime numbers allow Us to express integers in unique ways and organize their useful properties. We could barely begin to scratch the surface of number theory without an understanding of prime numbers, While discussing primes, we also Identify composite numbers, which make up most of the rest of the natural numbers.2.2 Primes and Composites eo Problems Sy Problem 2.1 4 Jump to Solution we Which of the following integers have no positive divisors besides 1 and themselves? (a) 2 ib) 3 4 () 5 e © @ (n) ) 10 gu tk) 12 13 Recall that 1 is 2 divisor of every natural number and that every natural number is ¢ divisor of itself. This means that every natural ‘number greater than 1 has at least two positive divisors. Definition: 4 prime number (or simply prime) is ¢ natural number p > 1 whose only positive dvisors are 1 and p. Problem 2.1 De RU Paar) Solution for Problem 2.1: We can determine whether or not @ netural number m (that Is greater than 1) Is prime by testing to see whether any integer between 1 and mis 2 divisor of n. If has no divisors between 1 and itself, then 7 and mate its only two positive divisors, meaning ris prime. (a) There are no integers between 1 and 2, 50 2 is prime. (b) 2is nota divisor of 3, so 3s prime. (0) 2is divisor of 4 s0 4 is not prime (d)_ None of 2,3, or 4 are divisors of 5,50 5 is prime. (e) 21s. a divisor of 6, 90 6 Is not prime. (8) None of 2,3, 4 5, or 6 are divisors of 7, s0 7 is prime. (9) 2isa divisor of 8, s0 8 is not prime {h) 3is a divisor of 9, 30 9s not prime. (2's a divisor of 10, 50 10 is not prime. () None of 2, 3, 4, §, 6,7, 8, 9, or 10 are divisors of 11, so 11 is prime. (kK) isa (None of 2, 3,4, 5, 6,7.8,9, 10,11, or 12 ate divisors of 13, so 13 is prime or of 12, s0 12is not prime. We see that 2,3, 5, 7, 11, and 13 are all the prime numbers from 2 to 13 inclusive. Notice that in some cases we did not list all the divisors of each integer that proved not to be prime. Our goal was only to determine whether or not there were any divisors other than 1 and the integer itself. = Definition: composite number (or simply composite) Is a natural number ¢ with some positive divisor besides 1 and c itself. {In Problem 2.1 we saw that each of 4, 6, 8,9, 10, and 12 are composite numbers because each of them has at least one positive divisor other than 1 and themselves: Notice that each composite number has a divisor between 7 and itself, This enables us to express any composite numer as a product of two (not necessarily different) divisors that are both between 1 and the composite number itself. Important: A composite number c can be written as the product of two natural numbers that are - both between 1 and itself: c= ab. were a and b are (not necessatly distinct) divisors of the composite number ¢ Some other examples of composites include 14, 15, 16, and 18. Each of these numbers is composite because each can be expressed as the product of two integers (dwisors) greater than 1. For instance, M=2-7 and 15=355, Important: 1 Is the only natural number that is neither prime nor composite. it has only one Z positive divisor~itself. This is one reason why 1 is @ very special number. Exer Pa tv ‘State whether each of the following integers is prime or composite, @ 19 ©) 20 oa @ 2 © 2 © 2 @ 2 ) 26 o 7 @ 28 0 2 © 30 Type your solution, notes and/or work here pa 7 How many even natural numbers are prime? Type your solution, notes and/or work here. Pee a Jon teaches a fourth grade class at an elementary school where class sizes are always at least 20 students and at most 28. ‘One day Jon decides that he wants to arrange the students in their desks in @ rectangular grid with no gaps. Unfortunately for Jon he discovers that doing so could only resuit in one straight line of desks. How many students does Jon have in his class? Type your solution, notes and/or work here. Peo tv Explain why every positive multiple of a composite numbers also composite. Type your solution, notes and/or work here2.3 Identifying Primes | Be, eS Problems "Se Problem2.2 ‘Jump to Solution | > z 3 4 5 6 7 3 ] lo hee 45 6 7 18 19 w 2 2 23 4 2 264 2 2B 2 W 31 32 3 34 #35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 48 44 #45 46 #47 +48 #49 #50 51 52 533 54 55 56 SF 58 59 6 @&2@ 8 & 6 6 & & 6 70 7l 72 73 74 75 0 77 7 79 8 sl 8 8 8 8 8 8& 8 8 W 91 92 8 8M 9 6G WF BW 99 10 Follow the instructions end the grid above will veal information about the integers. 1. Circle the number 2. 2. Cross out all of the multiples of 2 that are greater than 2, 3. Circle the smallest number that is neither cicled nor crossed out, 4, Cross out all of the multiples of the integer you citcled in step 3 thet have not already been crossed out. 5. Repeat steps 3 and 4 until all of the numbers on the grid are either circled or crossed out What have we determined about each integer in the grid? Solution for Problem 2.2: eb “5 6 7 BBD AnBMS BT BBD ee ee ee) Much of our study of divisibilty and divisors revolves around primes. Inthe diagram 2 8 #4 6 © 7 # 2 9 ‘o the right we begin with the integers greater than 1 up to 100. ne sus so es © ae ees eT BD ARB eB TB Rw @24s6789 0 u2o es 67 BBD ARBUSB SD BDH a2 ous 7 BB ‘The smallest natural number in this list is 2. Since 2has no divisors between land 4 2 8 4 5 4 9 8 9 3 itself (how could i?), 2is the smallest prime. We circle it. a) ae oeeegaan ARDMB BT BB ® re ag oes 67 Bm mo Next we take a look at muitioles of 2 greater than 2. Each of these multiples of2 «3 KM 5 K7 KEM has 2 as a divisor, so each is composite. Now we cross out each of these = XO XS M7 M DM composite multiples of 2: AKOKERIRD MK aK E KS KT RDM eee 4 ARB KER OT ROM aa ak KS KT KD hn aKeKe RT KOK 52 = 10 ARR KER TKD K ake KS Ko KD © ae eS RT RD @@OxsxKnr7xxe URORRRT ROR KRONE RRROR ARR MH KT RRR Now we see that 3 must be prime. Itis not a multiple of 2 and soithas no divisors 4X 2 XR KT XO w between 7 and itself. We cle 3 and cross out allof the composite multiples of 2. KX RS KS KR RS K ARRKSKTIRRR ARDKREKTREH RRO KS KR ROK aR RRS KTR RR @OxOx7 xxx URORRRT ROD R RRORRKRROK We skipped 5, £0 itis a multiole of netther 2 nor 3. It could notte a multiple of 4or XR RK RK XT KM else it would also be a multiple of 2. Since 5 has no divisors between 1 anditself,it 1% 2 XX KT XO Is the next smallest prime. We now circle 5 and cross out all of the composite XK RS KR KR RS K multiples of 5 ARRKKKTIRRR ARPKEKTRPR RR OK RRR ROK ARR RRR TR RH @QDxeOxKQux xz URORRRT ROR KRORKK RRR aR RM KT RRR ‘The next prime is 7, so we cross out 49, 77, and 91, the only remaining composite 2 RK 2 MRT RR multiples of 7 that have not been crossed out previously. KRRSKKKK KS KR ARRKKKTIRRR ARDKEKRRPH KRREKR KR ROK KR RK KTR RH We continue this process until we run out of numbers in our lst. Eventually each GQ) XQ KAK KR one of them i either citled or crossed out. The cifcled numbers are prime @) XO) xX KR KOKO R wore becuse tests to set eachimegeris the mate of somemntegerbemeen & XOX XXX XOX and aself. Oe ae one QROxxxQ xnxx KKOHXKRKK KOK QDexexxKOnxx QeOxxnxx@x KKORKKKKS KRAKXKKOKRR We can perform this process with larger lists of integers starting from 2. in this way we identify which integers in the list are prime and which are composite, This process is known as the Sieve of Eratosthenes after the Greek mathematician Eratosthenes vino devised the algorithm in about 230 8C. o Concept: Keep in mind that its far more important to understand how the process of the Sieve | works than to remember (or even spell!) Eratosthenes. Identifying and describing prime numbers are very important in mathematics. We will learn how to use primes to help solve all kinds of interesting problems whether or not we remember the names of ancient Greek mathematicians. Sidenote: A sleve is 2 utensil of wire mesh or closely perforated metal used to separate different kinds of matter, Smaller material passes through the holes while larger n material Is stopped by the sieve. This sifting device lends Its name to the Sieve of Eratosthenes, which sifts through the integers, sorting out the primes and composites. Exercises Pa ia Identify the primes between 100 and 200 by extending the Sieve of Eratosthenes that we have already begun above. Type your solution, notes and/or work here yo Pid tv What is the largest prime number less than 200, none of whose digits are composite? ‘Type your solution, notes and/or work here.2.4 Identifying Primes II ® ‘The Sieve of Eratosthenes helps us determine which natural numbers in @ list are prime. Still, we might be able to find an quicker method! We all like it when math gets easier, s0 i's worth looking for such a method Problems Problem 2.3, 4 Jump to Solution (@) Find the smallest prime divisor of 9 (©) Find the smallest prime divisor of 15. (©) Find the smallest prime divisor of 16. (d)_ Find the smaliest prime divisor of 25 (@)_ Find the smallest prime divisor of 35. (Find the smallest prime divisor of 49. (Q)__ Find the smallest prime divisor of 91. Problem 2.4 4 Jump to Solution (2) Find the smallest composite number not divisible by 2 (©) Find the smallest composite number divisible by neither 2 nor 3. (6) Find the smallest composite number not divisible by any of 2,3, or. (d)_ Fora prime number p, find the smallest composite number that has no prime divisor less than p. Problem 2.5. 4 Jump to Solution When determining whether or not a natural number is prime, is it necessary to test for divisibility by every integer between 1 and the natural number Itself? Explain your answer. peeuee DO a ee) Find the smallest prime divisor DO as DO ae as Find the smallest prime divisor ‘Solution for Problem 2.3: When using the Sieve of Eratosthenes, we cross out each composite number as soon as we identify it as a multiple of some prime. In other words, we crass out each composite when we identify ms smallest prime divisor. When & composite multigle of a prime phas an even smaller prime divisor, the composite number is already crossed out by the time we identify p as a prime and cross out muttiples of p. @) 9 = 3-3 (b) 15 = 5-3 in Problem 2.2, we found that 9 and 15 are composite when we identified 3 as @ prime and (©) 16 = 8-2 crossed off all its larger multiples. We found that 16 was composite when we crossed off (@) 2% = 5-5 multiples of the smallest prime, 2, When we identified 5 as a prime, we crossed off 25 and 35. () 35 = 7-5 Finally, we identified 7 as a prime and crossed both 49 and 91 off the list of possible primes. ) 49 = 7-7 The smallest positive prime divisors are bolded at lft. (g) 91 = 13-7 Important: When performing the Sieve of Eratosthenes, we cross out each composite number Z while crossing out all the multiples of its smallest prime divisor. ees 7 ‘Solution for Probiem 2.4: We begin by taking a look at a few examples. We do this by looking back through the process of the Sieve of Eratosthenes from Section 2.3. We Identified 2 as prime and then crossed out all ts composite muttioles. in doing so, we discovered that the smallest composite natural number is 4 We then identified 3 as prime. The first composite multiple of 3 we then crossed out was 9. This means that 9 is the smallest ‘composite number that has no prime divisor smaller than 3. ‘Next, we identified 5 as prime. The smallest composite multiple of 5 we then crossed out was 25. This means 25 is the smallest ‘composite number that has no prime divisor smaller than 5, We also identified 7 5 prime. The smallest composite muttiole of 7 we then crossed out was 49. This means 49 is the smallest ‘composite number that has no prime divisor smaller than 7. Have we noticed anything? Concept: When faced with a challenging problem, play around with cimple examples. They | often provide clues that help us discover the solution to the whole problem P= 225 4 v= 3 9 B= 5-5 = 25 Pate = 49 It appears that the smallest composite number that has no prime divisors less than pis p?. Now we think about whether or not ‘this apparent pattern works forall primes. In order to answer this question, we think about what makes composites different from primes. Every composite (such as p”) ‘can be expressed as the product of two (not necessarily different) divisors, both of which are between 1 and itself (such as PP) If & composite number c has @ divisor d that is less than p, then d has some prime civisor g where q < d. Since q | dand d| c, we know that q | c. We see examples of this in Problem 2.3. Since q < d < p, we know that c has a prime divisor less than p, namely q. This means that composites without any prime divisors less than p have no divisors less than p at all! We can express a composite number ¢ as the product of two smaller natural numbers both greater than 1. IF has no divisors less than p, then both of those smaller natural numbers must be at least p. The smaller those divisors, the smaller the value of c. ‘The smallest possible value of cis therefore p- p = po Concept: When faced with a difficult problem, finding a patter often helps us guess the | solution. A good guess helps us know what to look for when searching for a complete solution. Problem 2.4 was much easier to tackle once we noticed that the answer isp for several small prime values of p. Finding patterns and relationships between numbers is even more useful when solving problems in number theory than in most other areas of mathematics. Relationships based on divisibilty often result in nice pattems. We will continue to see such patterns often! Problem 2.5 U ‘Solution for Problem 2.6: Since all integers greater than 1 are either prime or composite, identifying whether or not an integer 1) students each to work on problems together. The next week, when 10 of his students miss class to take the AMC 10 math exam, Dr. Patrick is still able to divide the remaining students into groups of exactly n students. What are the possible values of n? Type your solution, notes and/or work here.3.3 Greatest Common Divisors (GCDs) Problems Problem 3.3 4 Jump to Solution Of ll of the common divisors of 12 and 18, which is largest? Problem 3.4 4 Jump to Solution Group the following six integers into three pairs such that 1 Each integer is part of @ pair = Each pair of integers has no common divisor greater than 1. 6,8, 10, 15,21, 25 Problem 3.5 4 Jump to Solution Jon splits 42 blue marbles into piles containing n marbles each. Jon then divides 28 green marbles into n total piles with an equal number of marbles in each pile. What is the largest possible value of 1? Definition: Of the common divisors of a group of integers, we call the largest one the greatest ‘common divisor (CD). For instance, the positive common divisors of 8 and 12 are 1, 2, and 4, so the greatest common divisor of 8 and 12is 4 Important; Some sources refer to the GCD of 2 group of integers as the greatest common factor Z (GCF) of the group of integers. Just remember that these refer to the same thing! Problem 3.3 Solution for Prablem 3.3: We begin by listing the positive divisors of each of 12 and 18, Positive divisors of 12: 1,2,3,4,6,12 Positive divisors of 18: 1,2,3,6,9, 18 ‘The greatest common divisor of 12 and 18 is 6.0 Important: There is a special notation for the GCD of two integers. We can write the GCD of 12 Z and 18 as ged(12, 18). For instance, we write ged(12, 18) = 6 For integers m and n we can write ged (m, n) to represent their GCD. Note that in some books gedl(m, ) is written simply as (m,n). inthis book we write ged(tr,m)10 avoid any confusion From the exercises in Section 3.2 we note the following: ged(14,42) = 14 ged(20,35) = 5 ged(23,36) = 1 ged(13,8) = 1 ged(15, 16) = 1 ‘Some pairs of integers have few common divisors, Some have many. Some pairs of integers have only one ged(38,55) = 1 ‘common divisor, that divisor being 1 (since 1 is a divisor of every integer). The only common divisor of 23 and gei(35,12) = 1 36 Is 1. Atright are a few pairs of Integers whose GCDs are 1 Defini When the only common positive divisor of a pair of integers is 1, we say that those integers are relatively prime. & pair of relatively prime integers is sometimes referred 10 a5 coprime, which means the same thing For instance, we say that 13 and 8 are relatively prime integers. We could instead say that 13 and 8 are coprime. Gee Solution for Problem 3.4: Our task Is made easier by the fact that three ofthe integers are even, All even integers share 2 as 4 divisor. ged( 6,25) = 1 Now we think about how fo pair the even integers wit the odd ones. Since 6 shares the common divisor aig is) = with 15 and 21, we must pair 6 with 25. We can pair 10 with 15 or 21, but gcd(10, 15) = 5, s0 we pair 10 with SO" 21. Finally, we pair 8 with 15. ged(10, 21) 1 a ee Za Jon splits 42 blue marbles into piles containing 11 marbles each. Jon then divides 28 green marbles into 7 total piles with an equal number of marbles in each pile. What is the | Cea) Solution for Problem 3.5: The first thing we need to do is understand the information in the problem. Jon splits 42 blue marbles into piles containing n marbles each. This tells us that r. | 42. Jon splits 28 green marbles into m piles with an equal number of marbles in each pile. This tells us that n | 28. ‘Since we are looking for the largest possible value of n, we are looking for zed(28, 42). Divisors of 28: 1,2,4,7, 14, 28 Divisors of 42: 1,2,3,6,7, 14, 21, 42 ‘The largest possible value of nis ged (28, 42) = 14.0 Exercises Determine each of the following (@) ged(4,12) Type your solution, notes and/or work here. (b) ged(5,5) Type your solution, notes and/or work here. (© ged(6,9) Type your solution, notes and/or work here. @ (6, 18) Type your solution, notes and/or work here. Type your solution, notes and/or work here @ 4(20, 30) Type your solution, notes and/or work here (0) ged(24, 36) Type your solution, notes and/or work here ()ged(25, 40) Type your solution, notes and/or work here Ying and Catherine walked to the store together to buy some pencils. Ying bought 40 pencils and Catherine bought 24. lf each package of pencils sold at the store contain the same number of pencils, what Is the largest possible number of pencils in a package? Type your solution, notes and/or work here.3.4 Common Multiples Definition: multiple of every integer in a group is a common multiple of those integers. In Chapter 1 we tackled a few problems involving multiples of more than one integer at a time. In Exercise 1.3.9 we made a list of ‘the 10 smallest positive multiples of 4: f12|ee-16}ers 20) 2 24) ...28 ...82... [36] ...40 We also made a list of the 10 smallest positive multiples of 6: 18 ... [24] ...30 36] ...42 ... [48] ...54... [60 We could continue to list multiples of 4 and 6, but we can already see that 12, 24, and 36 are in both lists, so they are common multiples of 4 and 6. If we continued listing multiples of each of 4 and 6, we would find that 4 and 6 have an endless number of common multiples including 48, 60,72, and 84. In any group of distinct natural numbers, one of the numbers must be the smallest. Since no natural numbers that are common multiples of 4 and 6 are less than 12, we say that 12 is the least common multiple of 4 and 6. Defini The smallest positive common muitiple of @ group of integers is the least common multiple (LCM) of those integers, This is the same thing as saying that the LCM of @ group of integers is the smallest positive integer that has each of those integers as divisors. Problems Problem 3.6 4 Jump to Solution Find all the common mubiples of 6 and 15 that are between 1 and 100, Problem 3.7 4 Jump to Solution Find the LOM of 9 and 24. Problem 3.8 4 Jump to Solution Find the LOM of 8, 12, and 14. Perens aera y 5 TRC ‘Solution for Problem 3.6: We first make a list of the multiples of 6 between 1 and 100: 6.0.12 ...18 ...24...30... 36 ...42 0.48.54... 60 66 ...72...78 ...84 ...90 ...96 Next, we make a list of the mukiples of 15 between 1 and 100: 15 ...30 ...45 ...60 ...75 ...90 Comparing these lists we see that 30, 60, and 90 ere all the common muhtiples of 6 and 16 that are between 7 and 100.2 ee Ess Solution for Problem 3.7: We could go ahead and start making lists of positive multiples of each of 9 and 24 and then locate the ‘smallest number in those lists, but we can find the LCM a little faster. We can test each multiple of 24 to see if rtis also a multiple of 9. Because no smaller multiple of 24 could be the LCM of 9 and 24, the smallest multiple of 24 that is also 2 muttiple of 9 is ‘the LOM of 9 and 24, We test 1 - 24 = 24. Since 9 4 24, 24 is not a common multiple of 9 and 24. We test 2- 24 = 48. Since 9 4 48, 48 is not a common multiple of 9 and 24. We test 3 - 24 = 72. since 9 | 72 and the only two smaller positive multiples of 24 are not multiples of 9, the LOM of 9 and 241s Rc We can also find the LGM of groups of more than 2 integers. econ tv ae eRe Res Solution for Problem 3.8: We could construct lists of the smallest multiples of all three integers and find the smallest integer ‘common to all three lists, However, any multiple of all three integers must also be a multiple of any two of them. This means the LCM of all three must be in the list of common multiples of 8 and 12: 24.48.72 ...96 120.144 ...168 ...192 ... Testing each of these numbers to see which is a multiple of 14, we find that 168 is the first one that is also a multiple of 14, 50 168 is the LCM of 8, 12, and 14. Organized information helps us solve problems. Lists often help us organize the important information in a math problem. The more experience we have making lists, he more often we can recognize when we don't need to make so many of them. The key to this solution was understanding that any integer in ll three lists must be in the first two lists. Important: There Is @ special notation for the LCM of two Integers. We can write the LCM of 12 z and 18 as lem|12, 18} For instance, Jem12, 18] = 36. For Integers m and n, we can write lem |r, nto represent thelr LCM. Note that in some books lem|mn, n]is written simply as [rr,7]. In this book we write Jem|m, n]to avoid any confusion Exercises a a Find each of the following (@) lemf6, 10] Type your solution, notes and/or work here. (b) The § smallest positive common multiples of 6 and 10. Type your solution, notes and/or work here. (© lemf8, 14] Type your solution, notes and/or work here. (d) The § smallest positive common multiples of 8 and 14. Type your solution, notes and/or work here. (2 lem|20, 30) Type your solution, notes and/or work here (f) The S smallest positive common multiples of 20 and 30. Type your solution, notes and/or work here. (@ lem[t8, 42 Type your solution, notes and/or work here. (h) The § smallest positive common multiples of 18 and 42. Type your solution, notes and/or work here. () The LOM of 6, 7, and 8. Type your solution, notes and/or work here. czy What is the smallest number of people that can be broken up both into 15 groups of equal membership and into 48 groups of equal membership? Type your solution, notes and/or work here.3.5 Remainders o Se, % Problems Qe 3% & Problem 3.9 4-Jump to Solution (@)_Fillin the blanks with whole numbers where the second blank on each line Is 0, 1, or 2 10 = aa 1B = 4 15 16 = (b) Are there any integers m for which there are no integers a and b (where b is 0, 1, or 2) that satisfy the equation n=3a4+ (©) Are there any integers m for which there is more than one ordeted pair of integers (1, b) (where b Is 0,1, or 2) that satisfies, the equation = 3a + 6? Problem 3.10 4 Jump to Solution (@)_ Make a list of all the multiples of 7 between 0 and 40 inclusive. (b) Make a list of all the integers between 0 and 40 Inclusive that are 2 more than a multiple of 7, (©) Find the largest integer less than 40 that leaves a remainder of 2 when divided by 7. Problem 3.11 4 Jump to Solution Find the greatest three-digit number that leaves a remainder of 4 when divided by 11. Problem 3.12 4 Jump to Solution (@)_ Make a list ofall integers between 0 and 100 inclusive that can be expressed in the form 6n for some integer n. (b) Make a list of all integers between 0 and 700 inclusive that can be expressed in the form Gr. + 1 for some integer n. (©) How meny integers between 0 and 100 inclusive leave a remainder of 1 wien divided by 6? Problem 3.13, 4 Jump to Solution How many integers between 200 and 300 inclusive leave a remainder of 5 when divided by 82 [As we have seen with multiples and divisors, it is sometimes useful to express certain relationships between integers in terms of division and itis sometimes useful to express the same relationship as multiplication: a Sq means a=by 5 Let's take a look at a broader relationship between integers. Problem 3.9 eect ay ar Se cay aa 0 of integers (« ee ‘Solution for Problem 3.9: (2). In order to fill in the blanks, we divide each of the integers 10 through 16 by 3. The blanks on each line represent the ‘quotient and the remainder: 10 3+1 AL 3B 12 4+0 1B 441 4 442 15 = 3-540 16 = 3-541 (b) Consider the numbers in the form 3a. These multiples of 3 on the number line re evenly spaced, with two integers between each consecutive pair of multiples of 3: i re ce a ‘Adding 0,1, or 2 to each of these multiples of 3, we cover every integer: (©) From each integer on the number line above, there is only one multiple of 3 we can get to by subtracting 0, 1, or 2. In other words, for each integer m we can subtract exactly one possible b (0

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