Pitts, M. Henry - An Experimental Study of The Influence of Social Psychological Factors Upon Production in The Thematic Apperception Test

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THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO

D atf B sc e afceir 4 _______________ \ q 51

P IT T S, M> HENRY D ecem ber 1 9 , 1916


Author Birth Date

1H EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF IRE INFLUENCE OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS UPON


Title of Dissertation

PRODUCTION IN THE THEMATIC APPERCEPTION TEST

. P s y c h o lo g y D ept# I B . D# DECEMBER, 1951


Department or School Degree Convocation

Permission is herewith granted to the University of Chicago to make copies of the above title, at its

/ ^ 4 *4 v _ _ aj? -S
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Extensive Quotation or Further Reproduction o f This Material by Persons or


Agencies Other than the University o f Chicago May N o t Be Made without the Express
Permission o f the Author.

Short T m r - SOCIAL FACTORS. ASP TEE THEMATIC 1PPBRCBS TION TEST

I r r e g u l a r n u m b e r i n g [o ] „ O v e r s iz e d s h e e t s

P a i d -■ ^ ^
I By thesis deposit | 1
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D a t e b i l l e d _________________________________

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THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO

AH EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF THE INFLUENCE OF SOCIAL

PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS UPON PRODUCTION IN

THE THEMATIC APPERCEPTION TEST

A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO

THE FACULTY OF THE DIVISION OF THE SOCIAL SCIENCES

IN CANDIDACY FOR THE DEGREE OF

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY

BY

M. HENRY PITTS

CHICAGO, ILLINOIS

DECEMBER, 1951

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ACKNOWLEDGMENT

W ith o u t t h e g e n e r o u s c o n t r i b u t i o n o f t i m e a n d i n t e r e s t

by Mr. C e r o i d D. S c o t t t h i s s t u d y c o u l d n o t h a v e b e e n c a r r i e d

o u t. Mr. P a u l Kaufm an h a s a f r i e n d l y t o u c h an d c l e a r u n d e r s t a n d ­

i n g w h ic h h e l p e d t o ease th e p a in o f c e r t a i n a s p e c ts of t h i s stu d y

n o t e n t i r e l y c o n g e n i a l t o my d i s p o s i t i o n .

T h e r e a r e o t h e r s t o whom I am g r a t e f u l : my c o m m i tt e e , c o n ­

sistin g o f D o c to rs M o rris I . S te in , D o n a ld W. F is ts , a n a Roy B r e n e r ;

my j u d g e s , Mr. M el F e f f e r , Mr. Edw ard K a t z , D r. Mary E. G r i e s , a n d

D r. D a v id G r a u e r ; a n d my f r i e n d s D r. G eorg e S t e r n a n d Hugh W. L a n e .

The P a rk w a y Community C e n t e r , 5120 S o u th P a rk w a y , t h r o u g h

M r. W ils o n Head, g e n e r o u s l y made s p a c e and p h y s i c a l c o n v e n i e n c e s

a v a ila b le to speed t h e p r o j e c t.

My w i f e was e v e r p r e s e n t a n d h e l p i n g . She made t h i s p r o j ­

e c t h e r own, a s i n d e e d i t is.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
LIST OF TABLES ...................................................................................................... v

LIST OF IL L U S T R A T IO N S .................................................................................. v ii

C h a p te r
I. INTROD UCTIO N.................................................................................. 1

II. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND .......................................................... 4

P r e v i o u s S t u d i e s o f t h e P ro b le m ............................. 4
R a t i o n a l e o f t h e P r e s e n t S tu d y .................................. 9

III. ASSUMPTIONS AND PROBLEMS OF THE EXPERIMENTAL


D E S I G N ................................................................................................. 16

G e n e r a l A s s u m p tio n s . . . ............................................ 16
A W orking A s s u m p tio n a b o u t t h e D i f f e r e n t i a t i o n
o f S e l f - H a t e i n t h e N e g ro G r o u p ............................. 17
An E m p i r i c a l T e s t o f t h e W orking A s s u m p tio n . 22
R e l a t i o n s h i p s b e tw e e n S o c i a l - P s y c h o l o g i c a l
B a c k g ro u n d s a n d t h e P r e s e n t P ro b le m :
H y p o t h e s e s ................................................................................... 35

17. DESIGN OF THE E X P E R IM E N T ...................................................... 42

I n d e p e n d e n t V a r i a b l e s ..................................................... 42
P r o c e d u r e i n t h e E x p e r i m e n t ....................................... 44
T r e a tm e n t o f t h e S t o r i e s : M easurem ent o f
D e p en d e n t V a r i a b l e s ........................................................... 49

V. RESU LTS................................................................................................. 56
Mean Number of Words p e r S t o r y p e r I n d i v i d u a l . 56
Number o f N eeds p e r I n d i v i d u a l .................................. 66
Number o f P r e s s p e r I n d i v i d u a l .................................. 69
D e f e n s i v e n e s s S c o r e s ........................................................... 71

71. DISCUSSION OF THE PROBLEM...................................................... 82

A n a l y s i s o f t h e P r o b l e m ................................................. 82
E x p l a n a t i o n o f R e s u l t s ...................................................... 88

iii

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TABLE OF CONTENTS— C on tin u ed

C hapter Page

V II. CONCLUSION . . . ............................................................... 98


Summa r y ............................................................................................. 98
C o n c l u s i o n s ............................................................................. . 102

APPENDIX A .............................. ■..................................................................105

APPENDIX B ............................................... ' ................................................... . . . 112

APPENDIX ' C ...................................................................................... 115

APPENDIX D . I . . . . ' . . . 118

APPENDIX E .................................................................... : ................................................. 121

APPENDIX F ...........................................................................................................................124
LIST OF REFERENCES............................................ ' ........................................................125

iv

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LIST OF TABLES

T a b le Page

1 .. S o c i a l D a t a on t h e T o t a l P o p u l a t i o n o f 8 4
Negro S u b j e c t s ........................................................................................ 25

2. S o c i a l D a ta f o r t h e Sam ple by P e r s o n a l i t y Type . . . 33

3. D e s i g n o f t h e E x p e r i m e n t .................................................................. 44

4. C o m p a ris o n s o f R a t i n g s b y Two J u d g e s U s in g t h e
A ron Scheme on I n t e r v i e w M a t e r i a l s and TAT S t o r i e s , 51
5. Summary o f Means o f A l l t h e I n d e p e n d e n t V a r i a b l e s
a n d T h e i r C o m b in a t io n s f o r t h e F o u r D e p e n d e n t
V a r i a b l e s ................................................................................................. 57

6. A n a l y s i s o f t h e V a r i a n c e f o r A v e ra g e Number o f
Words p e r S t o r y p e r P e r s o n ........................................................... 58

7. Mean Number o f Words p e r S t o r y f o r C o m b in a tio n s


o f E x a m in e r s a n d T e s t s .................................................................... 61

8. Mean Number o f Words p e r S t o r y f o r C o m b in a tio n s


o f P e r s o n a l i t y T ypes a n d T e s t s ................................................. 61

9. Mean Number o f Words p e r S t o r y f o r C o m b in a tio n s


o f P e r s o n a l i t y T ypes a n d E x a m i n e r s ....................................... 62

10. Mean Number o f Words p e r S t o r y f o r C o m b in a tio n s


o f P e r s o n a l i t y T y p e s , T e s t s , a n d E x a m in e rs .................... 63

11. A n a l y s i s o f t h e V a r i a n c e f o r T o t a l Number o f
N e e d s p e r P e r s o n ................................................................................... 66 •

12. Mean Number o f N eed s p e r I n d i v i d u a l f o r t h e


C o m b in a t io n s o f E x am in e r a n d T e s t s ....................................... 67

13. Mean Number o f N eeds p e r I n d i v i d u a l f o r E ach


P e r s o n a l i t y T y p e ...................................... 68

14. A n a l y s i s o f t h e V a r i a n c e f o r T o t a l Number o f
P r e s s p e r P e r s o n ................................................................................... 69

15. Mean Number o f P r e s s p e r I n d i v i d u a l f o r E ach


E x a m i n e r ....................................................................................................... 70

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LIST OF TABLES— C o n t in u e d

T ab le Page

16. Mean Humber o f P r e s s p e r I n d i v i d u a l f o r t h e


C o m b in a tio n s o f E x a m in e rs a n d T e s t s ........................ 70

17. Mean Humber o f P r e s s p e r I n d i v i d u a l f o r t h e


C o m b in a tio n s o f P e r s o n a l i t y T ypes a n d E x a m in e rs . . 71
.1 8 . A n a l y s i s o f t h e V a r i a n c e f o r t h e T ra n sfo rm e d .
D e fe n siv e n e ss S co res .......................................................... 71

19. O c c u r r e n c e o f S i g n i f i c a n t V a r i a n c e s i n t h e Four
D e p en d e n t V a r i a b l e s Showing L e v e l s o f C o n f i d e n c e . . 73

20. Showing t h e I n t e r - C o r r e l a t i o n s o f t h e D e p en d e n t
V a r i a b l e s .......................................................................................... 73

21. R e s u l t s Show ing Mean Humber o f Words p e r S t o r y


f o r C o m b in a t io n s I n v o l v i n g t h e Q1 G r o u p ................. 74

22. Showing R e s u l t s o f C o m b in a tio n s i n Which t h e Q2


Group I s I n v o l v e d f o r A l l D ependen t V a r i a b l e s . . . 76

■23. Showing t h e C o m p a riso n b e tw e e n H y p o t h e s i s I I - C a n d


t h e R e s u l t s ..................................................................................... 78

<24. Show ing t h e C o m p a riso n o f H y p o t h e s i s I I I - B w i t h


t h e R e s u l t s f o r W o r d s .............................................................. .... 79

■ ‘ 25. Show ing S c o r e s o f t h e P o p u l a t i o n on t h e C a l i f o r n i a


P u b lic O p in io n Q u e s tio n n a ir e . ............................ 115

vi

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LIST OP ILLUSTRATE ONS
F ig u r e page

1. F requency D i s t r i b u t i o n o f P S c o re s f o r th e
T o t a l P o p u l a t i o n o f 84 N egro S u b j e c t s ............................... 27

2. D i s t r i b u t i o n o f N S c o res (A n ti-N eg ro ) f o r th e
T o ta l P o p u la tio n of 84 N egro S u b j e c t s ........... 29

5. S c a t t e r g r a m S h ow ing C o r r e l a t i o n o f Raw P a n d N
S c o r e s f o r t h e T o t a l P o p u l a t i o n o f 84 N egro
S u b j e c t s .................................................................................................. 32

v ii

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CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

U n til re c e n tly th e re has been l i t t l e in te re s t in in v e sti­

g a tin g th e t h e o r e ti c a l b a ses of p r o je c tiv e te c h n iq u e s. P o ssib ly

b e c a u s e t h e p i o n e e r s i n t h i s a r e a h a v e many l o y a l d i s c i p l e s , o r

b e c a u se p e o p le have b e e n to o busy u s in g th e te c h n iq u e s , t h e th e o ­

r e t i c a l s t r u c t u r e o f t h e R o r s c h a c h t e s t , T h e m a tic A p p e r c e p t i o n T e s t

(TAT), S z o n d i , a n d many o t h e r p r o t e c t i v e t e s t s h a s n o t b e e n s u b ­

j e c t e d to w id e sp rea d c a r e f u l i n v e s t i g a t i o n . N or h a v e e f f o r t s b e e n

made t o s e e k f o r t h e i r b a s i c p r e p o s i t i o n s . T h is d i s s e r t a t i o n i s

an e m p iric a l i n v e s tig a tio n of a p ro p o s itio n b e lie v e d to be b a s ic

t o TAT r a t i o n a l e .

The p r o p o s i t i o n u n d e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n seem s t o a s s e r t t h a t

t h e TAT p r o c e d u r e c a n f u n c t i o n s u c c e s s f u l l y o n l y i f t h e p i c t u r e s

c o n t a i n p e o p l e who h a v e some k i n d o f common g r o u p m e m b e rs h ip w i t h

th e s u b je c t b e in g t e s t e d .
I t was s t a t e d t h a t t h e r e s u l t s o f s t u d y i n t h e H a r v a r d

P s y c h o l o g i c a l C l i n i c show ed c e r t a i n p i c t u r e s t o b e m ost u s e f u l

f o r b o y s , men, g i r l s , a n d women r e s p e c t i v e l y .

I t was c o n s i d e r e d a n d t h e i d e a w as l a t e r c o n f i r m e d by e x ­
p e r i e n c e t h a t i n m o st p i c t u r e s t h e r e s h o u l d b e a t l e a s t one
p e r s o n ( e v o c a t i v e o b j e c t ) w i t h whom t h e s u b j e c t c o u l d e a s i l y
e m p a th i z e a n d i d e n t i f y h i m s e l f . Thus t h e r e s h o u l d b e a s e p ­
a r a t e s e t o f p i c t u r e s f o r m a l e s , and f e m a l e s , an d a l s o f o r
c h i l d r e n , y o u n g a d u l t s and e l d e r s . (3 2 , p . 531)

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T h is p r o p o s i t i o n i s a p p l i e d i n W il l ia m H e n ry ’ s s t u d y o f

th e s e v e r a l In d ia n g ro u p s (IS , p . 1 3 ) . He seem ed t o f i n d i t n e c ­

e s s a r y t o h a v e s p e c i a l p i c t u r e s d ra w n i n w h ic h t h e p e o p l e w e r e

I n d i a n s a n d t h e s c e n e s a n d r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n d i c a t e d w e re s p e c i f i c

to In d ia n l i f e . T h i s w as a n a d a p t a t i o n o f t h e p i c t u r e s t o t h e

p e c u l i a r c u l t u r a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f t h e s e A m e ric a n I n d i a n s . Thomp­

s o n made r e f e r e n c e t o H e n ry ’ s s t u d y s/:d l e f t t h e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t

H enry h a d g i v e n him b a s i s f o r a s s u m in g t h a t a s i m i l a r a d a p t a t i o n

was n e c e s s a r y f o r N e g r o e s ( 4 0 ) .

I n th e in s ta n c e s j u s t n o ted , some human a t t r i b u t e i s se­

l e c t e d a s a b a s i s o f g r o u p m e m b e rs h ip a n d a s e t o f TAT p i c t u r e s

ad ap ted f o r t h a t g ro u p . I t i s c l e a r t h a t some t h e o r e t i c i a n s a n d

p r o f e s s i o n a l w o r k e r s w i t h t h e TAT h a v e assu m ed t h a t t h e b a s e s f o r

a s s i g n i n g i n d i v i d u a l s t o s o c i a l g r o u p s a r e v a l i d b a s e s f o r m ak in g

s p e c i a l a d a p t a t i o n s o f t h e TAT. I f g e n e r a l i z e d , t h i s w o u ld im p ly

one o f e a c h s o r t o f d i a g n o s t i c t e s t f o r each group t h a t c o u ld b e

sp e c ifie d .

I n t h e c a s e o f t h e Thompson r e v i s i o n o f t h e T h e m a tic Ap­

p e r c e p t i o n T e s t ( h e r e i n a f t e r r e f e r r e d t o a s T-TAT), t h e a d a p t a t i o n

c o n s i s t s o f a n a r t i s t ’ s r e d r a w i n g o f t h e o r i g i n a l M u rra y TAT ( h e r e ­

i n a f t e r r e f e r r e d t o a s M-TAT) so t h a t i n p l a c e o f t h e w h i t e p e r ­

s o n s i n t h e p i c t u r e s N egro c h a r a c t e r s a r e show n. The b a s i c a s ­

s u m p t io n i s t h a t Negro s u b j e c t s w i l l f i n d i t e a s i e r t o " e m p a th i z e "

o r " i d e n t i f y " w i t h N egro c h a r a c t e r s i n t h e p i c t u r e s t h a n w i t h

w h ite s.
A num ber o f t h e o r e t i c a l p r o b le m s s u g g e s t t h e m s e l v e s . Is

i t g e n e ra lly v a l i d to sa y t h a t a p erso n " id e n tif ie s " w ith a p erso n

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in a p ic tu re ? Is th is v a lid ity a p p lic a b le to th e p ro c e ss e s in ­

v o l v e d i n m ak in g a TAT s t o r y ? I s n o t p e r c e p tio n th e b a s ic con­

c e p t i n t h i n k i n g a b o u t TAT s t o r y m aking?

A l t h o u g h t h e r e a r e no w e l l f o u n d e d t h e o r e t i c a l l a w s u p o n

w h ic h p r o t e c t i v e t e s t s a r e b a s e d , it i s b e lie v e d th a t p e rc e p tio n

i s a b a s ic p ro c e s s (1, p . 4 6 ).

The p u r p o s e o f t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n i s t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e

g e n e ra l t h e s is th a t s o c ia l and p sy c h o lo g ic a l v a ria b le s a re s ig ­

n if ic a n tly r e la te d to th e r e s u l ts of p ro je c tiv e t e s t s in g e n e ra l.

The s p e c i f i c aim o f t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y i s t o d i s c o v e r t h e s o c i a l -

p s y c h o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s u n d e r w h ic h v a r i o u s t y p e s o f ITegro p e r ­

s o n a l i t i e s a r e m ost p r o d u c t i v e i n t h e TAT t a s k . T h is r e s e a r c h

a s s u m e s t h a t t h e g e n e r a l s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n o f ITegroes i n A m e ric a

c r e a t e s c e r t a i n d i s t i n c t t y p e s o f p e r s o n a l i t y s t r u c t u r e w h ic h

m u st b e c o n s i d e r e d a l o n g w i t h t h e tw o s e t s o f p i c t u r e s a s i n d e ­

pendent s o c ia l-p s y c h o lo g ic a l v a r ia b le s in v e r if y in g th e g e n e ra l

th e si6 . A ls o i t i s assum ed t h a t t h e t e s t i n g s i t u a t i o n i t s e l f i s

a n i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e w h ic h m ust h a v e m e a s u r a b l e e f f e c t s u p o n

t h e r e s u l t s o f TAT t e s t i n g ; in t h i s p a r tic u la r case th e rac e o f

t h e e x a m i n e r , H egro o r w h i t e , ' i s a ssu m e d t o c r e a t e d i f f e r e n t

s i t u a t i o n s w hen i n t e r a c t i n g w i t h t h e d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f p e r s o n ­

a lity s tru c tu re .

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CHAPTER I I

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

P r e v i o u s S t u d i e s o f t h e P ro b le m

A lth o u g h M u r r a y ’ s e a r l y s t a t e m e n t s f o r m e d a b a s i s f o r an

a ssu m p tio n t h a t s p e c i a l t e s t p i c t u r e s a r e b e s t f o r p a r t i c u l a r

g r o u p s , no s y s t e m a t i c i n v e s t i g a t i o n s w e r e u n d e r t a k e n by M u rra y o r

h is fo llo w e rs. W illia m E. H en ry c o n s t r u c t e d s p e c i a l p i c t u r e s f o r

u s e w i t h N a v a jo c h i l d r e n , b u t a g a i n no s y s t e m a t i c s t u d y was c a r ­

r ie d o u t. N ot u n t i l C h a r l e s E. Thompson p u b l i s h e d h i s a d a p t a t i o n

o f TAT p i c t u r e s f o r N egro s u b j e c t s was a s y s t e m a t i c a t t e m p t made

t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h i s a ssu m p tio n . E d it h W e issk o p f, d e v e lo p in g a

t r a n s c e n d e n c e i n d e x , f o u n d some s u g g e s t i o n t h a t t h e a s s u m p t i o n

m ig h t n o t h o l d f o r t h e m a l e - f e m a l e g r o u p i n g s ( 4 4 ) . H e r w o rk seem s

n o t t o ste m fro m t h e i n t e r e s t i n c u l t u r a l g r o u p s b u t i t h a s b e a r ­

i n g on t h e p r o b l e m . U n d e r t h e s t i m u l a t i o n o f Thompson’ s w o r k , two

s t u d i e s b e a r i n g o n t h i s a s s u m p t i o n i n d i f f e r i n g ways h a v e a p p e a r e d .

B e r n a r d F . R i e s s , Em anuel K. S c h w a r tz , a n d A l i c e C o t t i n g -

ham h a v e c o n t r i b u t e d an e x p e r i m e n t a l c r i t i q u e o f t h e a s s u m p t i o n s

u n d e r l y i n g T h o m p s o n 's r e s e a r c h ( 3 5 ) . A lso S h e ld o n J . JC orchin,

Howard E . M i t c h e l l , a n d J u l i a n M e l t z o f f h a v e made a c r i t i c a l e v a l u ­

a t i o n o f t h e N egro a d a p t a t i o n ( 2 4 ) .

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
5

The Thompson S tu d y

From h i s e x p e r i e n c e o f a " d e a r t h o f m a t e r i a l i n t h e p r o ­

t o c o l s " o f N egro s u b j e c t s , Thompson d e v e l o p e d a c l i n i c a l h u n c h

t h a t t h i s w a s due t o t h e s u b j e c t s * i n a b i l i t y to i d e n t i f y w ith

t h e "w h ite" s tim u lu s f i g u r e s . From t h i s r a t i o n a l e g re w h i s s t u d y .

Thus t h e t h e o r e t i c a l b a s i s o f t h e r e s e a r c h i s t h e c o n c e p t o f

id e n tific a tio n . I t was a ssu m e d t h a t i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w o u ld b e


, —\

e a s i e r i f N eg ro s t i m u l u s f i g u r e s w e r e s u b s t i t u t e d f o r w h i t e o n e s .

T h i s h y p o t h e s i s w as t e s t e d i n t h e r e s e a r c h .
The e x p e r i m e n t w as w i t h a s a m p le o f 26 v o l u n t e e r s fro m

D illa rd U n iv e rsity . I t m ig h t b e assu m ed t h a t t h e s e w e re S o u t h e r n

N egroes. U n fo rtu n a te ly t h i s s o c io lo g ic a l f a c t , a l o n g w i t h many


o t h e r s , was n o t i n c l u d e d i n t h e r e p o r t . P r e s u m a b ly t h e s o c i o ­

l o g i c a l a s p e c t s o f t h e p r o c e s s o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w e re n o t i n c l u d e d

i n t h e r a t i o n a l e o r d e s ig n o f th e s tu d y . It is c le a r th a t th e

s o c i a l - p s y c h o l o g i c a l n a t u r e o f t h e p r o b le m w as i g n o r e d i n t h e ap ­

p a r e n t r a t i o n a l e f o r u s i n g N egro t e s t a d m i n i s t r a t o r s : "T h is p e r ­

m i t t e d t h e t e s t i n g t o b e done u n d e r n o r m a l a c a d e m ic c o n d i t i o n s ,

n a m e ly , Negro a d m i n i s t r a t i o n f o r N egro s t u d e n t s " (35, p . 473,

i t a l i c s are th e w r i t e r 's ) .
The t e s t i n g t e c h n i q u e c o n s i s t e d o f s t a n d a r d i n s t r u c t i o n s

i n w h ic h t h e s u b j e c t s th e m se lv e s w ere to w r i t e t h e i r s t o r i e s w h ile

t h e p i c t u r e s w e re p r o j e c t e d on a s c r e e n . The r e s u l t s o f t h e s t u d y

w e re s c o r e s f o r t o t a l number o f w o r d s , f o r v e r b s , f o r n o u n s ex­

c l u d i n g p r o n o u n s , a n d f o r m o d i f i e r s a d j e c t i v a l and a d v e r b i a l .

V a l u e s o f “t " w ere u s e d t o s t a t i s t i c a l l y e v a l u a t e t h e d i f f e r e n c e

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
b e tw e e n m e a n s . I t was a ssu m e d t h a t t h e g r e a t e r t h e num ber o f

w ords, t h e g r e a t e r t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . The m a in f i n d i n g w as a

d i f f e r e n c e s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .0 1 l e v e l o f c o n fid e n c e f a v o r i n g

t h e N e g ro v e r s i o n . The r e s u l t was i n t e r p r e t e d a s c o n f i r m i n g

t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t N egro s u b j e c t s i d e n t i f y m ore e a s i l y w i t h

N e g ro s t i m u l u s f i g u r e s ; c o n se q u e n tly th e s p e c i a l p i c t u r e s a re

b e s t f o r t h a t p a r t i c u l a r group.

One C r i t i q u e o f t h e Thompson S tu d y

The s t u d y o f R i e s s , S c h w a r t z , and C o ttin g h a m i s em bedded

i n a t h e o r e t i c a l c o n c e r n w i t h t h e TAT w h ic h i s b r o a d e r t h a n Thomp­

s o n 's . They b e g a n by r a i s i n g b a s i c q u e s t i o n s a b o u t TAT p r o c e d u r e

s u c h a s : What i s t h e p r o v o c a t i v e n a t u r e o f t h e p i c t u r e ? I s th e re

a h a lo e f f e c t i n th e seq u en ce o f p i c t u r e s ? What i s t h e n a t u r e o f

t h e e f f e c t o f t h e t e s t s i t u a t i o n i t s e l f i n v o l v i n g t h e e x a m in e r and

th e su b je c t? ( p . 701) W ith t h e s e c o n c e r n s i n m in d t h e y w e re l e d

to suspect th e r e l i a b i l i t y o f Thom pson’ s r e s u l t s . They h a d t h e o ­

r e t i c a l r e a s o n s f o r f e e l i n g t h a t p r e s e n t a t i o n o f N egro s t i m u l u s
p i c t u r e s w o u ld i n c r e a s e s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f t h e s u b j e c t , t h u s

b e in g a " b a s t a r d i z a t i o n o f p r o j e c t i v e te c h n iq u e s " (3 5 , p . 7 0 3).

I n t h e i r own e x p e r i m e n t t h e y seem t o h a v e f e l t t h a t s o c i o ­

l o g i c a l f a c t o r s w e re i m p o r t a n t . They assum ed t h a t Thompson was

w o r k in g w i t h S o u t h e r n N e g r o e s . In t h e i r d e sig n th e y fo rm u la te d

h y p o t h e s e s a r o u n d b o t h N o r t h e r n N e g r o e s and N o r t h e r n w h i t e s , t h e

r e s u l t s t o b e c o m p a re d w i t h T h o m p s o n 's d a t a on S o u t h e r n N e g r o e s .

They u s e d b o t h N egro a n d w h i t e a d m i n i s t r a t o r s who p r e s e n t e d i n ­

d i v i d u a l c a r d s to t h e s u b j e c t s r a t h e r th a n u s e t h e l a n t e r n s l i d e

p ro je c tio n . In t h e i r f i r s t re p o rt th ey p re s e n te d t h e i r r e s u l t s

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
a s word, c o u n t , j u s t a s Thompson d id .. The r e s u l t s a r e r o u g h l y

s t a t e d a s fo llo w s (35, p . 708):

1. N o r t h e r n N e g r o e s w i t h N egro e x a m in e r s p r o d u c e more t h a n

S o u t h e r n N e g ro e s u n d e r t h e same c o n d i t i o n s o f e x a m in e r

and m a te r ia ls .

2. N o r t h e r n N e g r o e s p r o d u c e more o n w h i t e t e s t m a t e r i a l w i t h

a N eg ro e x a m in e r t h a n do S o u t h e r n N e g r o e s .

3. N o r t h e r n N e g r o e s p r o d u c e m ore on N egro m a t e r i a l w i t h a

w h i t e a d m i n i s t r a t o r t h a n do S o u t h e r n N e g r o e s o n t h e same

m a t e r i a l w i t h N egro e x a m i n e r s .

On t h e b a s i s o f t h e s e r e s u l t s t h e y c o n c l u d e t h a t T h o m p s o n 's

h y p o t h e s i s m u st b e r e j e c t e d . I t i s im p lie d by t h e i r stu d y t h a t

1. th e u n c o n tr o lla b le e f f e c t s of th e s o c i o lo g i c a l v a r i a b le

i n h i s s u b j e c t s maJce T h o m p s o n 's c o n c l u s i o n s u n r e l i a b l e ,

2. th e e f f e c t s of t h e i n t e r p e r s o n a l v a r i a b l e s o f s u b j e c t and

e x a m in e r v i t i a t e T h o m p s o n 's c o n c l u s i o n .

H ence i t i s n o t i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e s p e c i a l p i c t u r e s , p e r s e . a r e

b e s t f o r t h e p a r t i c u l a r group p e r s e .

A n o th e r C r i t i q u e o f T h o m p so n 's E x p e rim e n t

S h e ld o n J . K o r c h i n , Howard E . M i t c h e l l , and J u l i a n M e l t z o f f

h a v e p r e s e n t e d d a t a i n w h ic h t h e s o c i a l c l a s s v a r i a b l e i n t h e s u b ­

je c ts i s c o n tro lle d . T hey c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n c e s Thompson

f o u n d b e t w e e n t h e M-TAT and t h e T-TAT a r e n o t s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g ­

n ific a n t.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
8

C o m p a riso n o f t h e R a t i o n a l e o f T h e s e T h r e e
S tu d ie s w ith th e P re se n t R esearch

B o th o f t h e s e s t u d i e s s h a r e w i t h t h e p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h a

c o n c e r n a b o u t t h e v a l i d i t y o f t h e a s s u m p t i o n o f s p e c i a l TAT p i c ­

t u r e s f o r a p a r t i c u l a r g ro u p o f p e o p l e . The f o u r s t u d i e s d i f f e r

fro m o n e a n o t h e r i n t h e o r e t i c a l b a c k g r o u n d a n d e x p e r i m e n t a l d e s i g n .

The Thompson s t u d y d o e s n o t a p p r o a c h t h e p r o b l e m o f sam­


p lin g a t a l l i n h is s e le c tio n of s u b je c ts . T h i s o m i s s i o n may b e

a l o g i c a l c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e a b s e n c e o f s o c i o l o g i c a l t h e o r y con­

c e rn in g th e resp o n d in g p o t e n t i a l i t i e s of h i s s u b je c ts . S im ila rly

h e u s e d a v a l u e ju d g m e n t i n p l a c e o f s c i e n t i f i c t h o u g h t r e g a r d i n g

t h e e x a m in e r. R i e s s e t a l . a r e a w a re o f t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f

s o c i a l v a r i a b i l i t y a s a r e H o r c h in e t a l . They d e m o n s t r a t e s u c h

v a r i a b i l i t y and t h e i r c r i t i c i s m o f t h e Thompson s t u d y i s p e r h a p s

v a lid .

The p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h s h a r e s w i t h R i e s s e t a l . t h e a w a r e ­

n e s s o f s o c i o l o g i c a l v a r i a b i l i t y a n d t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e exam­

i n e r - s u b j e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p w h e re N e g ro s u b j e c t s a r e c o n c e r n e d . The

p r e s e n t s t u d y d i f f e r s fro m th em i n t h a t i t s em p h asis i s n o t upon

a b r o a d c u l t u r a l v a r i a b l e s u c h a s N o r t h and S o u th a r e a s o f t h e

c o u n try . The c o n c e p t u a l e m p h a s is i n t h e p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h i s u p o n

t h e s o c i a l - p s y c h o l o g i c a l c o n f i g u r a t i o n o r s i t u a t i o n fo r m e d when
v a r i a b l e s o f r a c e i n t h e s t i m u l u s - p a t t e r n ( e x a m in e r a n d p i c t u r e s )

i n t e r a c t w i t h d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f p e r s o n a l i t y o r g a n i z a t i o n i n Negro

su b je c ts. The d i f f e r e n t t h e o r e t i c a l e m p h a s is h a s n e c e s s i t a t e d a

d iffe re n t e m p h a s is i n e x p e r i m e n t a l d e s i g n a n d r e s e a r c h p r o c e d u r e .

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
9

R a t i o n a l e o f t h e P r e s e n t S tu d y

The g r e a t b u l k o f t h e o r y a n d r e s e a r c h e f f o r t i n t h e p r e s ­

e n t s t u d y h a s g one i n t o d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g t h e p o p u l a t i o n so t h a t

v a ry in g s itu a tio n s a r e p r e s e n t w hose e f f e c t s c a n b e s t u d i e d . The

d e sig n o f t h e e x p erim en t i s s i m i l a r t o t h e d e s ig n o f R ie s s e t a l . ,

e x c e p t t h a t t h e y do n o t u t i l i z e t h e f a c t o r i a l s t r u c t u r e a n d t h e

p r e c is io n o f a n a ly s is of v a ria n c e te c h n iq u e . The l o g i c o f t h e

p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e a ssu m p tio n o f s p e c i a l t e s t s f o r spe­

c i a l g roups i s : I f t h e t o t a l c o n f i g u r a t i o n s o f s o c i a l and p s y c h o ­

l o g i c a l f a c t o r s a r e w h a t make t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n TAT r e s p o n s e , t h e n

no s p e c i a l v a r i a b l e , such a s a t e s t , can m a tte r p e r s e .

The S o c i a l - P s y c h o l o g i c a l N a t u r e o f P e r c e p t i o n

T h is lo g ic r i s e s o u t o f th e w r i t e r ’ s i n t e r e s t i n p e rc e p ­

t i o n a s t h e b a s i c p r o c e s s i n TAT p r o c e d u r e . I f p e rc e p tio n i s ac­

c e p t e d a s t h e k e y c o n c e p t , ,th e n t h e c o n d i t i o n s w h ic h b r i n g a b o u t
v a r i a t i o n i n p e r c e p t i o n and c o g n i t i o n a r e t h e f o c a l p o i n t o f an

ex p erim en t t e s t i n g t h e v a l i d i t y o f a s p e c i a l s e t o f TAT p i c t u r e s

f o r a p a r t i c u l a r s o c i a l g ro up . The s o c i a l p s y c h o l o g y f o r m u l a t e d

i n K rech and C r u t c h f i e l d (2 5 ) i s c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o t h e s o - c a l l e d

“ p r o j e c t i v e h y p o t h e s i s ” a s f o r m u l a t e d b y L. K. F r a n k .

I n e f f e c t t h i s h y p o t h e s i s s t a t e s t h a t a s i m p le s t i m u l u s

i s t r a n s f o r m e d by t h e m o t i v a t i o n a l t e n d e n c i e s o f p e r c e p t i o n i n t o

f o r m s o f c o g n i t i o n w i t h i n w h ic h t h e p e r s o n c a n b e h a v e o n h i s own

t e r m s r a t h e r t h a n on t e r m s o f t h e c o n d i t i o n s i m p u t e d t o t h e s t i m u ­

l a t i n g m a t e r i a l s fro m t h e e x t e r n a l f r a m e o f r e f e r e n c e ( 1 2 ) .

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
10

Some a s s u m p t i o n s p r o v i d e d b y t h i s new s o c i a l p s y c h o l o g y

o f p e r c e p t i o n r e l e v a n t t o t h e p r e s e n t p r o b le m a r e :

1. The p e r c e i v e r w i l l r e s t r u c t u r e any s t i m u l u s u n t i l i t i s

i n s u c h a fo rm t h a t i t can h e a s s i m i l a t e d t o h i s a p p e r ­

c e p t iv e m ass.

2. S p e c i f i c f o c i o f n e e d , t e n s i o n an d o t h e r m o t i v a t i o n a l a s ­

p e c t s of t h e p e r s o n a l i t y d e te rm in e t h e s e l e c t i v e a s p e c t s
of p e rc e p tio n .

3. The i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e e x a m in e r p r o v i d e s

t h e e m o t i o n a l b a c k g r o u n d on w h ic h p e r c e p t u a l p r o c e s s e s

w o rk .

4. The s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n o f t h e TAT s t i m u l u s , t h o u g h r e l e v a n t ,

i s l e s s i m p o r t a n t f o r t h e u s e t o w h ic h t h e t e s t i s p u t

t h a n i s k n o w le d g e o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e tw e e n t h e b e h a v ­

i o r a l p r o d u c t and t h e p e r s o n a l i t y d y n a m ic s fro m w h i c h i t

c o m es.

S o c i a l - P s y c h o l o g i c a l A s p e c ts o f t h e
T e s tin g S itu a tio n

The t h e o r e t i c a l q u e s t i o n o f t h e e f f e c t o f s o c i a l - p s y c h o ­

l o g i c a l f a c t o r s u p o n s t o r y - m a k i n g i s a ssu m e d t o b e a n s w e r e d a s

fo llo w s:

I n t h e i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s b e tw e e n e x a a i n e r a n d s u b ­

je c t, t h e s u b j e c t p e r c e i v e s o r a p p e r c e i v e s t h e e x a m in e r , c o n s c i o u s l y
o r u n c o n sc io u s ly , a c c o rd in g to t h e p e r c e p tu a l c a t e g o r i e s o r s t e r e o ­

ty p e s b u i l t i n to th e su b je c t* s p e r s o n a l i ty s t r u c t u r e by h i s p r e ­

v io u s s o c i a l e x p e rie n c e s . I n t h e c a s e o f H e g ro s u b j e c t s , t h e s e

e x p e r i e n c e s h a v e e q u i p p e d him w i t h “r a c i a l - a d a p t i v e " w ays o f p e r -

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
11

c e i v i n g e i t h e r ^ a w h i t e e x a m in e r o r a N egro o n e . The a f f e c t i v e

t o n e s a c c o m p a n y in g t h e s e p e r c e p t i o n s w i l l f a l l a l o n g a c o n tin u u m
of g r e a te r o r le s s e r d is tu r b in g u n p le a sa n tn e ss . The a p p e r c e p t i v e

p r o c e s s e s assum ed t o be c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s p e r ­
s o n a l i t y s t r u c t u r e a n d " n o r m a l" t o TAT s t o r y - m a k i n g w i l l b e v a r i ­

a b ly a f f e c t e d by t h e a f f e c t i v e to n e s o f t h e i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a ­

t i o n s h i p and p r o d u c t i v i t y w i l l c o r r e s p o n d in g ly b e en h an ced o r

c o n stric te d .
When t h e e x a m in e r i s a w h i t e p e r s o n . — Where t h e e x a m in e r

i s a w h ite p e rso n , th e c u l t u r a l d e f i n i t i o n o f th e r e l a ti o n s h i p

a s s u p e r - and s u b - o r d i n a t i o n i s t h e c o r e o f v a r y i n g d ynam ic p r o c ­

e s s e s w ith consequent d i f f e r e n c e s i n th e e m o tio n al c lim a te s th e y

c re a te . I t i s assum ed t h a t f o u r a • p r i o r i p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f r e l a ­

t io n s h ip a r i s e out o f t h e a cc ep tan c e o r r e j e c t i o n o f th e c u l t u r a l

d e f i n i t i o n o f N e g ro -w h ite r e l a t i o n s :

1. T hey may b o t h a c c e p t t h i s d e f i n i t i o n and b e h a v e a c c o r d i n g l y

a n d i n t h e a b s e n c e o f t h i s s o u r c e o f d i s t u r b a n c e may

q u ic k ly f in d t h e i r i n t e r a c t i o n a l e q u ilib riu m . T h is adap­

t i o n / h a s o c c u r r e d m ost o f t e n i n t h e p a s t a n d i n t h e S o u th

w h e re p h y s i c a l f o r c e h a s made i t n e c e s s a r y . R ig id ity ,

s u p p r e s s i o n a n d c o n s t r i c t i o n a r e t h e a tm o s p h e r e o f t h i s

re la tio n s h ip .

2. The w h i t e p e r s o n may a c c e p t t h e d e f i n i t i o n and t h e N egro

re je c t i t . To t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h e w h i t e p e r s o n h a s b a s e d

h i s p e r s o n a l s e c u r i t y u p o n t h e s u p p o r t g i v e n him b y t h e

c u l t u r a l d e f i n i t i o n , h e w i l l p e r c e i v e t h e N egro a s a p e r ­

s o n a l t h r e a t and " s e c u r i t y o p e r a tio n s " w i l l ensue w i t h i n

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
13
i d s p e r s o n a l d y n am ics. On i d s p a r t , w h e re o b j e c t i v e

c o n d i t i o n s may h a v e m i l i t a t e d i n t h e o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n ,

t h e N egro p a r t i c i p a n t h a s e i t h e r g i v e n fr e e d o m o f ex­

p r e s s io n to h i s a c tu a l p o t e n t i a l i t i e s o r has m o b iliz e d

h i s e n e r g i e s i n c o m p e n s a to r y e f f o r t . T h is s i t u a t i o n i s

c e r t a i n to be c h a r a c t e r i z e d by h o s t i l i t y and d e f e n s i v e ­

n e s s and o t h e r p s y c h o l o g i c a l m a n e u v e rs c o v e r e d by t h e

r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n s made a v a i l a b l e t o e a c h i n d i v i d u a l by

h i s own a d a p t i v e t e c h n i q u e s . T h e s e he w i l l h a v e a c q u i r e d

in h is l if e h isto ry . C o n sid e rin g th e v e ry r a p i d r a t e o f

s o c i a l c h a n g e i n A m e ric a , t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f v a r i a t i o n s

i n th e s e l i f e h i s t o r i e s a re s ta g g e r in g t o c o n c e iv e . As

t h e d e m o c r a t i c i d e o l o g y h a s becom e m ore w i d e l y a c c e p t e d ,

t h i s i n t e r a c t i o n a l p a t t e r n — i t s p a r t i c u l a r c o n t e n t a lm o s t

c e r t a i n to b e u n iq u e to t h e i n d iv id u a ls in v o lv e d — h as

p r o b a b l y becom e t h e m o st u s u a l o n e , e s p e c i a l l y i n m e t r o ­

p o l i t a n r e g io n s o f th e c o u n try r a t h e r th a n i n th e deep

S o u th a n d r u r a l , sm a ll-to w n l o c a t i o n s . R e g ard less o f th e

c o n te n t o r th e l e v e l of aw areness, t h i s r e l a ti o n s h i p i s

p r i m a r i l y h o s t i l e and d e fe n s iv e .

3. The w h i t e may r e j e c t t h e d e f i n i t i o n a n d N egro a c c e p t i t .

H e re i t i s t h e w h i t e p e r s o n a l i t y who h a s e i t h e r r e l e a s e d

c e r t a i n p o t e n t i a l i t i e s w ith in h im se lf o r i s m o b iliz in g

c o m p e n s a to r y e n e r g i e s t o r e n o u n c e a p r i v i l e g e d s t a t u s .

He m u st d e a l w i t h t h e h o s t i l i t y a n d d e f e n s i v e n e s s o f o t h e r

w h i t e s a s w e l l a s o f t h e N egro who h a s f o u n d an e q u i l i b r i u m

in th e c o n v e n tio n a l d e f i n i ti o n o f h is s t a tu s . P erhaps

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
13

t h is p a tte rn i s le a s t u su a l. H isto ric a lly , i t has been

th e s i t u a t i o n of th e s o - c a l l e d w h ite " c a rp e t-b a g g e r" i n

t h e " R e c o n s t r u c t e d S o u th " a n d i n m od ern t i m e s o f s t u d e n t s

an d o t h e r s i n t e r e s t e d i n s o c i a l r e f o r m e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e

S o u th , b u t n o t e x c l u s i v e l y s o . I t i s made p o s s i b l e b y

p a t t e r n s o f s u b m i s s i o n a n d c o n v e n t i o n a l b e h a v i o r w h ic h

some N eg ro l i f e h i s t o r i e s h a v e n e c e s s i t a t e d . I t p ro b a b ly

o ccu rs le s s fre q u e n tly i n l a t e decad es. T h is r e l a t i o n s h i p

i s a n a tm o s p h e r e o f t e n s i o n a n d a n x i e t y .

4. The f o u r t h p o s s i b i l i t y i s a r e j e c t i o n by b o t h p a r t i e s o f

th e c u lt u r a l d e f in itio n o f th e s i t u a t i o n . T h is p o s s i b i l i t y

p r e s u p p o s e s a d e ta c h m e n t f ro m t h e d a i l y l i f e o f t h e c u l ­

tu r e by b o th p a r t i e s . The phenom enon i s m ost c h a r a c t e r ­

is tic of stu d e n t gro u p s, i n t e l l e c t u a l s , a r t i s t s , so c ia l

re fo rm ists, a n d p e r h a p s some o t h e r p r o f e s s i o n a l s , w ho, a s

t y p e s , c o n s t i t u t e a r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l p o r t i o n o f t h e po p u ­

la tio n . T h ere a r e a l a r g e num ber o f p o s s i b l e m o t i v a t i o n s

f o r t h i s k i n d o f d e ta c h m e n t and t h e s e p e o p l e i n b o t h

g roups s u s ta in v a ry in g r e l a t i o n s to th e r e s t of s o c i e t y .

P r o b a b l y m ost f r e q u e n t i s a r e l a t i o n s h i p o f " m a r g i n a l i t y . "

T h is t e r m c a r r i e s t h e c o n n o t a t i o n o f e m o t i o n a l d i s t u r b a n c e

an d r a i s e s t h e p ro b le m o f t h e i r " n o rm a lity " v s . t h e i r "ab­

n o rm a lity ." I t i s s o m e tim e s s a i d t h a t t h i s i s t h e a tm o s ­

p h e r e o f c r e a t i v e s p o n t a n e i t y ; i f s o , i t w o u ld b e i d e a l

f o r t h e TAT s i t u a t i o n . To j u d g e t h e c u l t u r a l c o n t r i b u t i o n s
o f t h e s e ty p e s i s a g r e a t e ssa y n o t t o be a tte m p te d h e r e .

The phenom enon d o e s o c c u r , a n d c u l t u r a l i n f l u e n c e s u p o n

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
14

t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p a r e m in i m a l when N eg ro a n d w h i t e p e r ­

s o n a l i t i e s o f t h i s ty p e i n t e r a c t .

When t h e e x a m in e r i s a N e g ro p e r s o n . — The N egro p o p u l a t i o n

i s n o t a hom ogeneous o n e . The im m e d ia te i m p l i c a t i o n o f t h i s f a c t

f o r a c o n c e r n w i t h t h e i n t e r p e r s o n a l a s p e c t s o f t h e TAT t e s t i n g

s itu a tio n i s th a t th e p o s s ib ility of e x te rn a l in te rfe re n c e s w ith


t h e s u b j e c t ’ s s p o n t a n e i t y i s n o t s o l v e d sim p ly b y a v o id i n g th e

v a r i o u s ty p e s o f N e g ro -w h ite i n t e r r a c i a l in v o lv e m e n ts . The common

s e n s e way o f a v o i d i n g i t i s t o s u b s t i t u t e a N eg ro e x a m in e r f o r

th e w h ite one. B e c a u s e o f t h e h e t e r o g e n e i t y o f t h e N egro g r o u p ,

t h i s m a n e u v e r i s no a s s u r a n c e t h a t t h e e x a m i n e r - s u b j e c t r e l a t i o n ­

s h i p i m m e d i a t e l y b ecom es c o n g e n i a l f o r s p o n t a n e o u s r e s p o n s e by
t h e N eg ro s u b j e c t .

The q u e s t i o n o f i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s b e tw e e n members

o f t h e N eg ro g r o u p h a s b e e n s u b j e c t e d t o som ew hat l e s s s t u d y t h a n

has i n t e r r a c i a l c o n ta c ts (3 6 , p . 5 7 ) . Some o f t h e s t u d i e s t h a t

h a v e b e e n made seem t o h a v e b e e n m ore i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e c o n c e p t

o f r a c i a l s o l i d a r i t y t h a n i n m a k in g c l e a r w hat t h e p h e n o m e n a l

c o n te n ts of th e s e r e l a ti o n s a re l ik e l y to b e . At l e a s t o n e p r i n ­

c i p l e seem s t o b e g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d on one fo rm o r a n o t h e r : The

c o n t e n t s o f i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s w i t h i n t h e N e g ro g r o u p a r e

e v e n t u a l l y d o m in a t e d b y t h e p r o b le m o f t h e s t a t u s o f t h e g r o u p a s

a w h o le .
P r o b le m s o f a d j u s t m e n t t o t h e s t a t u s o f t h e g r o u p a s a

w h o le p r o v i d e b a s i s f o r i n t r a O g r o u p c o n f l i c t . One o f t h e c o n s e ­

q u en ces o f t h i s i n t r a - g r o u p c o n f l i c t f o r N egroes i s t h e ab sen ce

of sta b le , c o n s i s t e n t , f a v o r a b l e m y th o lo g ie s ab o u t th e m se lv e s as

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15 '

a g roup. The s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n i s s u c h t h a t t h e d o m in a n t g r o u p i s

i n a p o s i t i o n o f pow er p o l i t i c a l l y , e c o n o m ic a lly , i n t e l l e c t u a l l y ,

and p h y s i c a l l y . T h i s e n a b l e s t h e e t h n o c e n t r i c co m p o n e n ts o f t h e

d o m in a n t g ro u p n o t o n l y t o f o r m u l a t e b u t a l s o t o p r o m u l g a t e th e *

v a r i o u s s h a d i n g s o f u n f a v o r a b l e s t e r e o t y p e s o f t h e Negro p e o p l e

(2 1 , 2 8 , 3 3 ) . I n many s u b t l e p s y c h o l o g i c a l fo rm s t h e s t e r e o t y p e s

e n t e r i n t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t a l p r o c e s s e s b y w h i c h Negro c h i l d r e n

a c h i e v e c o n c e p t s o f t h e m s e l v e s , t h e i r g r o u p , and t h e i r i d e n t i f i c a ­

tio n w ith i t . I n dy nam ic t e r m s , t h e s e f a c t s p o s t u l a t e an am bi­

v a le n c e to w ard s one’ s s e l f and h is group: b e lie f, even u n c o n sc io u s

b e lie f, i n t h e i n n a t e i n f e r i o r i t y o f o n e ’ s s e l f and h i s own g ro u p

i s q u i t e d a m a g in g t o t h e e f f o r t a f t e r s e l f - e s t e e m . T h i s phenom enon

h a s o c c u r r e d i n o t h e r m i n o r i t y g r o u p s an d i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e

Je w ish group i t h a s b e e n f r e q u e n t ly term ed “ s e l f h a te " (2 8 , p . 1 8 6 ),

" S e lf h a te " i n t h i s s e n se i s a group co n cep t b u t c o n c e iv a b ly i t

in c lu d e s b o th u n c o n sc io u s and o v e r t o p e r a tio n o f in d iv i d u a l h a te
a g a in st th e in d iv id u a l s e l f . The d i f f e r e n t p a t t e r n s o f p e r s o n a l i t y

a d j u s t m e n t t o t h e p r o b l e m p o s e d by t h i s phenom enon i s a h e a t e d

s o u r c e o f c o n f l i c t i n i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s b e tw e e n N e g r o e s

(2 1 , 2 8 , 4 3 ) .

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CHAPTER I I I

ASSUMPTIONS AND PROBLEMS OF THE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

G e n e r a l A s s u m p tio n s

Tne o r g a n i z a t i o n o f i d e a s a n d t h e o r i e s i n t h e a r e a s o f

p e r c e p t i o n a n d t h e s o c i a l p s y c h o l o g y o f t h e N egro g r o u p a d d u p

t o a d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h t h e t h e o r y u p o n w n ic h TAT p i c t u r e s h a v e

"been s e l e c t e d and a d a p t e d t o p a r t i c u l a r g r o u p s o f p e o p l e . In

p l a c e o f t h e a p p ro a c h e s c r i t i c i z e d , t h e a ssu m p tio n s f a v o r e d y i e l d

th e fo llo w in g g e n e ra l t h e s i s :

The TAT t e s t i n g s i t u a t i o n f u n c t i o n s a s a t o t a l s o c i a l -

p s y c h o l o g i c a l s i t u a t i o n w i t h i n w h ic h a p a r t i c u l a r p e r s o n a l i t y ..

s t r u c t u r e m a n i f e s t s i t s e l f w i t h m ore o r l e s s e a s e .

P a r t i c u l a r p r o p o s i t i o n w i t h i n t h i s a s s u m p t i o n w h ic h f i n d s

a m o d e l i n t h e c a s e o f t h e TAT w i t h N egro s u b j e c t s i s a s f o l l o w s :

The p e r s o n a l i t y s t r u c t u r e o f t h e N egro s u b j e c t i n t e r a c t s w i t h

t h e p e r c e p t i o n o f t n e s t i m u l u s p i c t u r e and t h e p e r c e p t i o n o f

t h e e x a m in e r t o p r o d u c e e f f e c t s u n i q u e t o t h e p a r t i c u l a r

situ a tio n . The i n t e r a c t i o n i s c r u c i a l ; th e s p e c ific v a ria b le s

a r e n o t (H y p o th esis I ) .
B a s i c t o a d e s i g n o f an e x p e r i m e n t t o t e s t t h i s h y p o t h e s i s

f o r a N egro p o p u l a t i o n i s t h e e f f o r t t o c o n t r o l h e t e r o g e n e i t y

w i t h i n t h e N egro p o p u l a t i o n . W ith in t h e t h e o r e t i c a l c o n te x t o f

t h i s s t u d y i t m u st b e a ssu m e d t h a t t h e i m p o r t a n t s o c i a l - p s y c h o -

16

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17

l o g i c a l f a c t o r s t o be c o n tr o lle d a r e c o n ta in e d i n a s p e c ts of th e

p r o b le m o f -N e g ro -w h ite a d j u s t m e n t . I t was p o i n t e d o u t a b o v e t h a t

s e l f - h a t e i s c e n t r a l i n t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l a d j u s t m e n t o f -Negroes

i n t h i s p ro b lem . T h e r e fo r e , i t i s d e te rm in e d t h a t t h e r e l e v a n t

h e t e r o g e n e i t y w i t h i n t h e -Negro p o p u l a t i o n i s b e s t c o n t r o l l e d b y

an e f f o r t to ty p e h eg ro p e r s o n a l i t y s t r u c t u r e w ith r e g a r d t o i t s

o r g a n i z a t i o n a ro u n d " e t h n o c e n t r i c i t y " and s e l f - h a t e .

A W o rkin g A s s u m p tio n a b o u t t h e D i f f e r e n t i a t i o n
o f S e l f - H a t e i n t h e -Negro Group

The b a s i c p r o p o s i t i o n s a b o u t t h e r e l a t i o n s o f N e g r o e s t o
t h e t o t a l s o c i e t y , when e f f o r t i s made t o i n t e g r a t e th em w i t h

p r o p o s itio n s about t h e fo rm a tio n o f th e s e l f , y i e l d a t e n t a t i v e

th e o ry o f s e l f - h a t e . To t h e k n o w le d g e o f t h e w r i t e r , t h e r e a r e

s e v e r a l i n s t a n c e s of a p p ro ach t o t h i s id e a . T h ese a r e e i t h e r b i o ­

g ra p h ic a l w ritin g s , lite ra ry e ffo rts, o r comments i n c i d e n t a l t o

o th e r s o c ia l sc ie n c e re s e a rc h . T h e r e seem s t o e x i s t no p r i o r e f ­

f o r t t o make e x p l i c i t a p r e c i s e t h e o r y o f t h i s p r o c e s s ; For th e s e

r e a s o n s , t h i s t e n t a t i v e e f f o r t i s v ie w e d a s a n e x p l o r a t i o n a n d

t h e r e i s a w a r e n e s s o f many t e n u o u s g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s c o n t a i n e d i n

it. N e v e rth e le ss th e y a re p re s e n te d because th e y c o n s t it u t e a

background f o r an e x p lo ra to ry e m p ir ic a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n . In th is
research i t i s f e l t t h a t any s i n c e r e e f f o r t a t a l l t o make p s y ­

c h o l o g i c a l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n w i t h i n t h e N egro g r o u p i s a c o n t r i b u ­

tio n . The f a c t t h a t t h e t e n t a t i v e e f f o r t i s s u b o r d i n a t e d , a t t h i s
m om ent, t o t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f a s t u d y o f t h e a s s u m p t i o n o f a

s p e c i a l TAT f o r N e g r o e s r e f l e c t s n o t a t a l l u p o n t h e m a j o r s i g ­

n i f i c a n c e o f t h e p r o b le m a s a r e s e a r c h v e n t u r e i n i t s own r i g h t :

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
18

1. A p s y c h o l o g ic a l ap p ro a ch t o t h e p ro b lem o f s e l f - h a t e i n

a m in o r ity gro u p f o c u s e s i t s a t t e n t i o n u p o n t h e m ec h an ism s

o f v a lu e fo rm a tio n w ith in th e p e rs o n .

2. The v a r i e t y o f d i f f e r e n t g r o u p s a v a i l a b l e i n any s o c i e t y

t o e x e r t c o n t r o l s on i n d i v i d u a l s i s a c o n d i t i o n fro m w h ic h

r i s e s th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f u n iq u e n e ss and i n d i v i d u a l i t y in

t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l makeup o f a p e r s o n ev en th o u g h t h e r e ­

s u l t i s m e m b e rsh ip i n t h e t o t a l s o c i e t y . Members o f a
g r o u p a r e n o t c a r b o n c o p i e s o f one a n o t h e r . E ac h p e r s o n

m ore o r l e s s a c h i e v e s a " s e l f " w h ic h i s h i s u n i q u e i n t e r n a l

fram e o f r e f e r e n c e o r " p e r s o n a l i t y . "

3. An i d e a w h ic h o p e r a t e s t o w a r d a c l e a r l y i d e n t i f i a b l e a n d

i n t h e g r o u p c o n t r o l o f i n d i v i d u a l b e h a v i o r may h a v e a

m e a n in g f o r t h e " s e l f " o r p e r s o n a l i t y o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l

w h ic h v a r i e s fro m t h e s o c i a l l y d e f i n e d e n d . W ith r e g a r d

t o " s e l f h a t e , " a member o f a m i n o r i t y g r o u p may h o l d a n

i d e a w h ic h o p e r a t e s t o r e s t r i c t h i s g r o u p b u t t o him i t

is se lf-e n h a n c in g . From t h e i n d i v i d u a l fram e o f r e f e r e n c e

" s e l f h a t e " a s a p p l i e d t o h i s g r o u p may n o t b e s e l f h a t e

a s ne p e r c e i v e s i t . ^ e t i t c a n be i n f e r r e d by a n o b s e r v e r .

4. From e a r l y c h i l d h o o d , m em bers o f a m i n o r i t y g r o u p h a v e

b e e n s u b j e c t to p r o c e s s e s of r e s t r i c t i o n and i n h i b i t i o n

w h ic h t e n d t o make t h e f o r m a t i o n o f a n i n t e g r a t e d s e l f

concept d i f f i c u l t or im p o ssib le (9).

a. T h o se p r o c e s s e s h a v e h a d t h i s e f f e c t b e c a u s e t h e n a ­

t u r e o f t h e s i t u a t i o n i s a m b i v a l e n t (3 3 , p p . 3 9 , 772,

794 f f j .

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
19

b. A ll e v a l u a t i o n s o f t h e s e l f b o d i l y i n c o r p o r a t e d fro m

th e t o t a l s o c ie ty have f u n c t i o n a l c o n n e c tio n s w ith

a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d s o t h e r s w h ich a r e r e w a r d i n g i n s o f a r

as th e y f a c i l i t a t e some g r o u p m e m b e r s h ip , b u t w h ic h

a r e d i s i n t e g r a t i n g i n s o f a r a s th e y p ro d u ce im p u lse s

t o b e h a v i o r s w h ic h a r e n e g a t i v e l y s a n c t i o n e d b y t h e

so c ie ty . From t h e i n t e r n a l f r a m e o f r e f e r e n c e , im­

p u ls e s a lr e a d y p a r t of t h e s e l f a re seen a s h a rm fu l.

The i n t e g r i t y o f t h e s e l f r e q u i r e s t h a t t h e y b e ex­

p e l l e d b u t s i n c e t h e y a r i s e fro m t h e s e l f t h e r e i s a

fu n d a m e n ta l c l e f t and th e b a s i s f o r am b iv ale n t a t t i ­

t u d e s to w a rd s th e s e l f .

5. T h is am b iv ale n ce to w a rd s t h e s e l f i s th e c e n t r a l p sy ch o ­

l o g i c a l p r o b le m o f m e m b e rs h ip i n a m i n o r i t y g r o u p .

a. As i n d i v i d u a l p e r s o n a l i t i e s , m i n o r i t y g r o u p m em bers

u t i l i z e t h e many p s y c h o l o g i c a l m e c h a n ism s d i s c o v e r e d

in o th e r p e r s o n a litie s in t h e i r quest fo r p e rs o n a l

in te g rity , o rg a n iz a tio n , c h a ra c te r, or s e l f c o n sis­

te n c y .

b. W h ereas o t h e r p e r s o n s may d e v e l o p i n a s i t u a t i o n w hose

c e n t r a l p s y c h o l o g i c a l p r o b l e m may be s e e n i n t h e f o r ­

m u la s e l f v s . o t h e r s , members o f a m i n o r i t y g r o u p m ust

r e s o l v e a p r o b le m w h ic h i s b e s t s e e n i n t h e f o r m u l a

s e lf v s. s e lf v s. o th e rs.

6. The t h e o r e t i c a l s t r u c t u r e o f t h e C a l i f o r n i a s t u d y (3} p r o ­

v i d e s a b a s i s f o r c o m p r e h e n d in g t h e dynam ic p r o c e s s e s i n ­

v o l v e d i n an e t h n o c e n t r i c p a t t e r n o f r e s o lv in g th e s e l f

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
20
v s . o t h e r s p ro b lem ( th e a u t h o r i t a r i a n p e r s o n a l i t y } :

a. R e p r e s s i o n o f d e ep i n s t i n c t u a l i m p u l s e s i s a m a j o r

t e c h n i q u e and l e a d s t o b o t h a u t h o r i t a r i a n s u b m i s s i o n

and a u t h o r i t a r i a n a g g r e s s io n i n s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s w ith

o th e rs (3 , p . 228}. The s e l f s t r u c t u r e s t h e s o c i a l

w o r l d i n t o many g r o u p s o f p e o p l e w h ic h a r e i n r i g i d

h ie ra rc h ie s. A g g re ss io n to w a rd s groups above th e s e l f
i n th e h ie ra rc h y i s su p p ressed r ig id l y . A g g re ssio n

to w a rd s g ro u p s lo w er i n t h e h i e r a r c h y i s p e r m i t t e d

th ro u g h r i g i d p a tte r n s . T h ese p a t t e r n s o f h a n d l i n g
a g g r e s s i o n r e s u l t i n a c o n v e n t i o n a l i t y w h ic h d o e s

not a llo w f o r q u e s tio n in g of th e a c c e p te d v a lu e s o f

th e s o c ie ty . T h is i s a c c o m p a n ie d b y c y n i c i s m , w or­

s h i p o f p o w e r, and a n u n d e r l y i n g d e s t r u c t i v e n e s s .
/
b. T h is r e p r e s s i o n e x te n d s th ro u g h t h e / s e x u a l a r e a and

th e ab sen c e o f s p o n ta n e ity p ro d u ce s r i g i d m o r a lity

w ith th e consequent c o n tr a d ic to r y b e h a v io r and a t t i ­

tu d e s to w ard se x , m a rria g e , and th e f a m ily .

c. The c o n s e q u e n c e s o f t h i s i n s t i n c t u a l p a t t e r n f o r t h e

c o g n itiv e a re a s are te n d e n c ie s to s te r e o ty p e d th in k ­

in g , s u p e r s t i t i o n , p r o je c tio n o f cau ses in to th e ex­

t e r n a l w o r l d a n d an a c t i v e a n t i p a t h y t o w a r d s i n t r o -

v e r t i v e , i n t r a c e p t i v e m odes o f t h o u g h t .

d. T n e re i s r e a s o n t o s u s p e c t t h a t a n y / o r a l l i n d i v i d u a l s

s a t i s f y many o f t h e i r d e p e n d e n c y n e e d s t h r o u g h member­

s h i p i n some g r o u p w hose p r o t o t y p e i s t h e f a m i l y a s

th e in d iv id u a l has ex p e rien c ed i t . I f th e e s^ e rie n c e

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
21
h a s b e e n a u t h o r i t a r i a n s u c h a s t o make any a g g r e s s i v e

i m p u l s e s ■coward t h e g r o u p f o r b i d d e n ( r e p r e s s e d ) , t b e n

a l l g r o u p s may come t o b e s e e n i n tw o c a t e g o r i e s , i . e « ,

t h o s e a g a i n s t whom a g g r e s s i o n i s f o r b i d d e n and t b o s e

a g a i n s t whom i t i s p e r m i t t e d .

7. I t i s assum ed t h a t t h i s dynam ic p a t t e r n d o e s o c c u r i n mem­

b e r s o f m i n o r i t y g r o u p s a s w e l l a s i n t h e d o m in a n t g r o u p .

a. The f o r c e s i n t h e s o c i e t y a r e s u c h t h a t a m i n o r i t y

i n d i v i d u a l who h a s s u c h a p a t t e r n i s u n a b l e t o e x p r e s s

i t w ith o u t c o n f l i c t . E th n o c e n trism (th e p a tte r n of

a u th o rita ria n p e rs o n a lity ) c a n b e fo rm e d i n m em bers


o f a m in o r i t y g ro u p o n ly a s d e te rm in e d by t h e e f f e c t s

o f s e l f h a t e , t h e fu n d a m e n ta l c o n f l i c t i n t h e d e v e l - '

opm ent o f t h e c o n c e p t o f s e l f .

b. T h e r e f o r e we may p o s i t t h r e e o u tc o m e s o f e t h n o c e n t r i c

, d e v e lo p m e n t i n m embers o f m i n o r i t y g r o u p s :

(1) P e r s o n s i n whom t h e a u t h o r i t a r i a n p a t t e r n s a r e

n o t - w e l l d e v e l o p e d , who f o r m u l a t e r e l a t i v e l y w e l l

i n t e g r a t e d c o n c e p t s o f s e l f and o f o t h e r s — d e v e l ­

o p m en tal f a c t o r s i n t h e s e p e r s o n s have e n a b le d

th em t o deaL w i t h e t h n o c e n t r i c v a l u e s i n t h e so ­

c i e t y so t h a t s e l f h a t e i s m in im a l a n d t h e e f f e c t s

o f r e p r e s s io n nave n o t n e c e s s i t a t e d th e a u t n o r i -

t a r i a n p a tt e r n w ith i t s e th n o c e n tric id e o lo g y .

(2) P e r s o n s who h a v e i n c o r p o r a t e d t h e e t h n o c e n t r i c

v a l u e s o f t h e s o c i e t y b u t who h a v e s u p p r e s s e d t h e

e le m e n ts of s e l f h a te im p lie d a s a co n seq u en ce

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
22
o f t h e i r b e i n g m embers o f a m i n o r i t y g r o u p . T h e se

p e r s o n s h a v e f o r m u la te d , a c h a u v i n i s t i c i d e o l o g y

a n d p r o f e s s g r e a t a c c e p t a n c e o f t h e i r own g r o u p

and r e j e c t i o n of o t h e r s . These p e rs o n s a r e h ig h

i n e le m e n ts o f t h e a u t h o r i t a r i a n p a t t e r n and t h e

e t h n o c e n t r i c i d e o l o g i c a l e x p r e s s i o n o f th e m . S e l f
h a te i s c o v e rt o r u n c o n sc io u s.

(3} P e r s o n s who, a s a r e s u l t o f t h e i n c o r p o r a t e d e t h ­

n o c e n tr ic v a lu e s , have n o t a d e q u a te ly d e a l t w ith

t h e b a s i c am b iv alen ce to w a rd s t h e s e l f . I n them

s e l f h a te i s o v e rt and h ig h a s w e ll a s th e a u th o r i­

t a r i a n p a t t e r n w h ic h b r o u g h t i t a b o u t . These

p e o p le a re r e j e c t i n g o f s e l f and o t h e r s as w e l l.

An E m p i r i c a l T e s t o f t h e W orking A s s u m p tio n
It i s h y p o t h e s i z e d t i i a t t h e s e a s s u m p t i o n s w o u ld b e shown

t o h a v e some v a l i d i t y , even th o u g h n o t f i n a l l y e s t a b l i s h e d , i f th e

q u e stio n n a ire , t i t l e d C a l i f o r n i a P u b l i c O p in io n S u rv ey , y i e l d e d

p a t t e r n s o f i n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n among F , E, a n d t h e s u b s c a l e s o f E

e x c e p tin g th e H s c a le , a s w ere fo u n d i n th e o r i g i n a l s tu d y .

The C a l i f o r n i a P u b l i c O p i n i o n S urv ey w a s a d m i n i s t e r e d t o

a p o p u l a t i o n o f 115 N egro m a l e s . An a p p r o a c h t o r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e

t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n o f Itfegro m a l e s i n t h e c i t y o f C h ic a g o was n o t

fe a sib le . T h ere was a n e ed f o r s u b j e c t s t o be a sse m b le d so t h a t

t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e c o u l d be f i l l e d o u t i n g r o u p s w i t h minimum o f

t i m e s p e n t c o l l e c t i n g th e m . T h i s a s p e c t w as j o i n e d t o t h e i n t e r e s t

i n r e p r e s e n t a t i v e n e s s b y s e l e c t i n g g r o u p s l i k e l y t o be s o c i a l

c la s s ty p e d . The f o l l o w i n g t a b u l a t i o n shows t h e g r o u p s i n c l u d e d

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
23

a n d t h e n u m b e rs t h e y c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e p o p u l a t i o n :

C o l l e g e f r a t e r n i t y . . 11
I l l i n o i s T ech . . . . 10
R o o se v e lt C o lle g e . . 2
H in e s H o s p ita l . . . . 2
S p o rts m a n S o c i a l C lu b . 7
J . C. S o c i a l C lub . . 4
Cam era C lu b . .................... 5
F e d e r a l G le e C lu b . . 12
M id w e st T ra d e S c h o o l . 62
T o t a l . 115

The u s e o f t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e i s o b v i o u s l y r e l a t e d t o t h e

e d u c a tio n a l f a c to r . T h i s w as r e c o g n i z e d i n t h e o r i g i n a l s t u d y .

One m u st b e a b l e t o r e a d and u n d e r s t a n d t h e i t e m s . I t i s a ls o

t r u e t h a t t h r o u g h e d u c a t i o n one a c q u i r e s t h e v a l u e s and r a t i o n a l ­

i z a t i o n s o r o t h e r d e f e n s e s th ro u g h w h ich t h e b a s i c a t t i t u d e s a re

m ed iate d . The t r e a t m e n t o f t h i s p r o b le m b y L e v i n s o n i s f e l t t o b e

a d e q u a te and i t s c o n c l u s i o n i s a p p l i c a b l e t o t h e p r e s e n t H egro

p o p u la tio n . H ow ever, i t i s n o te d t h a t th e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f educa­

t i o n i n t h e p o p u l a t i o n c o l l e c t e d i s d i f f e r e n t fro m t h a t p r e s e n t

i n L e v i n s o n 1s p o p u l a t i o n . For r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s of th e s o - c a lle d

lo w er c l a s s , i t b e c a m e a d e c i s i o n a s t o w h e t h e r o r n o t t h e i r edu­

c a t i o n a l l e v e l e n a b l e d th e m t o c o m p re h en d n o t o n l y t h e i t e m s b u t

th e i n s t r u c t i o n s and te c h n iq u e o f r e g i s t e r i n g t h e i r a t t i t u d e s .

Many s u b j e c t s b e i n g s e n s i t i v e a b o u t t h e i r a b i l i t y t o r e a d a n d w r i t e

k e p t t h e m s e l v e s b u s y a n d g a v e no e v i d e n c e o f h a v i n g d i f f i c u l t y .

A fe w f o r m s w e re h a n d e d i n b l a n k . Some h a d v a r i o u s m i s u s e s o f

p l u s a n d m in u s ; f o r e x a m p le , a l l r e s p o n s e s w e re p l u s o r a l l w e re

m in u s . I n o t h e r c a s e s a l l w e re l * s o r 2 * s , e tc . In o th e r cases

t h e s u b j e c t p u t p l u s e s an d m in u s e s b e f o r e t h e p r o j e c t i v e q u e s t i o n s .

A g a in s t i l l o t h e r s re m e m b e rin g t h e v e r b a l i n s t r u c t i o n s , w r o t e

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
24

v ery i l l e g i b l y s u g g e s tin g t o t a l i n a b i l i t y . I n a l l th e se in sta n c e s

t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e s w e r e n o t s c o r e d f o r two r e a s o n s :

1 . They w e r e n o t s c o r a b l e .

2 . E v i d e n c e s o f e d u c a t i o n a l d i s a b i l i t y w e re so s t r o n g
t h a t t h e r e s e a r c h e r c o u l d h a v e no f e e l i n g t h a t t h e
i t e m s w e re g r a s p e d .

T h i s p r o c e d u r e c a u s e d 21 c a s e s o r 27 p e r c e n t o f t h e t c t a l p o p u ­
l a t i o n t o whom t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e w as a d m i n i s t e r e d t o b e th r o w n

out as i n v a l i d .

T h i s w as r e g r e t t e d a s sh o w in g a l o s s o f p e r s o n a l i t y d a t a

on t h e l o w e r c l a s s b u t w as a c c e p t e d a s u n a v o i d a b l e .

D e s c rip tio n o f th e P o p u la tio n

The w o rk in g p o p u l a t i o n f o r t h i s stu d y c o n s i s t e d , t h e r e ­

f o r e , o f 84 ITegro m a l e s d i s t r i b u t e d i n s o c i a l c l a s s e s a s f o l l o w s :
U p p e r1 51
M id d le 33
lo w e r 20
T o ta l 84

The r e l i a b i l i t y o f t h i s s t r a t i f i c a t i o n i s f e l t t o b e g o o d .

M r. S t . O l a i r e D r a k e , c o - a u t h o r o f B l a c k M e t r o p o l i s , w h e r e i n

W. L lo y d W a r n e r 's t e c h n i q u e s o f s o c i a l c l a s s s t r a t i f i c a t i o n w e re

i n t e n s i v e l y u s e d o n t h e Hegro p o p u l a t i o n i n C h ic a g o , c o o p e r a t e d

w ith th e r e s e a r c h . He s u p e r v i s e d t h e f o r m u l a t i o n o f a s o c ia l d a ta

s h e e t w h ic h w as a d m i n i s t e r e d w i t h t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e (A p p e n d ix 3 ;.
He a n d t h e r e s e a r c h e r , u s i n g c o n c e p t s o f s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n

f a m i l i a r t o b o t h fro m p r e v i o u s w ork t o g e t h e r on t h e s t u d y j u s t

n o te d , c l a s s ty p e d th e in d iv id u a ls in d e p e n d e n tly . The a g r e e m e n t

J u d g m e n t s w e re made i n f o u r c a t e g o r i e s : UM, LM, UL, LL.


I n t h i s c o n t e x t " u p p e r " m eans UM + LM, " m id d le " means LM, " lo w e r "
m eans LL.

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25

was 8 ? p e r c e n t . T h e r e was a b s o l u t e a g re e m e n t i n 73 o u t o f 84
cases.

R e l e v a n t s o c i a l d a t a o n t h e w o r k in g p o p u l a t i o n a r e c o n ­
t a in e d i n th e fo llo w in g t a b l e :

TABLE 1

SOCIAL DATA OH THE TOTAL POPULATION OF 84 NEGRO SUBJECTS

M e d ian
S o c ial M e d ian M e d ian R e sid en c e
C lass Humber Age E d u c a tio n i n C h ic a g o

U p o e r ............. 31 27 13 y r s . 11 y r s .
M i d d l e .......... 33 35 12 y r s . 12 y r s .
L o w er............. 20 29 10 y r s . 9 y rs.
T o ta l .

P o p u la tio n 84 31 11 y r s . 11 y r s .

T h i s w o r k in g p o p u l a t i o n i s by no m eans p r e s e n t e d a s a r e p ­

r e s e n t a t i v e sa m p le o f t h e N egro p o p u l a t i o n i n C h ic a g o . R e p re se n ta ­
t i v e n e s s i n t h e sa m p le i s n o t a c r u c i a l f e a t u r e o f t h i s r e s e a r c h .

S cores o f th e P o p u la tio n on th e C a li f o r n ia
P u b l i c O p i n i o n S u rv e y

The q u e s t i o n n a i r e s w e r e s c o r e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e Key t o

Form 60A, M a rc h , 1947 (A p p e n d ix A). The s c o r e s a r e shown i n Ap­

p e n d ix C ). O b v i o u s l y t h e E s c a l e s c o r e f o r t h i s g r o u p o f N eg ro

s u b j e c t s c o u l d n o t b e c o m p a re d w i t h E s c a l e s c o r e f o r t h e s t a n ­

d a r d iz a tio n group. H ow ever, i t w a s h y p o t h e s i z e d t h a t i f E s c a l e

i t e m s w e re rem o v e d , t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n s w o u ld b e c o m p a r a b le a n d t h e

h y p o t h e s i s o f c o m p a r a b i l i t y w o u ld be b o r n e o u t i f t h i s E - m in u s -E

d i s t r i b u t i o n c o r r e l a t e d w i t h t h e o t h e r m easu res i n a p a t t e r n sim i­

l a r t o t h a t o f th e s t a n d a r d iz a tio n group. The E -m in u s-N s c o r e

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
26

f o r t h e p r e s e n t p o p u l a t i o n h a s a m ean o f 5 2 . 2 7 . A ssum ing t h a t

t h e s i x N ite m s w ere r e p la c e d w ith s i x o t h e r s e q u a lly s a t u r a t e d

w i t h E n o t d e a l i n g w i t h t h e H egro g r o u p , an d t h a t t h e p o p u l a t i o n

r e s p o n d e d t h e same t o t h e s e s i x new i t e m s , 2 2 .3 7 w o u ld b e a d d e d

t o E-m inus-iT s c o r e ; t h e w e i g h t e d E s c o r e f o r o u r p o p u l a t i o n w ould

th e n be 7 4 .6 4 . F o r t h e s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n p o p u l a t i o n m ean, t h e mean

E s c o r e v a r i e s fro m g r o u p t o g r o u p w i t h a r a n g e o f 70 t o 8 0 . The

resp o n ses o f th e p re s e n t p o p u la tio n f a l l w ith in th e s ta n d a rd iz a tio n

r a n g e f o r E. The s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n o f t h e s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n g r o u p s

r a n g e fro m 25 t o 30 f o r E. The s i g m a h e r e i s 1 7 . 0 8 .

On t h e F s c a l e , t h e o r i g i n a l s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n p o p u l a t i o n

g r o u p m eans r a n g e fro m 110 t o 1 3 0 . S i n c e t h e F s c o r e i s a ssu m e d

t o be a p p l i c a b l e t o o u r g r o u p , o u r p o p u l a t i o n mean o f 1 4 0 . 6 3 c an

b e d i r e c t l y c o m p a re d . I t i s w e l l a b o v e t h e mean o f t h e s t a n d a r d i z a ^ -

t io n g ro u p s. E ven t h o u g h t h e s c a l e may b e t h e o r e t i c a l l y a p p l i c a b l e
to our p o p u la tio n , i t is im p o rta n t t o n o te t h a t th e c o l l e c t i o n o f

o ur p o p u la tio n in v o lv e d a c o n scio u s e f f o r t to in c lu d e in d iv id u a ls

w hose e d u c a t i o n w as a s m in i m a l a s p o s s i b l e . S i n c e we h a v e no con ­

t r o l o v e r t h e e r r o r i n t h i s mean a t t r i b u t a b l e t o f a i l u r e t o com pre­

h e n d t h e w r i t t e n f o r m o f t h e i t e m , t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n t h i s p op ­
u l a t i o n F s c o r e an d t h a t o f t h e s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n g r o u p s c o u l d be

due t o t h a t f a c t o r . The mean on F f o r t h e p r e s e n t p o p u l a t i o n c o u l d

w e ll be i n t e r p r e t e d a s f a l l i n g w i t h in t h e ran g e o f t h e s t a n d a r d i z a ­

tio n p o p u la tio n . The d i s t r i b u t i o n o f F f o r t h i s p o p u l a t i o n i s shown

i n F ig u re 1.
Ho e f f o r t i s made t o c o m p a re t h e K s c o r e s o f t h i s p o p u l a ­

t i o n w i t h t h e s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n g r o u p s b e c a u s e t h e i r m e a n in g s a r e

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
27

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
28

d i f f e r e n t f o x t h e tw o g r o u p s . A ls o w e know o f n o o t h e r e f f o r t t o

s t u d y N e g ro a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d s t h e i r own g r o u p w i t h i t e m s o f t h i s

s o r t w i t h w h ic h t h e s e s c o r e s c a n b e c o m p a re d . In F ig u re 2 th e

d i s t r i b u t i o n i s v e r y d i v e r g e n t fro m a n o r m a l o n e , w i t h a g r e a t

p i l i n g up o f s c o r e s to w a rd th e f a v o r a b le en d . W ith t h e s e s o r t s

o f i t e m s t h i s w o u ld be p r e d i c t e d , s i n c e few p e r s o n s w o u ld c o n ­

s c i o u s l y e x p r e s s t h e i r “s e l f h a t e , ” i f i t e x i s t e d , on a q u e s t i o n ­

n a ire of th is s o r t.

The c r u c i a l c o m p a r is o n b e tw e e n o u r p o p u l a t i o n a n d t h e

s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n g r o u p s i s t h e i n t e r - c o r r e l a t i o n s b e tw e e n F , E,

a n d t h e s u b s c a l e s o f E e x c l u d i n g W. For th e s t a n d a r d iz a ti o n groups

th e i n t e r - c o r r e l a t i o n s a r e a s fo llo w s^ :
F T o ta l E A-S N M
F .7 3 .5 3
T o ta l E .8 0 .9 0 .9 1
00•
o

A-S .7 4 .7 8

The s t r i k i n g f e a t u r e o f t h e s e i n t e r - c o r r e l a t i o n s i s t h e i r h e i g h t .

I t i s p o i n t e d o u t by t h e a u t h o r s t h a t t h e s e a r e raw c o r r e l a t i o n s

w h ic h i f c o r r e c t e d f o x a t t e n u a t i o n w o u ld a l l b e . 9 0 a n d o v e r . The

p o i n t i s made t h a t t h i s fe a tu re of th e s c a le s i s th e in d ic a tio n

t h a t t h e s e s c a l e s m e a s u r e a s t r u c t u r e d i d e o l o g y w h ic h r e f l e c t s a

b a s i c a u t h o r i t a r i a n p e r s o n a l i t y s t r u c t u r e (3 , p . 108).

The f o l l o w i n g i s t h e i n t e r - c o r r e l a t i o n p a t t e r n f o r o u r

p o p u la tio n :

F E m in u s N A-S M
F .8 0 .7 4 .7 3
E m in u s H .9 1 .9 2
A -3 .6 8

^ T h e s e d a t a a s s e m b l e d fro m d i f f e r e n t t a b l e s ( 3 , n o . 113
122, 263).

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
29

S u b je c ts.
of 84 Negro
P o p u la tio n
05

to

Total
05

the
00
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for
05

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05
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01 CO l—l i—! c-
F i g ,2 —D istrib u tio n

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
30

The o p e r a t i o n o f re m o v in g Iff.from t h e E s c a l e i n t h i s c a s e h a s n o t

s e rv e d t o lo w e r t h e g e n e r a l p a t t e r n of h ig h i n t e r - c o r r e l a t i o n s

w h ic h w as f o u n d i n t h e s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n g r o u p .

The c o n c l u s i o n seem s w a r r a n t e d t h a t t h e s e s c a l e s f u n c t i o n

f o r t h e N e g ro g r o u p w i t h i n t h e r a n g e o f v a r i a t i o n f o u n d f o r t h e

o r i g i n a l g r o u p s p r o v i d e d t h a t a t t e n t i o n i s p a i d t o t h e Iff s c a l e .

U se o f t h e N S c a l e i n T h is S tu d y

The s c o r e s o n t h e s e q u e s t i o n n a i r e s p r o v i d e a q u a n t i t a t i v e

b a s i s f o r d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g o u r p o p u l a t i o n on t h e b a s i s o f t h e g e n ­

e r a l th e o r y o f e th n o c e n tr is m and t h e a u t h o r i t a r i a n p e r s o n a l i t y

stru c tu re . I n v ie w o f t h e . t h e o r y o f s e l f h a t e f o r m u l a t e d a b o v e ,

i t seem s f e a s i b l e t o c o n s t r u e t h e N i t e m s i n t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e a s

m e a s u r e s o f t h e r e s p o n s e s o f t h e s e s u b j e c t s t o w a r d s t h e i r own

group. Where t h e y a c c e p t f a v o r a b l e s t a t e m e n t s t h e y r e g i s t e r s e l f

a c c ep tan c e . Where t h e y a c c e p t u n f a v o r a b l e s t a t e m e n t s t h e y r e g i s ­

t e r s e lf h a te .

The t h e o r y o f s e l f h a t e p o s i t e d t h r e e l o g i c a l t y p e s o f o r ­
g a n iz a tio n o f p e r s o n a lity s tr u c tu r e i n a m in o rity g ro u p . In th e

c a s e o f t h e N egro g r o u p t h e e m p i r i c a l t e s t o f t h e t h e o r y i s a v a i l ­

a b le i n t h e stu d y of th e i n t e r - c o r r e l a t i o n s o f th e s u b s c a le s o f

e th n o c e n tr is m a lo n g w ith t h e F s c a l e . That th e e th n o c e n tr ic s t r u c ­

t u r e e x i s t s i n t h e g r o u p i s s u g g e s t e d by t h e p a t t e r n o f i n t e r c o r ­

r e l a t i o n s shown a b o v e . The f o l l o w i n g a r e c o r r e l a t i o n s f o r o u r
p o p u la tio n of N w ith th e o th e r s c a le s :
N F .3 8
N E '.4 7
N A-S .4 8
N M - .3 8

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
31

T h e se c o r r e l a t i o n s , t h o u g h s i g n i f i c a n t , a re u n ifo rm ly lo w e r th a n

th e o th e rs . Some o f t h e r e d u c e d s i z e o f t h e s e c o e f f i c i e n t s may

he a t t r i b u t e d to th e f a c t t h a t th ey a r e l i n e a r c o e f f i c i e n t s . The

N F c o r r e l a t i o n w as t e s t e d f o r l i n e a r i t y a n d i t was d i s c o v e r e d

t h a t th e sc a tte rg ra m b e st f i t t e d a cu rv e. The e t a c o e f f i c i e n t f o r

th is re la tio n s h ip is .5 8 . A f t e r i n s p e c t i o n i t was c o n c l u d e d t h a t

t h e same w o u ld b e t r u e o f t h e o t h e r t h r e e c o e f f i c i e n t s . In a ll

c a se s th e p i l i n g up of I s c o r e s t o w a r d s t h e low ( f a v o r a b l e ) end

o f t h e s c a l e t e n d e d t o i n c r e a s e t h e num ber o f c a s e s f a l l i n g i n t o

t h e u p p er l e f t hand q u a d ra n t, th u s ch an g in g t h e s t r a i g h t l i n e fu n c ­

t i o n in to a cu rv ed one. T h is i s r e a d i l y s e e n i n F i g u r e 3 . The

c l u s t e r i n g o f c a se s i n o n ly t h r e e o f th e q u a d ra n ts f i t s th e th e o ­

r e t i c a l e x p la n a tio n of th e s e l f - h a t e th e o ry . T h e re a r e some p e r ­
s o n a l i t i e s low i n F ( a u t h o r i t a r i a n s t r u c t u r e ) a n d low i n N ( a n t i -

N egro i d e o l o g y , Q u a d r a n t l ) ; t h e y a r e a c c e p t a n t o f t h e i r own

g r o u p , s e l f h a t e i s m in i m a l . O t h e r p e r s o n a l i t i e s low i n N ( a n t i -

N egro s e n t i m e n t s ) a r e h i g h i n F ( a u t h o r i t a r i a n s u s c e p t i b i l i t y ) ;

t h e s e p e r s o n s m u st s u p p r e s s t h e s e l f h a t e i n v o l v e d i n t h e i r s u s ­

c e p t i b i l i t y i n o r d e r t o e m b ra c e t h e i d e a s w h ic h make th em low i n

21, Q u a d ra n t 2 . D y n a m ic a l l y t h i s s u p p r e s s i o n i s a c o n d i t i o n o f

h e ig h te n e d s e n s i t i v i t y t o m a tte r s su g g e stin g r a c i a l a d ju s tm e n t.

F i n a l l y , t h e r e i s t h e g r o u p h i g h i n F and h i g h i n N; t h e y a r e p e r ­

s o n s w hose b a c k g r o u n d s h a v e n o t e q u i p p e d them w i t h t h e a d a p t i v e

te c h n iq u e s f o r f ig h ti n g o f f th e d e s tr u c tiv e e f f e c t s of t h e i r sus­

c e p t i b i l i t y t o t h e e t h n o c e n t r i s m o f t h e d o m in a n t g r o u p , Q u a d r a n t 3 .

I t w as d e c i d e d t h a t F i g u r e 3 p r o v i d e d a b a s i s f o r d i f f e r ­

e n tia tin g th e p o p u la tio n w ith re s p e c t to t h e i r p e r s o n a lity o r-

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
32

S c a t t e r g r a a Show ing C o r r e l a t i o n o f Raw F a n d U S c o r e s


f o r t h e T o t a l P o p u l a t i o n o f 8 4 xlegro S u b j e c t s

Q2 Q3
190

180

170

160

150

140

130

120

110

100

90

80

70

60

50

40
01
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

F ig . 3

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
33

g a n i z a t i o n around, t h e c o r e o f a u t h o r i t a r i a n p e r s o n a l i t y s t r u c t u r e
w ith i t s e t h n o c e n t r i c id e o lo g y a s th e y b o th a p p ly t o t h e s i t u a t i o n

o f t h e N e g ro g r o u p i n A m erica* The h a n d i n e s s o f t h e q u a d r a n t s

f o r r e f e r r i n g t o th e t h r e e g ro u p s d ev elo p ed t h e h a b it o f r e f e r r i n g

t o th em a s Q l, 0,2, a n d Q3 r e s p e c t i v e l y . T h e se sy m b o ls h a v e no

n e c e s s a r y r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h e o r e t i c a l l y im­

p u t e d t o s u b j e c t s who f a l l i n t h o s e q u a d r a n t s .

C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e P e r s o n a l i t y Types

I n a sense th e s e th r e e p e r s o n a lity ty p e s a re a d a p ta tio n s

t o t h e s t a t u s o f t h e N e g ro g r o u p . S t u d i e s h a v e p o i n t e d o u t how

p e r s o n a l i t y and a d j u s t m e n t t o t h e r a c e p r o b le m d e v e l o p s d i f f e r e n t l y

among t h e d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l c l a s s e s o f N e g r o e s ( 1 8 , 4 3 ) . The f o l ­

lo w i n g t a b l e t e n d s t o i l l u s t r a t e how t h i s p r i n c i p l e i s w o r k i n g

among t h e t h r e e g r o u p s l o c a t e d by t h i s q u e stio n n a ire .

TABLE 3

SOCIAL DATA FOE THE SAMPLE BY PERSONALITY TYPE

S o c ia l C lass In d e x E d u c a tio n a l L evel


1 Y r. C o lle g e
Lower M id d le U pper 0 -6 Y e ars 6-1 2 Y ears o r M ore

• • • 1 11 . . . 1 11

02 1 8 3 1 8 3

Q3 6 6 • • • 5 7 • • •

The o u t s t a n d i n g f e a t u r e o f t h i s t a b l e i s t h e h i g h c o r r e l a ­

t i o n b e tw e e n s o c i a l c l a s s , e d u c a tio n , and th e s e th r e e p e r s o n a l i t y

g r o u p s Q1 ( n o n - a u t h o r i t a r i a n ) , Q2 ( a u t h o r i t a r i a n - p r o j e c t i v e ) , and

Q3 ( a u t h o r i t a r i a n - i n t r a p u n i t i v e ) . To a c e r t a i n e x t e n t t h i s c o r -

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
34

r e l a t i o n may b e a f u n c t i o n o f t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e t e c h n i q u e i n w h ic h

e d u c a tio n i s a h ig h re q u ire m e n t; th e im p o rta n c e o f e d u c a tio n a s

a n i n d e x t o s o c i a l c l a s s i n t h e N eg ro g ro u p i s w e l l known

T h a t t h e c o r r e l a t i o n i s n o t p e r f e c t s u g g e s t s t h a t s o m e th in g o t h e r

t h a n e d u c a t i o n i s a t w o rk . The e t h n o c e n t r i c v a l u e s a r e t o a c e r ­

t a i n e x t e n t p r o m u l g a t e d b y t h e s c h o o l s , b u t more o f t e n b y t h e fam­

i l y and o t h e r p rim a ry g ro u p e x p e r i e n c e s . The o v e r l a p p i n g o f s u c h

g r o u p e x p e r i e n c e s among N e g r o e s w o u ld a c c o u n t f o r t h e f a c t t h a t

many i n d i v i d u a l s o f low e d u c a t i o n a l a n d s o c i a l s t a t u s a c c e p t s t a t e ­

m e n ts w h ic h r e f l e c t e t h n o c e n t r i c v a l u e s r e g a r d i n g s e x , f a m i l y , a n d

in tra c e p tio n . S im ila rly , id e a ls of l i b e r a l i t y appear in in d iv id u ­

a l s o f lo w e r e d u c a tio n and s o c i a l s t a t u s t o an e x te n t l e s s t h a n

e x p e c t e d by t h e c u r r e n t b e l i e f t h a t l i b e r a l p e r s o n s s t a r fro m t h e

w o r k in g c l a s s e s . The f i n d i n g i n t h i s g ro u p i s s i m i l a r t o t h e f r e ­

q u e n cy o f h i g h F s c o r e s i n a w o r k in g c l a s s g r o u p s t u d i e d b y t h e

C a li f o r n ia stu d y (3 , p . 2 6 7 ). The i m p l i c a t i o n i n t h e o r i g i n a l

stu d y i s t h a t th e a u t h o r i t a r i a n s t r u c t u r e i s somewhat d e e p e r t h a n

s o c i a l s t a t u s and e d u c a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . The same i s h e l d

about th e s e gro u p s: th ey r e p r e s e n t p s y c h o -s o c ia l o r g a n iz a tio n s

a n d , t h o u g h t h e s t a t u s o f t h e N e g ro g r o u p may p l a c e h i g h e r prem ium

on e d u c a t i o n t h a n o t h e r g r o u p s d o , t h e s i g n i f i c a n t v a r i a b l e i s

t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n r a t h e r t h a n t h e amount o f e d u c a t i o n o r t h e s o c i a l

c la ss.
I n some p l a c e s a c a s e h a s b e e n made f o r t h e d i s i n t e g r a t i n g

e f f e c t s o f s e l f h a t e among N e g ro e s o f h i g h e d u c a t i o n a n d s o c i a l

s ta tu s (3 3 ). W h ile no s u c h c a s e s a p p e a r i n t h i s p o p u l a t i o n , t h e

o p p o s ite does o c c u r. Some i n d i v i d u a l s o f r e l a t i v e l y low e d u c a t i o n

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
35

a n d s o c i a l s t a t u s a p p e a r i n t h e m o st n o n - a u t h o r i t a r i a n g r o u p .

T h is h ig h c o r r e l a t i o n b e tw e e n e d u c a tio n , so c ia l c la s s ,

and th e t h r e e p e r s o n a l i t y g ro u p s i s n o t f u l l y u n d e rs to o d , b u t

t h a t f a c t i s more i m p o r t a n t i n a s t u d y d i r e c t l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h

c o n s t r u c t i n g m ost v a l i d m e a su re m e n t o f p e r s o n a l i t y t y p e s i n t h e

N eg ro g r o u p . D e s p ite th e g r e a t im p o rtan ce o f t h a t t a s k , i t is

s e c o n d a r y h e r e t o t h e i n t e r e s t i n t h e TAT. O ur c o n c e r n i s w i t h

a m eans o f d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g t h e g r o u p w i t h r e s p e c t t o a s p e c i f i c

p r o b le m on t h e b a s i s o f some i n d e x r e a s o n a b l y o b j e c t i v e a n d r e ­

p e a ta b le . The p r e s e n t d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n a c c o m p l i s h e s t h a t o b j e c t i v e
t o an a c c e p t a b l e e x t e n t . The h i g h c o r r e l a t i o n b e tw e e n e d u c a t i o n

and th e s e groups w i l l a c t u a l l y be u s e f u l s in c e i t w i l l p ro v id e

a t l e a s t o n e s t a b l e c o n n e c tio n b e tw e e n t h e s e g ro u p s and t h e educa­

t i o n a l e l e m e n t s i n t h e p r o c e s s o f m ak in g TAT s t o r i e s . I f our re­

s u l t s do n o t show h i g h c o r r e l a t i o n w i t h e d u c a t i o n , t h e n we may

t h e o r i z e more c e r t a i n l y a b o u t t h e r e l e v a n c e o f t h e s o c i a l - p s y c h o ­

l o g i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s im p u te d t o t h e g r o u p s .

R e l a t i o n s h i p s b e tw e e n S o c i a l - P s y c h o l o g i c a l B a c k g r o u n d s
and t h e P r e s e n t P ro b le m : H y p o th eses

The s o c i o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s w h ic h h a v e g i v e n r i s e t o t h e

h e t e r o g e n e i t y o f t h e N egro p o p u l a t i o n h a v e a b e a r i n g u p o n t h e p r e s ­

e n t p ro b lem . T h e ir in flu e n c e i s p r e s e n t in th e r e a c tio n p o t e n t i ­

a litie s of th e d i f f e r e n t ty p e s o f p e r s o n a lity o r g a n iz a tio n .

It i s a s s u m e d t h a t g r o u p s Q l, Q£ a n d Q3 w i l l r e a c t d i f f e r ­

e n t l y t o N egro and w h i t e e x a m i n e r s a n d t o N egro a n d w h i t e s t i m u l u s

fig u re s. From t h e o p e r a t i o n a l d e f i n i t i o n s o f t h e s e g r o u p s , hypo­

t h e s e s a r e d e d u c e d b e lo w .

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
36

• The N o n - A u t h o r i t a r i a n Type

The g r o u p Q1 i s d e f i n e d a s n o n - a u t h o r i t a r i a n i n p e r s o n a l i t y

stru c tu re . T h i s i m p l i e s t h a t i t s b a s i c p a t t e r n s o f s e x and a g g r e s ­
s i o n a r e n o t r i g i d l y bou n d i n c o n v e n t i o n a l m o r a l s . P o te n tia litie s

f o r m o b iliz a tio n and d is c h a rg e of a n x ie ty and te n s io n a re u n d e r

t h e c o n t r o l o f a r e l a t i v e l y f l e x i b l e ego s t r u c t u r e . To t h e ex­

t e n t t h a t o b j e c t i v e c o n d i t i o n s a r e a m e n a b le t o t h e i r c o n t r o l , t h e s e

p erso n s a re r e l a t i v e l y a d a p tiv e i n t h e i r r e a c tio n s . N e g ro su b ­

j e c t s i n t h i s g r o u p a r e p r e s u m e d t o be l e s s i n f l u e n c e d b y t h e p r o

a n d a n t i s o r t s o f s t e r e o t y p e d a t t i t u d e s w h i c h h a v e a r i s e n i n Amer­

i c a c o n c e rn in g r a c i a l a d ju s tm e n t. The c o g n i t i v e and p e r c e p t u a l
p r o c e s s e s o f t h i s group a re r e l a t i v e l y n o n - s te re o ty p e d . They w o uld

n o t te n d to p e rc e iv e r i g i d s o c ia l c a te g o r ie s . K a t n e r t n e y w o u ld

be e x p e c te d i n t h e i r s o c i a l p e r c e p t i o n to d i f f e r e n t i a t e and i n d i ­

v id u aliz e p e o p le and g ro u p s i n a c c o rd w i t h t n e o b j e c t i v e a t t r i b u t e s

o f tn o s e p e o p le . T n e s e i n d i v i d u a l s w o u ld b e e x p e c t e d t o r e a c t i n
i
th e p re s e n c e of N egro-ness o r w h ite -n e s s a c c o rd in g to id io s y n c r a tic
/
p a tte rn s . I n no c a s e i s t h e p e r c e p t i o n o f r a c i a l s i g n s e x p e c t e d

t o in v o lv e h e ig h te n e d e m o tio n a lity sucn a s e x c e s s iv e n o s t i l i t y or

a n x i e t y w i t n w n ic n t n e i n d i v i d u a l c a n n o t c o p e . T h is g ro u p i s n o t

e x p e c te d t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e i n i t s r e s p o n s e b e t w e e n N e g r o - n e s s and

w h i t e - n e s s i n e i t h e r t e s t s o r e x a m i n e r s o r any of t n e i r c o m o in a -

tio n s ^ H y p o th e sis I I - A ) .

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
37

The A u t h o r i t a r i a n - P r o j e c t i v e Group
The Q2 g r o u p i s by d e f i n i t i o n h i g h i n a u t h o r i t a r i a n com­

p o n e n ts. The m o r a l p a t t e r n s o f t h e s o c i e t y h a v e i m p r e s s e d t h e s e

p e rs o n s w i t h r i g i d ty p e s o f c o n t r o l o v e r s e x u a l and a g g r e s s iv e

te n s io n s . These p e r s o n s a r e p ro n e to a f r e e - f l o a t i n g a n x ie ty

a r i s i n g from t h e i r r e p r e s s i o n s and n o t a c c e s s i b l e t o c o n s c i o u s

c o n tro l because of r ig id a n t i - i n t r a c e p t i v e s t e r e o t y p e s a b o u t them ­

se lv e s, o t h e r s , a n d r e l a t i o n s b e tw e e n p e o p l e i n g e n e r a l . T h e re

i s a deep l e v e l f r u s t r a t i o n a t t e n d i n g t h e s t r o p g a u t h o r i t a r i a n

tre n d s in t h i s group. The a u t h o r i t a r i a n t r e n d s r e n d e r them s u s ­

c e p t i b l e t o n e g a t i v e s t e r e o t y p e s r e g a r d i n g t h e m s e l v e s w h ic h a r e

made c u r r e n t i n t h e s o c i e t y by a u t h o r i t a r i a n p a t t e r n s i n t h e dom­

in a n t group. T h is s i t u a t i o n p o s t u l a t e s a c o n d i t i o n o f s e l f h a t e .

H ow ever, i n t h e i n t e r e s t o f a n a d a p t i v e ego s t r u c t u r e , t h e a n t i -
/
, / i n t r a c e p t i v e a n d p r o j e c t i v e c o m p o n e n ts do n o t p e r m i t t h i s s e l f

h a te t o be a c c e p t a b l e . C o n se q u e n tly , a r e a c t i o n f o r m a tio n i s p r e ­

s e n t e d i n t h e fo rm o f t h e a c c e p t a n c e o f h i g h l y f a v o r a b l e s t e r e o ­

t y p e s o f t h e m s e l v e s and h o s t i l i t y to w a rd s t h e o u t g ro u p . T h e se

p e rs o n s a r e e x p e c te d t o be h ig h ly s e n s i t i v e to H e g ro -n ess and

w h ite -n e ss. T h e i r r e s p o n s e s a r e e x p e c t e d t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e b e tw e e n

b o t h t h e e x a m in e r s a n d t h e t e s t s . I t i s h y p o th e s iz e d (H y p o th esis

II -B ) t h a t p r o d u c t i v i t y i n t h i s group f o r th e c o m b in atio n s o f

t e s t s and e x a m in e r s w i l l h a v e t h e f o l l o w i n g r a n k o r d e r fro m g r e a t e r

to le s s e r:

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
38

Rank C o m b in a tio n Symbol


1 N egro e x a m in e r +- N e g ro p ic tu re s (T-TAT) (N)
2 N e g ro e x a m in e r 1- w h i t e p ic tu re s (M-TAT) (N)
3 W h ite e x a m in e r r w h ite p ic tu re s (M-TAT) (W)
4 W h ite e x a m in e r t N e g ro p ic tu re s ( t- t a t ; ( w)

The A u t h o r i t a r i a n - I n t r a p u n i t i ve G roup

The Q3 g r o u p i s s i m i l a r t o t h e Q2 g r o u p i n t h a t i t s au­

t h o r i t a r i a n c o m p o n e n ts a r e h i g h . T hese p e r s o n s , how ever, t e n d to

b e i n d i v i d u a l s w hose s o c i a l s t a t u s i s low and t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p

to a u th o r ity f ig u r e s , s o c i a l p r iv ile g e s , and o p p o r t u n i t i e s have

n o t c o n t r i b u t e d t o w a r d s t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a d a p t i v e ego s t r u c t u r e s .

T h e i r s u s c e p t i b i l i t y t o s t e r e o t y p e h a s i n c l u d e d t h e e le m e n t o f

s e l f h a t e o v e r w h ic h t h e y h a v e r e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e c o n tro l. They

a r e u n a b le t o d efen d th e m se lv e s a g a i n s t s e l f - d e r o g a t o r y f e e l i n g s .

T hey a r e e q u a l l y u n a b l e t o c o n t r o l t h e p r o j e c t i o n o f h o s t i l i t y

upon o th e r s . A n x i e ty i s e a s i l y a r o u s e d an d i t s c o n tr o l id io s y n ­

c ra tic , s o m e tim e s sh o w in g i t s e l f i n v i o l e n t a c tin g o u t, o th e r

tim e s t u r n i n g in w a rd i n m a s o c h is tic d y s p h o r ia .

T h e s e p e r s o n s , l i k e t h e Q2’ s , a r e e x p e c t e d t o be h i g h l y

s e n s i t i v e t o N e g r o - n e s s an d w h i t e - n e s s . T h eir g e n e r a l p r o d u c tiv ity


i s e x p e c t e d t o be c o n s t r i c t e d . On t h i s b a s i s t h e s t i m u l a t i o n o f

b o t h p i c t u r e s i s e x p e c t e d t o be e q u a l l y t h r e a t e n i n g . H o w ev er, t h e

N e g ro e x a m in e r i s e x p e c t e d t o g i v e th e m s u f f i c i e n t se c u rity th a t

t h e y w i l l d i s c r i m i n a t e b e tw e e n t h e t e s t s a n d p r o d u c e a g r e a t e r

q u a n t i t y f o r t h e N eg ro p i c t u r e s t h a n f o r t h e w h i t e p i c t u r e s . It

i s h y p o t h e s i z e d ( H y p o t h e s i s I I - C ) t h a t t h e r a n k o r d e r o f t h e com­

b i n a t i o n s o f t e s t s a n d e x a m in e r s fro m g r e a t e r t o l e s s e r w i l l b e

a s fo llo w s f o r t h i s group:

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
39

Rank 0021131 n a t i o n Symbol

1 N egro e x a m in e r + Negro p i c t u r e s (T-TAT) (N)


2 Negro e x a m in e r + w h ite p i c t u r e s (M-TAT) (N)
3 W hite e x a m in e r + w h ite p i c t u r e s (M-TAT) (W)
4 W hite e x a m in e r + Negro p i c t u r e s (T-TAT) (W)

P r o d u c t i v i t y w i l l h a v e t h e f o l l o w i n g r a n k o r d e r fro m m ost

t o l e a s t i n th e co m b in atio n s o f t e s t s , e x am in e rs, and p e r s o n a l i t y

ty p e s (H y p o th esis I I I - 3 ) :
Rank C o m b in a tio n s

1 (M-TAT) (W) (Q l)
2 (T-TAT) (N) (Q l)
3 (T-TAT) (N) (Q2)
4 (M-TAT) (N) (Q l)
5 (M-TAT) (W) (OR)
6 (T-TAT) (N) <Q3)
7 (M-TAT) (55 iQ2)
8 (M-TAT) (N) (Q3)
S f\r m am \ / ttt \ f r*rz \
U -iiiJLJ \ H j \ Q o j
10 (T-TAT) (W) (Q l)
11 (T-TAT) (W) (Q2)
12 (T-TAT) (W) (Q3)

R e l a t i v e P r o d u c t i v i t y o f t h e G ro u p s

The p o s t u l a t e d d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw e e n t h e g r o u p s i m p l y d i f f e r ­

e n t i a l r e s p o n s e s t o t h e TAT t a s k p e r s e . The g r e a t e r a c c e p t a b i l i t y

o f i n t r a c e p t i v e a c t i v i t y i n t h e n o n - a u t h o r i t a r i a n Ql g r o u p , t h e

s t r o n g d e f e n s i v e p r o j e c t i v i t y o f t h e Q2 g r o u p , and t h e i n t r a p u n i -

t i v e a s p e c t s o f t h e Q3 g r o u p s u g g e s t t h e f o l l o w i n g h y p o t h e s i s a b o u t

rank o rd e r o f p r o d u c tiv ity :

Rank Group

1 Ql
2' Q2
3 Q3

H ow ever, t h e g e n e r a l h y p o t h e s i s i m p l i e s t h a t t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s w i l l

n o t be s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t b e c a u s e o f i n t e r a c t i o n e f f e c t s

(H y p o th esis I I I - A ) .

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
40

D i f f e r e n t i a l R esponses i n th e
D e p en d e n t V a r i a b l e s

T h e r e i s no a c c e p t a b l e t h e o r y a v a i l a b l e t o t h e r e s e a r c h e r

r e g a r d i n g t h e a v e r a g e num ber o f w o rd s p e r s t o r y . T h o m p s o n 's e q u a ­

t i o n o f num ber o f w o r d s and em pathy seem ed n o t a c c e p t a b l e , f o r t h e

fo llo w in g re a so n s: (1 ) I t seem s r e a s o n a b l e t h a t u n d e r some c o n d i ­

t i o n s w h e re em pathy i s a t i t s l o w e s t , t h e num ber o f w o rd s m ig h t

b e i n c r e a s e d by d e e p p s y c h o d y n a m ic p r o c e s s e s o t h e r t h a n i d e n t i f i ­

c a tio n , s u c h a s d e f e n s i v e m a n e u v e rs t o c o n c e a l t h e i n a d m i s s a b l e
e m o tio n a lity . (2) A lso t h e num ber o f w o rd s may h a v e a d i r e c t c o n ­

n e c t i o n w i t h w o rd f l u e n c y w h ic h h a s b e e n v ie w e d by some a s a te m ­

p e ra m e n ta l d i s p o s i t i o n . (3 ) A ls o i t i s d i r e c t l y a s s o c ia te d w ith

e d u c a tio n a l s t a tu s .
F a c to rs a s s o c ia te d w ith a l l th r e e of th e s e re a so n s a re

o p e r a t i n g i n t h e TAT p r o c e d u r e , b u t no t h e o r y i s a t hand f o r r e ­

l a t i n g th e m . I t i s a ssu m e d t h a t t h e a v e r a g e num ber o f w o r d s p e r

s t o r y i s a r e s u l t a n t o f a l l t h e s e and p e rh a p s o t h e r s . On t h i s

b a sis i t i s an a c c e p t a b l e m easure o f p r o d u c t i v i t y b u t w ith o u t any

known dynam ic - p s y c h o l o g i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s . A ll t h e h y p o th e s e s ap­

p ly to th is v a ria b le . A lth o u g h t h e h y p o t h e s e s a p p l y t o a v e r a g e

nu m b er o f w o rd s i n a g e n e r a l way, w i t h o u t s p e c i f i c t h e o r e t i c a l

i m p l i c a t i o n s , t h e y a p p l y more s p e c i f i c a l l y t o t h e o t h e r t h r e e d e ­

pendent v a ria b le s .
H eeds, P r e s s , and D e f e n s i v e n e s s a r e s o c o n c e i v e d t h a t s p e ­

c i f i c h y p o th eses can b e s t a t e d c o n ce rn in g t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p t o

t h e in d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s . These h y p o th e s e s a r e a s fo llo w s :

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
41

1. D e f e n s i v e n e s s w i l l be n e g a t i v e l y c o r r e l a t e d w i t h W ords,

N eeds, and P r e s s . The g r e a t e r d e f e n s i v e n e s s o f t h e s u b ­

j e c t , t h e f e w e r Words o r N e e d s o r P r e s s u n d e r a l l e x p e r i ­

m en tal c o n d itio n s .
2. N e ed s and P r e s s , r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e dy nam ic c o n t e n t o f t h e

s t o r i e s , w i l l r e f l e c t th e em o tio n al c lim a te o f th e t e s t i n g

s i t u a t i o n s m ore s e n s i t i v e l y t h a n num ber o f w o rd s .

Reproduced with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
CHAPTER IV

DESIGH OF THE EXPERIMENT

In d ep en d en t V a ria b le s

H a v in g d i f f e r e n t i a t e d t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f Hegro s u b j e c t s

w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e g e n e r a l t h e o r e t i c a l h y p o t h e s i s , i t w as p o s s i b l e

t o d e s i g n an e x p e r i m e n t t o t e s t t h a t h y p o t h e s i s . The aim o f th e -

d e s i g n b e i n g t o t e s t t h e i d e a t h a t i t i s b e t t e r t o v ie w t h e TAT

te s tin g s itu a tio n as a t o t a l s o c ia l-p sy c h o lo g ic a l f i e l d th a n i t

i s t o a t t r i b u t e e f f i c a c y t o a s i n g l e t e s t , t h e n e x t s t e p w as t o

a c h i e v e v a r i e t y i n t h e s o c i a l - p s y c h o l o g i c a l f i e l d by a n a t t e m p t

to v ary th e i n te r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p .

The E x a m in e rs

I t was p o s s i b l e f o r t h e r e s e a r c h e r t o s e c u r e t h e c o o p e r a ­

t i o n o f a f r i e n d w hose home i s i n T e x a s . He s p e a k s w i t h w h at i s

g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d among h i s a c q u a i n t a n c e s a s a "good T e x a s d r a w l . "

He i s a c l i n i c a l p s y c h o l o g i s t w hose i n t e r e s t i n t h i s p r o b l e m i s

h i g h a n d g a v e v e ry f r e e l y o f h i s t i m e i n d i s c u s s i o n s a b o u t t h e

r o l e 6 o f e x a m in e r s i n t h e t e s t i n g s i t u a t i o n . J o i n t l y we r e a c h e d

a c o n s e n s u s t h a t f o r e x p e r i m e n t a l p u r p o s e s i t w o u ld b e b e t t e r t o

l i m i t t h e i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h t h e s u b j e c t s a s much a s p o s s i b l e so

t h a t a n a p p r o a c h w o u ld b e made t o r u l i n g o u t a l l v a r i a b l e s o f p e r ­

s o n a l i t y i n t h e e x a m in e r e x c e p t t h a t o f t h e i r r a c i a l d i f f e r e n c e .

F o r e x a m p le , i t was o b v i o u s t o b o t h o f u s t h a t a s p e c t s s u c h a s
42

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
to n e o f v o ic e , g e s tu r e s , en erg y l e v e l , d r e s s , and a h o s t o f o t h e r
p o s s i b l e v a r i a b l e s m ig h t h a v e m e a n i n g f u l e f f e c t s u p o n t h e s u b j e c t s .

We r e a l i z e d t h a t n o t h i n g c o u l d b e d o n e a b o u t su c h t h i n g s i n t h i s

e x p erim e n t. H ow ever, o u r c o n s c i o u s a t t e m p t t o e l i m i n a t e d e e p e r

e x p r e s s i o n s o f o u r p e r s o n a l i t i e s w o u ld b e g r e a t l y a u g m e n te d by

w o r k in g o u t a common s e t o f i n s t r u c t i o n s . T h e s e i n s t r u c t i o n s w e re

d e s i g n e d t o i n c l u d e a minimum o f t a l k i n g w i t h t h e s u b j e c t s . A lso

t h e i n t e r c h a n g e b e t w e e n u s d e v e l o p e d i n s t r u c t i o n s w h ic h we e a c h

c o u l d g i v e w i t h a maximum o f e a s e , s e l f c o n f i d e n c e , and c o n s i d e r a ­

tio n f o r th e s u b je c t.
U nder t h e s e c o n d it i o n s , we f e l t t h a t t h e o b j e c t i v e f e a t u r e s

o f t h e e x a m in e rs c o u ld be re d u c e d to t h e i r d i f f e r e n t s k i n c o l o r s ,

p l u s t h e l a r g e num ber o f u n c o n t r o l l a b l e a s p e c t s m e n t i o n e d a b o v e .

Our b e l i e f was t h a t t h e u n c o n t r o l l a b l e s w o u ld b e t a k e n c a r e o f a s

ran d o m ized e r r o r . The e f f e c t i v e v a r i a b l e i n t h e e x a m in e r s was t o

be th e s o c ia l p e rc e p tio n o f t h e i r s k in c o lo r s , one w h i t e a n d t h e

o t h e r N e g ro .

O th e r In d ep e n d en t V a ria b le s

The i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s i n t h e d e s i g n a r e (1 ) t h e Exam-

i n e r s , N egro a n d W h ite , (2 ) t h e tw o t e s t f o r m s , M-TAT a n d T-TAT

w i t h w h i t e a n d N e g ro p e o p l e i n th em r e s p e c t i v e l y , i n c l u d i n g t h e

c a r d s n u m b e rs 1 , 2 , 4 , 6BM, 7BM, 8BM, 12M., 13MF, 17HH, 18BLI, a n d


19 w h ic h c o n t a i n s no human; s i n c e Thompson’ s a r t i s t a t t e m p t e d t o

make e a c h c a r d i n t h e new s e r i e s i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g

one i n t h e M u rr a y s e r i e s i n a l l r e s p e c t s o t h e r t h a n r a c e , i t i s

p o s s i b l e t o assum e t h a t h e s u c c e e d e d a n d f o r e x p e r i m e n t a l p u r p o s e s

ig n o re ’ th e d if f e r e n c e i n o rd e r to n o te th e v a r i a b i l i t y i n th e

with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
44

e f f e c t s o f t h e common c o n t e n t s ; t h i s s t u d y i s n o t p r i m a r i l y con­

cern ed w ith th e v a ria b le of p ic tu r e c o n te n t; (3 ) t h e p e r s o n a l i t y

s t r u c t u r e s o f t h e s u b j e c t s , g r o u p s Q l, Q2, a n d Q3.

The c r u c i a l f e a t u r e o f t h e d e s i g n i s t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t

th e c o m b in atio n s of th e s e t h r e e in d ep e n d en t v a r i a b l e s , i n a d d itio n

t o b e i n g i n t e r a c t i o n s o f s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e , a r e e x a m p le s
o f th e in te r a c tio n of s o c ia l and p sy c h o lo g ic a l f a c t o r s . It is

i n h e r e n t i n t h e a s su m e d t h e o r e t i c a l m e a n in g o f s o c i a l p e r c e p t i o n

t h a t N e g rb a n d w h i t e p e r s o n s , w h e t h e r i n a c t u a l i t y o r i n p i c t u r e s ,

w i l l b e d i f f e r e n t l y p e r c e i v e d by t h e d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f p e r s o n a l ­

ity stru c tu re .

P r o c e d u r e i n t h e E x p e r im e n t

A f te r th e 84 q u e s t i o n n a i r e s w ere c o l l e c t e d and t r e a t e d a s

d e s c r i b e d a b o v e , i t w as d e c i d e d t o a s s i g n s u b j e c t s a t random t o

e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e f o l l o w i n g dp s i g n :

TABLE 3

DESIGN OF THE EXPERIMENT

P e r s o n a l i t y Types QX Q2 Q3
Examine r s T e s ts

W h ite M-TAT n n n
T-TAT n n n

N egro M-TAT n n n
T-TAT n n n

N o te : n w as s e t e q u a l t o 3 a s a c o m p ro m ise
w ith f e a s i b i l i t y , 3 b e in g n e c e s s a ry f o r a
w i t h i n - g r o u p v a r i a n c e a n d more t h a n t h r e e t a x ­
in g th e c a p a b ility of c a rry in g out th e e x p e ri­
m ent .
\

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45

The q u e s t i o n o f e x p e r i m e n t a l c o n t r o l g r o u p s m ust a r i s e i n t h i n k i n g

about e x p e rim e n ta l d e s ig n . Thompson s o l v e d t h e p r o b le m by a l l o w ­

i n g e a c h s u b j e c t t o be h i s own c o n t r o l : he a d m i n i s t e r e d b o t h M-TAT
and T-TAT t o t h e sam e s u b j e c t . T h is made i t n e c e s s a r y f o r him t o

d e a l w i t h t h e t i m e f a c t o r , t h u s d e v o t i n g s t a t i s t i c a l l a b o r t o an

a r t i f a c t o f t h e d e s ig n n o t r e l a t e d t o t h e p ro b lem o th e r w is e . A lso

i n t r a - s u b j e c t c o n t r o l i n c r e a s e s t h e l a b o r i n a n o t h e r way: t h e num­

b e r o f v a r i a b l e s w h ic h c a n b e d e a l t w i t h i n t h i s c o n t r o l m u st b e

s m a l l e r t h a n t h e num ber w h ic h c a n b e h a n d l e d b y a n e q u a l amount

o f w ork when r a n d o m i z a t i o n i s t h e c o n t r o l . I n th e p re s e n t d e sig n ,

r a n d o m iz a tio n p e r m its t h e a ssu m p tio n t h a t a l l c a s e s a r e e q u iv a le n t

in a l l re le v a n t a sp e c ts not c o n tro lle d .

A f t e r 12 sub j e c t s fro m e a c h Q g r o u p w e re a s s i g n e d t o t e s t ­

i n g g r o u p s a s i n d i c a t e d , f o u r a l t e r n a t e s w e r e s e l e c t e d a t random
4Z
f o r e a c h Q g r o u p i n a n t i c i p a t i o n o f t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t some o f

t h e p a r t i c u l a r s u b j e c t s s e l e c t e d c o u l d n o t be s e c u r e d f o r t h e t e s t ­

in g s e s s io n s . I n t h e e n d , i t p r o v e d t h a t t h i s p r e c a u t i o n w as h e l p ­

fu l. I n f o u r i n s t a n c e s a l t e r n a t e s had t o be u s e d . Two s u b j e c t s

w e re c a l l e d t o t h e army b e f o r e t h e y c o u l d b e t e s t e d . Two o f them

le f t th e c ity .
The s u b j e c t s h a d b e e n i n f o r m e d when t h e y f i l l e d o u t t h e

q u e s tio n n a ir e t h a t a r e s e a r c h " in s o c i a l p sy c h o lo g y r e g a rd in g o p in ­

io n s, b e l i e f s , fe e lin g s , and t h i n g s l i k e t h a t " w as u n d e r w a y . They

w e re a s k e d t h e i r p e r m i s s i o n t o c a l l u p o n th em f o r a n o t h e r e x e r c i s e

i f t h e i r nam es came u p i n t h e c h a n c e s e l e c t i o n fro m t h e d i s t r i b u ­

t i o n o f t h e i r s c o r e s on t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e . The e x p e r i e n c e o f ad­

m i n i s t e r i n g t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e w as n o t g r e a t l y d i f f e r e n t f ro m t h a t

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46

o f th e C a lif o r n ia p e o p le . The s c h o o l g r o u p s a n d t h e w o r k in g c l a s s

g r o u p ( f ro m a t r a d e s c h o o l ) i m m e d i a t e l y e x p r e s s e d i n t e r e s t a n d co­

o p e ra tio n . J£any i n d i v i d u a l s d e s i r e d t o t a l k f u r t h e r . By n o t i n g

some o f t h e comments on t h e s c h e d u l e s and b y w o rd o f m o u th , t h e

r e s e a r c h e r g o t t h e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t t h i s d e s i r e t o t a l k w as a g e n u ­

in e p e rs o n a l i n t e r e s t a r i s i n g out o f c u r i o s i t y about th e m se lv e s.

Some o f them show ed t h e s u s p i c i o n t h a t t h e y h a d a n e e d f o r t h e r a p y .

One g r o u p , u p o n l e a r n i n g t h a t t h e r e s e a r c h e r w o rk e d f o r V e t e r a n s

A d m in is tra tio n , e x p r e s s e d o p e n ly t h e s u s p i c i o n t h a t t h e r e s e a r c h e r

m ig h t b e an F . B . I . a g e n t , "th e tim e s b e in g w hat th e y a r e . " N e v e r­

th e le ss, t h e p r o p o s a l t o p e r f o r m a n o t h e r t a s k w as g e n e r a l l y a c ­

c e p te d . S o, when t h e rando m s e l e c t i o n s w ere m ade, t h e i n d i v i d u a l s

w e re c o n t a c t e d b y t e l e p h o n e and a t t e m p t s made t o se t d a te s f o r

te s tin g .
The a c t u a l c a r r y i n g o u t o f t h e t e s t i n g w as g r i e v o u s l y b e ­

s e t w ith b ro k e n a p p o in tm e n ts. For th a t reason i t e x te n d e d o v e r a

p e r i o d fro m November 1950 t o A p r i l 1 9 5 1 . The o r i g i n a l p l a n h a d

b e e n t o a s s e m b l e g r o u p s o f n i n e a t one t i m e . T h is d i d n o t w o rk

out at a l l . I n t h e end e a c h e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p r e q u i r e d t h r e e

m e e t i n g s w h e r e i t w as p o s s i b l e t o secu re th r e e s u b je c ts . I n one

c a s e a s i n g l e s u b j e c t was e s p e c i a l l y d i f f i c u l t . I n o r d e r to a s s u r e

h i s w o rk in g i n a group s e t t i n g , a n o t h e r f r i e n d o f t h e two e x a m i n e r s

ag reed to a c t a s a "dummy." He w as unknown t o t h e s u b j e c t a n d w as


a b l e t o come t o t h e s e s s i o n , a c c e p t t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s , and h e l p t o

make t h e s i t u a t i o n t h e same f o r t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l s u b j e c t a s i t had

been fo r t h e o th e r s o f h i s g roup.
The g r e a t e s t d i f f i c u l t i e s o c c u r r e d i n s e c u r i n g t h e Q2 a n d

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47

Q3 g r o u p s , e s p e c i a l l y t h e Q3 g r o u p . From t i m e t o t im e i t occurred

t o t h e r e s e a r c h e r t h a t , t h e m o t i v a t i o n a l f a c t o r s w h ic h c a u s e p e o p l e

t o b r e a k p r o m i s e s , h a v e i n c i d e n t s o c c u r t o th em w h ic h i n t e r f e r e

w i t h t h e i r c o m m itm e n ts , a n d o t h e r w i s e seem t o b e u n r e l i a b l e a r e

i n t i m a t e l y c o n n e c t e d w i t h d o in g r e s e a r c h w i t h human b e i n g s . “C o l­

l e g e so p h o m o re s" a r e much more r e l i a b l e r e s e a r c h s u b j e c t s i n m at­

t e r s t h a t make f o r t h e c o m f o r t and f e e l i n g w i t h i n t h e r e s e a r c h e r

t h a t h e i s f r e e from a n x ie ty about t h e r e s e a r c h . T h is th o u g h t

c r e a t e d a renew ed d e s i r e to c a p tu r e t h i s v a r i a b l e f o r t h e p r e s e n t

stu d y . I n some i n s t a n c e s , i t was f e l t t h a t some o f t h e s e p e o p l e

w e r e i n f a c t h a r r a s s e d b y r e q u i r e m e n t s o f j o b s and f a m i l y e n t a n g l e ­

m e n ts a n d t h a t some r e w a r d f o r t h e g i v i n g o f t h e i r t i m e w as i n o r ­

d er. Such p e o p l e w e r e o f f e r e d $ 3 .0 0 f o r t h e t e s t i n g s e s s i o n by

th e resea rch e r. The f i r s t a t t e m p t a t t h i s p r o v e d e m b a r r a s s i n g b e ­

c a u s e t h e s u b j e c t becam e i n d i g n a n t a n d a s s e r t e d t h a t h e e n j o y e d

d o i n g t h i n g s f o r s t u d e n t s who w e r e g o i n g t o b e n e f i t t h e w h o le human

race. He l a t e r a d d e d t h a t h e was e s p e c i a l l y p r o u d o f “h i s p e o p l e
/ /
who w e re t r y i n g t o be so m e b o d y ." I n t h e e n d money was g i v e n t o 8
s u b j e c t s , o f whom o n l y 2 w e re n o t Q3 p e o p l e . A ll t h e o t h e r s gave

t h e i r t i m e a n d e x p r e s s e d s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h h a v i n g d o n e s o a n d w ere

i n t e r e s t e d i n f i n d i n g o u t how t h e r e s e a r c h t u r n e d o u t . I n many

i n s t a n c e s , w h e re t h e s u b j e c t s a r e s t u d e n t s , t h i s p r e s e n t s t u d y c a n

b e enhanced by th e t h e o r e t i c a l s tim u la tio n o f f u r t h e r c o n ta c t w ith

th em . I n a l l in s ta n c e s th e r e s e a r c h e r i s d e s ir o u s o f g iv in g th e

im p o rt o f th e stu d y to a l l o f th e i n t e r e s t e d s u b j e c t s .

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48

Tlie T e s t i n g P r o c e d u r e

The t e s t i n g was done by p r o j e c t i n g t h e p i c t u r e s on a

screen . The p i c t u r e s w e r e p r i n t e d on 35 mm. f i l m strip s. T h is

made f o r no d e l a y o r c o n f u s i o n i n m ov ing fro m o n e p i c t u r e t o an­

o t h e r , n e c e s s i t a t i n g no comment by t h e e x a m in e r o n c e t h e b e g i n n i n g

i n s t r u c t i o n s were g i v e n . The t e s t i n g w a s done i n a room p r o v i d e d

by t h e S o u th P a r k Community C e n t e r . T h is l o c a t i o n was s e l e c t e d

t o c a u s e a minimum o f t r a v e l i n g f o r t h e s u b j e c t s , an i m p o r t a n t

i t e m s i n c e t h e y w e re e x p e c t e d t o g i v e t h e i r t i m e . I t w as p o s s i b l e

t o b l a c k o u t t h e room i n d a y l i g h t a n d p r o v i d e w r i t i n g l i g h t by .

d e s k lam p a t n i g h t s e s s i o n s . The room w a s l a r g e enough so t h a t


a l l su b j e c t s h a d a f u l l v ie w o f t h e s c r e e n . The s c r e e n w as ad ­

j u s t a b l e i n h e i g h t ; i t w as a r r a n g e d a t a b o u t o n e f o o t a b o v e t h e

h e a d s o f s i t t i n g men a n d a t e i g h t f e e t d i s t a n c e fro m t h e n e a r e s t

su b je c t. F u l l v ie w o f t h e p i c t u r e was a v a i l a b l e t o e a c h s u b j e c t

w ith o u t o b s tr u c tio n .

S i n c e t h e s u b j e c t s w e r e t o b e r e q u i r e d t o w r i t e t h e i r own

s t o r i e s , p a d s o f l i n e d p a p e r w e re p l a c e d , i n a d v a n c e o f t h e i r a r ­

riv a l, on t h e l a r g e t a b l e a t w h ic h t h e y w e r e t o s i t . A ls o p e n c i l s ,

s h a r p e n e d a t b o t h e n d s t o make e r a s u r e i m p o s s i b l e , w e re p l a c e d

a lo n g sid e o f th e p ad s.

The f o l l o w i n g i n s t r u c t i o n s w e re a g r e e d u p o n b y t h e tw o ex­

a m i n e r s a s b e i n g a m in im a l s t a t e m e n t r e q u i r e d t o g i v e t h e n e e d e d

te s tin g se t:

You a r e g o i n g t o b e shown 11 p i c t u r e s . We w an t y o u t o t r y
t o make u p s t o r i e s a b o u t t h e s e p i c t u r e s . You c a n do t h i s , e v e n
t h o u g h y o u may n o t c o n s i d e r y o u r s e l f a s t o r y - w r i t e r , b y t r y i n g

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49

t o t e l l w h a t t h e p e o p l e a r e t h i n k i n g and f e e l i n g an d w h a t t h e y
a r e t r y i n g t o d o . T ry to i n c l u d e t h r e e p a r t s , t e l l i n g w h a t
h appened b e f o r e t h e p i c t u r e , what i s h a p p e n in g i n th e p i c t u r e ,
a n d how i t i s g o i n g t o come o u t . We d o n ’ t w a n t you t o t r y t o
w r i t e g o o d gram m ar and s p e l l i n g . That i s n o t im p o r ta n t. The
p i c t u r e w i l l be shown y ou f o r 5 m i n u t e s . At t h e e n d o f 3 m in­
u t e s y o u w i l l be w a rn e d "Two m i n u t e s a r e l e f t . " You w i l l t h e n
n e e d t o f i n i s h and s t o p when I s a y s t o p . So d o n ’t b o t h e r t r y ­
in g t o e r a s e o r change w hat you have w r i t t e n . I f you w r i t e
s o m e th i n g you d o n ' t w ant down t h e r e , j u s t d ra w a l i n e t h r o u g h
i t a n d go o n . Are t h e r e an y q u e s t i o n s a b o u t t h i s ? You may
num ber y o u r s t o r i e s 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , e t c . L e t 's t r y t h i s one.

The e x p e r i e n c e w as t h a t t h i s i n s t r u c t i o n w as g e n e r a l l y

sa tis fa c to ry . E x tr e m e l y few q u e s t i o n s w e re a s k e d . S in c e t h e de­

s i g n o f t h e s t u d y r e q u i r e d no i n q u i r y , t a l k a f t e r t h e w r i t i n g was

c o m p l e t e d was o f a s o c i a l n a t u r e ; h o w e v e r, t h e r e was c o n s i d e r a b l e
i n t e r e s t i n e x p r e s s i n g how h a r d i t was t o make s t o r i e s on c e r t a i n

p ic tu re s. A few s u b j e c t s e x p r e s s e d a w a r e n e s s o f t h e c o n n e c t i o n

b e tw e e n t h e i r s t o r i e s an d t h e m s e l v e s . I n s e v e r a l i n s t a n c e s w here

t h e r e s e a r c h e r was d e l i v e r i n g s u b j e c t s t o t h e i r homes a f t e r w a r d ,

he i n q u ir e d ab o u t t h e p e o p le i n t h e p i c t u r e s . In fo u r in s ta n c e s

p e o p l e who h a d b e e n shown t h e T-TAT p i c t u r e s e x p r e s s e d no a w a re ­

n e s s t h a t t h e y w e re i n t e n d e d t o be c o l o r e d p e o p l e . At t h i s p o i n t

th e r e s e a r c h e r r e g r e t t e d t h a t he had n o t s p e c i f i c a l l y d e s ig n e d a

s t u d y o f t h i s p e r c e p t u a l phenom enon.

T r e a tm e n t o f t h e S t o r i e s : M e asu rem en t
o f D ependent V a ria b le s

The s t o r i e s w e re t y p e d i n d i v i d u a l l y on s e p a r a t e s h e e t s

8" x 5 - 1 / 2 " . T hese s h e e t s w ere coded t o i d e n t i f y t h e s t o r y and

t h e w r i t e r a n d a r r a n g e d i n random o r d e r . T h is guarded^, a g a i n s t

p o ss ib le b ia s in sc o rin g . The aim o f t h e t r e a t m e n t was t o secure

r e l i a b l e m e a s u re m e n t o f P r o d u c t i v i t y (3 v a r i a b l e s ) and D e fe n s iv e ­

n ess (a 4 th v a r ia b le ) . P r o d u c t i v i t y w as d e f i n e d a s (1) l e n g t h o f

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50

sto rie s, (2 ) num ber o f N e e d s, and (5) num ber o f P r e s s .

A v e ra g e Number o f Words p e r S t o r y

The t o t a l num ber of w o rd s was c o u n t e d f o r a l l s t o r i e s .

Tbe c o u n t i n g was d o n e by t h e r e s e a r c h e r on a l l o f t h e 396 s t o r i e s .

H is w i f e c o u n t e d 100 s t o r i e s s e l e c t e d a t ran d o m . Our a g re e m e n t

was 97 p e r c e n t . The c o u n t on t h e o t h e r 296 s t o r i e s was a c c e p t e d

w ith th e p o s s i b i l i t y of v e ry slig h t e rro r in i t and t h a t e r r o r i s

r a n d o m iz e d f o r t h e t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n .

S c o r i n g of N e e d s a n d P r e s s

The Aron schem e o f s c o r i n g TAT s t o r i e s w a s s e l e c t e d a s t h e

most f r u i t f u l f o r u s e i n t h i s s t u d y f o r two r e a s o n s : ( l ) B ecause

i t i s t h e o r e t i c a l l y r e l a t e d t o t h e p s y c h o a n a l y t i c s y s te m , i t ap­

p e a l e d t o t h e r e s e a r c h e r a s b e s t s u i t e d t o c o m p re h e n d in g t h e dynam­
i c s o f t h e p r o d u c t i o n w h i l e a t t h e same t i m e r e d u c i n g t h e d a t a t o

'c o u n ta b l e u n i t s . (2 ) C o n f i d e n c e i n i t s u s a b i l i t y i n t h e r e s e a r c h

i s c o n f e r r e d by th e f a c t t h a t i t s a u th o r d e v e lo p e d i t in c o n n e c tio n

w i t h t h e same s t u d y o f e t h n o c e n t r i s m fro m w h ic h t h e b a s i s o f t h e

p r e s e n t r a t i o n a l e w as b o r r o w e d ( 4 ) .

A f o r t u n a t e c i r c u m s t a n c e was t h a t a c o l l e a g u e o f t h e r e ­

s e a r c h e r was i n t e r e s t e d i n u s i n g t h e scheme i n h e r own r e s e a r c h .

, W orking s e p a r a t e l y , b o t h p e r s o n s l e a r n e d t h e w h o le sch em e. In a

s e r i e s o f c o n f e r e n c e s two t y p e s o f d a t a w e re s c o r e d by th em j o i n t l y .

One k i n d o f d a t a w as i n t e r v i e w m a t e r i a l from t h e c o l l e a g u e ' s r e ­

search. The o t h e r t y p e o f d a t a w a s TAT s t o r i e s . The m u t u t a l c o r ­

r e c t i n g a n d d i s c u s s i n g s h a r p e n e d t h e g r a s p o f t h e sc h em e .

F i n a l l y , s a m p le s o f i n t e r v i e w a n d TAT d a t a w e re s c o r e d by

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51

each, p e r s o n i n d e p e n d e n t l y . The a g re e m e n t was r e a s o n a b l y h i g h a s


shown i n T a b le 4 .

TABLE 4

COMPARISONS OF RATINGS BY T7/0 JUDGES USING THE ARON SCHEME


ON INTERVIEW MATERIALS AND TAT STORIES

A greem ent
Abso­ P ar­ No
lu te tia l (D S core
J u d g e ..J u d g e
I t ems J ' H No. Q *
P No. 1° No. 1o No. 1°

In te rv ie w m a te ria ls :
no. of pages 10
n o . o f s c o r i n g s 33 23 21 21 91
n o . v a r i a b l e s 107 95 87 74 71 21 20 6 5 5 5
TAT s t o r i e s :
n o . of s t o r i e s — 6
no. v a ria b le s 45 45 39 ■ 39 82 1 3 5 13 . . . ••

R e g a r d i n g t h e p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h , t h e a s s u m p t io n i s t h a t

t h i s l e v e l o f r e l i a b i l i t y , w h ile n o t a p p ro x im atin g th e p r e c i s i o n

p o s s i b l e i n o b j e c t i v e t e s t s o r p h y s i c a l m e a s u r e m e n ts , i s s u f f i c i ­

e n t l y h i g h t o make t h e r e s u l t s g e n e r a l l y r e p e a t a b l e , r e m o v in g them

from t h e r e a l m o f p u r e l y s u b j e c t i v e a s s e r t i o n .

T h is r e l i a b i l i t y stu d y i s a d e m o n stra tio n o f t h e r e s e a r c h ­

e r ’ s a b i l i t y t o u s e t h e schem e i n i n d e p e n d e n t a g re e m e n t w i t h an­

o t h e r c o m p e te n t s c o r e r . The r e s e a r c h e r s c o r e d e a c h o f t h e 396

s t o r i e s c o m p le te ly . T h e r e i s no c h e c k u p o n t h e o b j e c t i v i t y o f

s c o r i n g on any o f t h e s e s t o r i e s . T h e r e was t h e s a f e g u a r d a g a i n s t

u n c o n sc io u s v i o l a t i o n s i n th e f a c t t h a t th e s t o r i e s w ere u n i d e n t i ­

f i e d e x c e p t f o r a c o m p le x code and w e r e s c o r e d i n a r a n d o m i z e d

o rd er. A lth o u g h t h e e n t i r e scheme was a p p l i e d , o n l y t h e N e e d s a n d

P r e s s w e re c o u n t e d a s r e s u l t s i n t h i s s t u d y . They w e re c o u n t e d

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52

f o r e a c h s t o r y an d t h e t o t a l t a b u l a t e d on w ork s h e e t s .

A W orking C o n c e p t i o n o f N eeds a n d P r e s s

The N eed s a r e v i e w e d a f a n t a s i e d e x p r e s s i o n s o f m o t i v a ­

tio n a l tre n d s in th e p e rso n . For th e p u rp o ses o f t h i s re s e a rc h ,

t h e i r num ber r e f l e c t s t h e a b i l i t y of th e s u b je c t to e x p ress h is

p s y c h o lo g ic a l n a tu re in th e s t o r i e s .

The P r e s s a r e v ie w e d i n t h e same way, w i t h an i m p o r t a n t

e x c e p tio n . W h ile t h e i r num ber a l s o r e f l e c t s t h e a b i l i t y o f t h e

s u b je c t to ex p re ss h is p sy c h o lo g ic a l n a tu re i n th e s t o r i e s , th e

P r e s s h a v e t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f sh o w in g t h e s e t e n d e n c i e s o p e r a t i n g

th ro u g h th e s u b j e c t 's p e r c e p tio n o f e n v iro n m e n ta l in f lu e n c e s a c t ­

i n g u p o n h im . I n a sense th e P re ss i s a le s s d i r e c t e x p re ssio n

o f th e p e r s o n a l i ty , p erh ap s an e x p re ss io n o f d e fe n s iv e tr e n d s .

I t w as h o p e d t h a t t h i s c o n c e p t i o n o f N e ed s and P r e s s c o u l d

b e b ro u g h t t o b e a r upon t h e t e s t i n g s i t u a t i o n , g i v i n g a m ore p s y ­

c h o l o g i c a l l y r e l e v a n t and s e n s i t i v e i n d e x t o e x p e r i m e n t a l v a r i a ­

t i o n s t h a n t h e co u n t of w o rd s. I t w as r e c o g n i z e d t h a t num ber o f

w o rd s a n d num ber o f N eeds o r P r e s s w o u ld b e c o r r e l a t e d , b u t t h e

a s s u m p t i o n w as t h a t t h e c o r r e l a t i o n w ould be low e n o u g h t o make

th e v a r ia b le s a p p re c ia b ly d i f f e r e n t .

D e fe n s iv e n e s s

I t se e m e d d e s i r a b l e t o h a v e a d i r e c t m e a s u r e m e n t o f t h e

e f f e c t s o f t h e e m o tio n a l c lim a te i n th e t e s t i n g s i t u a t i o n upon

Nt h e s t o r i e s . I t was a s su m e d t h a t d e f e n s i v e n e s s o n t h e p a r t o f

t h e s u b j e c t w o u ld r e s u l t i f an y a s p e c t o f t h e s i t u a t i o n m o b i l i z e d

h o s tility , a n x i e t y , o r any i m p u l s e s w h i c h t h e s u b j e c t c o u l d n o t

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
53

e x p r e s s i n t h e s i t u a t i o n i n a way a c c e p t a b l e t o h i s ego s t r u c t u r e .

The d e f e n s i v e n e s s w ou ld b e t h e s u b j e c t ' s e f f o r t t o h i d e o r c o v e r

u p , o r i n some way p r e v e n t , h i s dynam ic c o n d i t i o n fro m sh o w in g i n

th e s t o r i e s .

I t w as d e c i d e d t o c o n s t r u c t a s c a l e t o m e a s u r e t h i s d e ­

fe n siv e n e ss. The p r o c e d u r e was a s f o l l o w s : (1) C l i n i c a l p s y c h o l ­

ogy t r a i n e e s a t H in e s H o s p i t a l w e r e a s k e d t o s c a l e t e n s to rie s in

f iv e d eg rees o f d e fe n siv e n e ss . They fo u n d t h i s d i f f i c u l t a n d t h e

c o n s e n s u s was t h a t t h e c u e s t o d e f e n s i v e n e s s w e re n e v e r t h e same

i n any tw o s t o r i e s . They p r e s s e d f o r a d e f i n i t i o n . The c u e s w h ic h

t h e y h a d a c t u a l l y u s e d w e re c o l l e c t e d and t h e q u e s t i o n o f d e f i n i ­

tio n d isc u sse d . The c o n s e n s u s was t h a t d e f e n s i v e n e s s i n a TAT

s t o r y w as a s p e c i a l c o n c e p t . (2 ) A f a c u l t y member, tw o members

o f t h e p sy c h o lo g y s t a f f i n t h e M e n t a l H ygiene C l i n i c , and f o u r

t r a i n e e s t h e r e , w e r e p r e s e n t e d f i v e TAT s t o r i e s a n d i n t e r v i e w e d a s

t o how much t h e s e s t o r i e s r e v e a l e d o r c o n c e a l e d a b o u t t h e p e r s o n ­

a lity of th e w r ite r . The r e v e a l i n g a n d c o n c e a l i n g c u e s w e r e c o l -


/

l e c t e d and added t o th o s e a lr e a d y c o l l e c t e d . (3) S e v e r a l t e x t s

w e re combed f o r a d d i t i o n a l c u e s . (4 ) The l i s t o f 25 c u e s w as ex­


a m in ed and c o m b in e d u n t i l 18 r e m a i n e d (A p p e n d ix D ) . ( 5 ) The r e ­

f i n e d l i s t o f 18 c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w as p r e s e n t e d t o 8 j u d g e s , a l l

g ra d u a te s tu d e n ts of c l i n i c a l p sy c h o lo g y , w ith i n s t r u c t i o n s to

r a n k them f o r how much o r how l i t t l e o f th e p e r s o n a l i t y th e y c o u ld

i n t e r p r e t th ro u g h th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c .

Use o f K e n d a l l * 8 W (2 0 , p . 8 0 ) fo u n d t h e a v e r a g e r a n k c o r ­

r e l a t i o n among t h e s e e i g h t j u d g e s t o be . 7 4 , a r e a s o n a b l y h i g h and
q u i t e s i g n i f i c a n t a g r e e m e n t (A p p e n d ix F ) . Two o f t h e c h a r a c t e r i s -

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54

t i c s , w hose d i s p e r s i o n w as c o n s i d e r e d t o o g r e a t , w ere d i s c a r d e d .

The a v e r a g e r a n k f o r e a c h c h a r a c t e r i s t i c was u s e d a s i t s d e fe n siv e ­

n e ss in d e x . The p o s s i b i l i t y o f c o n v e r t i n g t h e s e r a n k s t o s t a n d a r d

s c o r e s was c o n s i d e r e d h u t d i s c a r d e d on t h e g r o u n d t h a t t h e s c a l e

v a l u e s w e re so few t h a t r a n k s w o u ld n o t d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y fro m

norm al ( 1 5 ) .

R e l i a b i l i t y o f t h e d e f e n s i v e n e s s i n d e x . — A random s a m p le

o f 50 s t o r i e s from t h e d a t a w ere s e l e c t e d f o r s t u d y o f t h e r e l i a ­

b i l i t y of th e s c a le . Two j u d g e s w e re a s k e d t o exam ine e a c h s t o r y

and i f a g i v e n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c w e re p r e s e n t t o i n d i c a t e t h e f a c t

(A p p e n d ix ). The r e s e a r c h e r a l s o p e r f o r m e d t h e same s c o r i n g .

When t h e s c o r i n g was c o m p l e t e d , t h e r e s e a r c h e r a s s i g n e d t h e p r o p e r

v a l u e s t o t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and a v e r a g e d them f o r e a c h s t o r y .

Rank c o r r e l a t i o n s o f a v e r a g e v a l u e p e r s t o r y w e re c o m p u te d . The
r e s e a r c h e r ’ s v a l u e s c o r r e l a t e d .5 3 w i t h one j u d g e and .4 9 w i t h t h e

o th e r. T h e s e c o e f f i c i e n t s w e r e r e c o g n i z e d t o be low a s c o m p a red

w ith a c c e p t a b l e c o e f f i c i e n t s f o r o b j e c t i v e t e s t i n g b u t w ere f e l t

t o b e a c c e p t a b l e i n d i c a t o r s of r e l i a b i l i t y w i t h ju d g m e n ts o f t h i s

d eg ree o f co m p lex ity .

N e v e rth e le ss, r e l i a b i l i t y w as s t u d i e d i n a n o t h e r w ay. An­

o t h e r s a m p le o f 35 s t o r i e s was d r a w n a t random fro m t h e d a t a and

p r e s e n t e d t o tw o m em bers o f t h e p s y c h o l o g y s t a f f a t H i n e s H o s p i t a l .

They w e r e a s k e d t o r a n k t h e s t o r i e s from m o st t o l e a s t d e f e n s i v e ­
n e s s ; th e y w ere t o l d t h a t c r i t e r i a f o r d e f e n s iv e n e s s w ere b e in g

s o u g h t and t h e r e f o r e t h e y s h o u l d u s e w h a t e v e r i d e a s t h e y c h o s e .

The r e s e a r c h e r s c o r e d t h e same s t o r i e s u s i n g t h e s c a l e d c h a r a c ­

te ristic s; th e a v erag e s c o re s w ere ran k ed . C o r r e l a t i o n s w ere

1
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
55

t a k e n b e tw e e n t h e r e s e a r c h e r ’ s r a n k i n g s and t h o s e o f t h e j u d g e s .

T h e s e c o e f f i c i e n t s w e r e .5 3 i n one c a s e and .4 8 i n t h e o t h e r .

The c o n s i s t e n c y o f t h e r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t s i n t h e two

d i f f e r e n t t e s t s s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h i s s c a l e was m a x im a lly r e l i a b l e

f o r t h i s t y p e o f ju d g m e n t w i t h i n t h e p r a c t i c a l l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e

stu d y . The r e l i a b i l i t y w a s s u f f i c i e n t t o g i v e c o n f i d e n c e t h a t

such sc o rin g i s b e t t e r th an sh eer s u b j e c t iv i t y .

I n t h i s c a s e a l s o t h e r e i s no c h ec k u p o n t h e s c o r i n g o f

a l l t h e s t o r i e s o t h e r th a n th e c o d in g and r a n d o m iz a tio n .

T h i s m e a s u r e , n o t b e i n g v ie w e d a s p r o d u c t i v i t y , was i n ­

te n d e d to r e f l e c t d i r e c t l y t h e em o tio n al e f f e c t s o f th e e x p e r i­

m e n tal v a r i a t i o n s . I t was a s s u m e d t h a t t h e v a l u e w ould be h i g h

when g u i l t , a n x i e t y , o r h o s t i l i t y w e re p r e s e n t a n d low when w arm th

a n d s e c u r i t y p e r m i t t e d f r e e d o m and s p o n t a n e i t y . T h is i m p l i e s a

n e g a t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n b e tw e e n d e f e n s i v e n e s s a n d p r o d u c t i v i t y .

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
CHAPTER V

RESULTS

The q u a n t i t a t i v e r e s u l t s o f t h i s s t u d y a r e p r e s e n t e d a s

s e ts of av erag es. These r e p r e s e n t th e a v erag e f r e q u e n c ie s o f th e

dependent v a r ia b le s . They a r e shown i n T a b le 5 a s f o l l o w s :

(1 ) m eans f o r a v e r a g e num ber o f w o rd s p e r s t o r y p e r i n d i v i d u a l .


(2 ) m eans f o r t o t a l num ber o f N eeds e x p r e s s e d p e r i n d i v i d u a l .
(3 ) means f o r t o t a l num ber o f P r e s s e x p r e s s e d p e r i n d i v i d u a l .
(4 ) means f o r a v e ra g e d e f e n s iv e n e s s in d e x p e r s t o r y .

F o r e a c h o f t h e t h r e e d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s t h e mean f r e q u e n c y o f

its o c c u rre n c e i s p r e s e n te d under t h e c o n d itio n s o f th e in d ep en d en t

v a r ia b le s and a l l t h e i r i n te r a c t io n s .

The e x p e r i m e n t i s d e s i g n e d a n d t h e v a r i a n c e i s a n a l y z e d

f o r th e p u rp o se of t e s t i n g th e s i g n i f ic a n c e o f th e in d ep e n d en t

v a r i a b l e s and t h e i r i n t e r a c t i o n s a s s o u r c e s o f d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e
I
mean f r e q u e n c i e s o f t h e d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s *

/ '
Mean Number o f Words p e r S t o r y p e r I n d i v i d u a l

T a b l e 6 show s t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e v a r i a n c e o f num ber o f

w o rd s p e r s t o r y p e r i n d i v i d u a l . The t e s t s by t h e m s e l v e s , t h e ex­

a m i n e r s by t h e m s e l v e s , a n d t h e p e r s o n a l i t y t y p e s b y t h e m s e l v e s

h a v e no e f f e c t u p o n t h e num ber o f w o r d s p r o d u c e d . Some d i s c u s s i o n

of th e b a s is fo r th e e v a lu a tio n o f th e s ig n if ic a n c e o f th e p erso n ­

a lity d iffe re n c e s i s re q u ire d . As w i l l b e p o i n t e d o u t b e lo w , t h e r e

i s a s i g n i f i c a n t i n t e r a c t i o n o f p e r s o n a l i ty ty p e w i t h b o th t e s t s

56

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
57

TABLE 5

SUMMARY OF MEAL'S OF ALL THE INDEPENDENT VARIABLES AND


THEIR COMBINATIONS FOR THE FOUR DEPENDENT VARIABLES
i i i u e p s n a e n r - ■-
V a ria b le s D e p en d e n t V a r i a b l e s
and T h e ir At . No . T o t a l No. T o t a l No. D e fe n s iv e ­
C o m b in a tio n s o f Words o f N eeds of P ress n e s s In d ex
G ran d M eans 5 1 .1 1 0 .7 9 .5 7 .2 8

T e s t M eans:
M-TAT 5 2 .5 1 0 .6 9 .4 7 .3 8
T-TAT 4 9 .8 1 0 .8 9 .5 7 .1 8

E x a m in e r M eans: *
Whit e 4 9 .9 1 0 .0 7 .9 7 .4 7
N egro 5 2 .4 1 1 .4 1 1 .4 7 .1 0

P e rso n a lity -
Type M eans: *
Ql 6 3 .1 1 3 .1 1 0 .0 7 .3 7
Q2 4 9 .7 1 0 .8 9 .9 6 .8 2
<23 4 0 .6 8 .3 8 .5 7 .6 5

T by E M eans: * a a
(M-TAT)(W) 5 7 .5 1 1 .2 9 .2 7 .1 6
(M-TAT)(N) 4 6 .6 1 0 .0 9 .7 7 .6 0
(T-TAT)(W) 4 2 .5 7 .2 7 .6 7 .7 7
(T-TAT)(Iff) 5 7 .1 1 2 .9 1 1 .4 6 .5 9

T bv P M eans: a
(M-TAT)(Ql) 7 1 .5 1 3 .3 9 .8 7 .4 3
(M-TAT)(Q2) 4 7 .4 1 0 .2 1 0 .0 6 .8 3
(M-TAT)(Q3) 3 8 .7 7 .8 8 .5 7 .8 9
(T -T A T )(Q l) 5 4 .8 1 2 .3 1 0 .2 7 .3 1
(T-TAT)(Q2) 5 2 .1 1 1 .5 9 .8 6 .8 3
(T-TA T)(Q 3) 4 2 .5 8 .7 8 .5 7 .4 1

E by P M eans: * a
(W) (Q l) 7 0 .6 1 4 .5 9 .2 7 .2 5
(W)(Q2) 4 4 .7 8 .8 8 .3 7 .5 3
(W) Q3 3 4 .9 6 .7 7 .7 7 .5 3
(W )(Q l) 5 5 .6 1 1 .7 1 0 .9 7 .3 3
(N )(Q 2) 5 4 .8 1 2 .3 1 1 .5 6 .1 2
(N )(Q 3) 4 6 .S 9 .8 S. 3 7 .6 9

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58

TABLE 5— C on tin ued

Independent D ep en d en t V a r i a b l e s
V a ria b le s
and T h e i r Av. No. T o t a l No. T o t a l No. D e fe n siv e ­
C o m b in a tio n s o f Words o f N eeds of P ress n e ss Index
T b y E by P M eans: ***
(M-TAT)(W) (Q l) 7 8 .8 1 5 .7 1 0 .0 6 .8 9
(M-TAT)(W)(Q2) 5 1 .7 1 1 .0 9 .0 7 .3 6
(M-TAT)(W)(Q3) 4 1 .9 7 .0 8 .7 7 .2 4
(M-TAT) (N )(Q 1) 6 4 .2 1 2 .0 9 .7 7 .9 8
(M-TAT)(N)(Q2) 4 3 .2 9 .3 1 1 .0 6 .2 9
(M-TAT) (N )(Q 3) 3 5 .5 8 .7 8 .3 8 .5 3
(T -T A T )(W )(Q l) 6 2 .5 1 3 .3 9 .2 7 .6 1
(T-TAT)(W )(Q2) 3 7 .7 6 .7 8 .3 7 .7 0
(T-TAT)(W )(Q3) 2 7 .2 6 .3 8 .7 8 .0 1
(T-TAT) (N ) ( Q l 4 7 .0 1 1 .3 1 2 .0 7 .0 1
i **> r \
(T -T A T )(N )(Q 2) 6 6 .4 1 6 .3 lO .U 5 .9 5
(T-TAT) (N)(Q3) 5 7 .8 1 1 .0 1 0 .3 6 .7 9

♦ ♦ ♦ E f f e c t s s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e .0 0 1 l e v e l o f c o n f i d e n c e .

♦ E f f e c t s s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e .0 5 l e v e l o f c o n f i d e n c e .

aE f f e c t s s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e . 1 0 l e v e l o f c o n f i d e n c e .

TABLE 6

ANALYSIS OF THE VARIANCE FOR AVERAGE


NUMBER OF WORDS PER STORY PER PERSON

S ource SS df V a ria n ce F

T e s t s .................................. 6 7 .5 1 1 6 7 .5 1 • • «

E x a m i n e r s ......................... 5 2 .5 6 1 5 2 .5 6
P e rs o n a lity T y p e s ... 2 ,8 0 4 .3 0 2 1 ,4 0 2 . 1 5 1 4 0 2 .1 5 -
T b y E .............................. 1 ,3 3 5 .9 1 1 1 ,3 3 5 .9 1 2 0 2 8 .5 1 6 .9 1 *
T by P ............................. 1 ,1 5 6 .0 5 2 5 7 8 .0 3 2!9 9 a
E by P .............................. 1 ,6 5 3 .5 4 2 8 2 6 .7 7 4 .2 8 *
T by E by P .................. 4 ,0 5 7 .0 7 2 2 ,0 2 8 .5 1 1 0 .4 9 * * *
W i t h i n ................................ 4 ,6 4 0 .4 7 24 1 9 3 .3 5
T o ta l... 1 5 ,7 6 7 .4 1 35

* * * E f f e c t s s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e .0 0 1 l e v e l o f c o n f i d e n c e .
$
E f f e c t s s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e .0 5 l e v e l o f c o n f i d e n c e .
a3y g r a p h i c i n t e r p o l a t i o n P = .0 6 7 .

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59

and e x a m in e rs; t h i s in te r a c tio n i s c e r ta i n ly c o n tr ib u tin g to th e

& i f f e r e n c e s b e tw e e n t h e p e r s o n a l i t y m eans and on t h a t g r o u n d i t

i s c o n s id e re d a p ro p e r e r r o r term f o r e v a lu a tin g th e d if f e r e n c e s

i n p e r s o n a l i t y m eans. T h i s e x p e r i m e n t i s n o t d e s i g n e d so t h a t t h e

c o n d itio n s re q u ire d f o r u se o f i n te r a c tio n v a ria n c e as th e e r r o r

term a r e p r e s e n t w ith o u t q u e s t io n . As p o i n t e d o u t b y E dw ards

t h i s u s a g e w ould assu m e t h a t t h e i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s so e v a l u a t e d

w e re s e l e c t e d a t ra n d o m ; t h i s i s n o t t r u e o f t h e s e p e r s o n a l i t y

ty p e s.

T h e r e f o r e , i n t h e s t r i c t s e n s e i n w h ic h E dw ards i s t h i n k i n g ,

th e in te r a c tio n in t h i s e x p e r im e n t c a n n o t b e u s e d t o e v a l u a t e t h e

p e r s o n a l i t y m ea n s. On t h e o t h e r h a n d , a l t h o u g h t h e s e t y p e s w e re

n o t s e l e c t e d a t random , t h e y a r e h y p o t h e t i c a l l y c o n s t r u c t e d so t h a t

th e y are e x h a u stiv e o f a l l th e p o s s i b i l i t i e s . W h ile o t h e r t y p e s

o f p e r s o n a l i t y o r g a n i z a t i o n among Megro s u b j e c t s a r e c e r t a i n l y c o n ­

c e iv a b le , t h e i r c o n c e p t i o n w ould r e q u i r e a f r a m e o f r e f e r e n c e d i f ­

f e r e n t f ro m t h e o n e i n u s e i n t h i s e x p e r i m e n t . On t h i s b a s i s t h e
d i f f e r e n c e i n v a r i a n c e b e tw e e n p e r s o n a l i t y t y p e s i s e v a l u a t e d w i t h

th e i n t e r a c t i o n o f p e r s o n a l i t y t y p e s , e x a m in e rs, and t e s t s a s t h e

e r r o r te rm ; a n d no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e i s f o u n d b e tw e e n t h e p e r ­

s o n a lity ty p e s.

T h e r e i s no s e n s e i n w h ic h t h e o t h e r i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s ,

te s ts , and e x a m in e r s c an b e t h o u g h t t o b e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f a l l

e x a m in e r s o r a l l t e s t s . T h erefo re, th e t r i p l e in te r a c tio n cannot

b e u s e d w i t h e i t h e r o f th em o r w i t h an y s i m p l e i n t e r a c t i o n i n w h ic h

th ey p a r t i c i p a t e . The w i t h i n c e l l s v a r i a n c e , or t h e v a r i a n c e con­

t r i b u t e d by r a n d o m i z e d e r r o r and i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s , m u st b e

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60

u s e d t o e v a l u a t e th e sim p le i n t e r a c t i o n s . A ll t h e sim p le i n t e r ­

a c tio n s are s ig n if ic a n t a t t h e .0 5 l e v e l of c o n fid e n c e e x c e p t th e

i n t e r a c t i o n o f t e s t s and p e r s o n a l i t y ty p e s , f o r t h i s i n t e r a c t i o n

P < . 10 b u t > . 05.

T he t r i p l e i n t e r a c t i o n o f t e s t s , e x a m in e rs, and p e r s o n ­
a l i t y ty p e s i s h i g h ly s i g n i f i c a n t , P = .0 0 1 .

C o m p a ris o n o f Means

T h e s e r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e a v e r a g e num ber o f w o r d s

p r o d u c e d i n e a c h s t o r y h a s no d i r e c t a n d s i m p le r e l a t i o n s h i p t o

a ny one o f t h e i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s c o n t r o l l e d i n t h i s e x p e r i ­

m en t. On t h e average, i n d iv i d u a ls in t h i s p o p u la tio n w i l l p rodu ce

a s many w o r d s p e r s t o r y , a n d no m o re , when p r e s e n t e d w i t h t h e Mur­

r a y TAT a s t h e y w i l l when p r e s e n t e d w i t h t h e Thompson TAT. They

w ill, on t h e a v e r a g e , p r o d u c e a s many w o rd s p e r s t o r y , a n d no m o re,

when t h e e x a m in e r i s N egro a s when t h e e x a m in e r i s w h i t e . And i f

we taM e i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l e f f e c t s o f t h e i n t e r ­

a c t i o n s o f a l l t h r e e v a r i a b l e s , no s i n g l e p e r s o n a l i t y t y p e p r o ­

d u c e s a n a v e r a g e num ber o f w o rd s p e r s t o r y w h ic h i s l a r g e r o r

s m a l l e r t h a n t h a t p r o d u c e d b y any o t h e r p e r s o n a l i t y t y p e .

T hese r e s u l t s show t h a t i t i s t h e c o m b i n a t i o n s o f t h e

v a r i a b l e s t h a t mahe s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e a v e r a g e num ber


o f w o rd s p e r s t o r y . As shown i n T a b le 7 , c o m b i n a t i o n s o f t e s t s

a n d e x a m i n e r s w h e re t h e r a c e i s t h e same i n b o t h , t h e e f f e c t ( 5 7 .5

a n d 5 7 . 1 ) i s an a v e r a g e num ber o f w o rd s p e r s t o r y h i g h e r t h a n t h e

g r a n d mean ( 5 1 . 1 ) a l t h o u g h n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y s o . T h ese c o m b in a ­

tio n s , h o w e v e r , d i f f e r fro m t h e m ix e d c o m b i n a t i o n o f M-TAT, w h i t e

te s t, and N e g ro e x a m i n e r , i n an amount w hose p r o b a b i l i t y (P .10)

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61

TA3LE 7

MEAN NUMBER OF WORDS PER STORY FOR


COMBINATIONS OF EXAMINERS AND TESTS

E x am in e r
Test W h ite N egro

M-TAT 5 7 .5 4 6 .6
T-TAT 4 2 .5 5 7 .1

i s l o w e r t h a n t h e . 0 5 l e v e l o f c o n f i d e n c e ; by t h i s c r i t e r i o n s u c h
a d i f f e r e n c e c o u l d o c c u r by c h a n c e . However, t h e r e s u l t w i l l b e

v ie w e d a s s i g n i f i c a n t s i n c e t h e g e n e r a l p r e c i s i o n o f t h i s e x p e ri­

m ent i s n o t so k e e n a s t o w a r r a n t u s e o f a r a z o r - s h a r p c u t - o f f

p o in t.

T a b l e 6 shows t h a t t h e v a r i a n c e s o f t h e t e s t s by p e r s o n ­

a l i t y t y p e s do n o t a p p r o x i m a t e t h e .0 5 l e v e l o f c o n f i d e n c e . How­

ev er, sin c e th e P i s .0 6 7 , t h i s i n t e r a c t i o n does n o t f a i l o f s i g ­

n i f i c a n c e by so g r e a t a q u a n t i t y t h a t i t i s m e a n i n g l e s s t o p r e s e n t

t h e m e a n s. T a b l e 8 show s t h e m ea n s f o r t h e v a r i o u s c o m b i n a t i o n s

TABLE 8

MEAN NUMBER OF WORDS PER STORY. FOR


COMBINATIONS OF PERSONALITY TYPES AND TESTS

T est Ql Q2 Q3

M-TAT 7 1 .5 4 7 .4 3 8 .7

T-TAT 5 4 .8 5 2 .1 4 2 .5

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62

of th e t e s t s and t h e p e r s o n a l i t y t y p e s .

The s u g g e s t i o n i n t h i s t a b l e i s t h a t t h e M-TAT e l e v a t e s

t h e Ql g r o u p and t h a t t h e T-TAT d e p r e s s e s t h e Q3 g r o u p . For each

t e s t tw o o f t h e g r o u p s show l i t t l e d i f f e r e n c e ; f o r M-TAT i t i s Q2

an d Q3 w h ic h d i f f e r l i t t l e fro m one a n o t h e r , b u t b o th a re c o n sid e r­

a b l y s m a l l e r t h a n Q l. F o r t h e T-TAT i t i s Ql a n d Q2 w h ic h d i f f e r

little fro m o n e a n o t h e r b u t b o t h a r e q u i t e a b i t l a r g e r t h a n Q3.

I f t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s w ere a c c e p te d a s s i g n i f i c a n t , th e r e s u l t

w o uld i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e l e a s t e t h n o c e n t r i c and l e a s t a u t h o r i t a r i a n

group, Q l, i s s t i m u l a t e d t o h i g h e r p r o d u c t i o n o f w o r d s ( 7 1 . 5 ) t h a n

t h e o t h e r g r o u p s ( 4 7 . 4 and 3 8 .7 ) b y t h e M u rra y o r w h i t e p i c t u r e s .

On t h e o t h e r h an d w h i l e t h e T-TAT o r Negro p i c t u r e s seem t o de­

c r e a s e p r o d u c t i o n o f w o r d s i n t h e more e t h n o c e n t r i c Q3 g r o u p , i t s

av erage (4 2 .5 ) i s n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t fr o m t h e mean o f t h e

Q3 g r o u p ( 3 8 . 7 ) p r e s e n t e d w i t h M^-TAT. Where t e s t s a n d p e r s o n a l i t y

ty p e s a r e co n cern ed , i t apps a r s t h a t t h e o u t s t a n d i n g e f f e c t i s t h e

i n f l a t i o n o f t h e a v e r a g e num ber o f w o r d s p e r s t o r y when t h e l e a s t

e t h n o c e n t r i c Q l g r o u p i n t e r a c t s w i t h t h e M urray p i c t u r e s .

It c a n b e s e e n b y e x a m in in g T a b l e s 8 a n d 9 t h a t t h e - p a t ­

t e r n o f m eans f o r t h e e x a m in e r b y p e r s o n a l i t y i n t e r a c t i o n i s sim i­

l a r t o t h e one f o r t e s t s a n d p e r s o n a l i t y t y p e s . The d i f f e r e n c e i s

TABLE 9

MEAN HUMBER OF WORDS PER STORY FOR COMBIHATIOHS


OF PERSONALITY TYPES AND EXAMINERS

E x am in er Ql Q2 Q3

W h ite 7 0 .6 4 4 .7 3 4 .9
N egro • 5 5 .6 5 4 .8 4 6 .6

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63

t h a t T a b l e 6 shows t h e l a t t e r i n t e r a c t i o n t o b e s i g n i f i c a n t b e y o n d
th e .0 5 l e v e l o f c o n fid e n c e . A common e x p e r i m e n t a l f e a t u r e o f

t h e s e tw o i n t e r a c t i o n s i s t h a t b o t h t e s t s a n d e x a m in e r s a r e r e p r e ­

s e n t e d b y a w h i t e and a N egro e x a m p le . The common f e a t u r e o f t h e

two p a t t e r n s o f means i s t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l r e s p o n s e s o f t h e t h r e e

p e r s o n a l i t y t y p e s t o w h i t e a s o p p o s e d t o N e g ro s t i m u l a t i o n , d i s ­

r e g a r d i n g t h e o b v i o u s f a c t t h a t i n one c a s e t h e ra c ia l d iffe re n c e

i s i n t h e p e r s o n o f t h e e x a m in e r a n d i n t h e o t h e r c a s e i s i n t h e

p e o p le i n t h e p i c t u r e s . T h is r e s u l t i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e re s p o n s e

i s t h e same i n b o t h c a s e s . The mean f o r Q l p e r s o n a l i t y g r o u p and

t h e w h i t e e x a m in e r i s t h e o n l y mean w h ic h i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r ­

e n t fro m a l l t h e o t h e r s . The Q l g r o u p i s s t i m u l a t e d t o g r e a t e r

p r o d u c t i o n o f w o rd s by t h e w h i t e e x a m in e r j u s t a s by t h e w h i t e

p ic tu re s.

T a b l e 10 show s t h e m eans f o r t h e t r i p l e in te ra c tio n in

t h e 12 c o m b i n a t i o n s o f t h e 3 i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s . Where t h e

M urray t e s t i s c o n c e r n e d , t h e tw o m eans f o r t h e Ql g r o u p ( 7 8 . 8

and 6 4 .2 ) a r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r th a n a l l th e o t h e r s . When t h e

o t h e r s a r e r a n k e d , t h e r e a r e no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw e e n

TABLE 10

MEAN NUMBER OF WORDS PER STORY FOR COMBINATIONS


OF PERSONALITY TYPES, TESTS, AND EXAMINERS

M-TAT T-TAT
r*

Ql ,Q2 Ql Q2 Q3

W h ite 7 8 .8 5 1 .7 4 1 .9 6 2 .5 3 7 .7 2 7 .2
N e g ro 6 4 .2 4 3 .2 3 5 .5 4 7 .0 6 6 .4 5 7 .8

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64

a d ja c e n t m eans. Thus i t i s t h e Ql g ro u p w i t h e i t h e r e x a m in e r f o r

w h ic h t h e M u rra y t e s t h a s a c r i t i c a l i m p o r t a n c e i n t h e d i r e c t i o n

o f e le v a tin g p r o d u c tio n of w ords. T h is e f f e c t i s p r e s e n t f o r

e i t h e r e x a m in e r . I t i s e s p e c i a l l y m arked f o r t h e w h i t e o ne h u t

c o m p a r is o n o f t h e tw o e x a m in e r s f o r Ql on t h e M u rra y t e s t shows

t h e w h i t e e x a m in e r t o h a v e a mean w hich i s n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r

t h a n t h a t o f t h e N egro e x a m in e r ( 7 8 .8 a n d 6 4 . 3 ) .

T h e re seem s t o he some r e v e r s a l o f t h e s e e f f e c t s w h e re

t h e T-TAT i s c o n c e r n e d . The Ql c o n t i n u e s t o show s i g n i f i c a n t l y

g r e a t e r p r o d u c t i v i t y f o r t h e w h i t e e x a m in e r t h a n f o r t h e N e g r o .

But i n t h i s c a s e t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n a c o m b i n a t i o n o f Ql g r o u p

a n d t h e w h i t e e x a m in e r ( 6 2 . 5 ) a n d t h e Q2 a n d Q3 g r o u p s c o m b in e d

w i t h N egro e x a m in e r ( 6 6 . 4 a n d 5 7 . 8 ) c o u l d b e c h a n c e d i f f e r e n c e s .

A n o th e r a p p a r e n t r e v e r s a l i s t h e f a i l u r e o f t h e Ql N egro e x a m in e r

c o m b i n a t i o n t o b e s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r t h a n Q2 a n d Q3 w h i t e ex­

a m in e r c o m b i n a t i o n .

Summary o f R e s u l t s f o r t h e A n a l y s i s o f t h e
A v e ra g e Number o f Words p e r S t o r y

1. ^ e i t h e r t e s t s n o r e x a m in e rs n o r p e r s o n a l i t y ty p e s a r e s i g ­

n i f i c a n t s o u r c e s o f v a r i a n c e i n t h e a v e r a g e number o f w o rd s

per sto ry . In a l l th r e e in s ta n c e s ' s ig n if ic a n c e does n o t

r e a c h t h e .0 5 l e v e l o f c o n f i d e n c e .
2. The p a r t i c u l a r c o n f i g u r a t i o n s which th e t e s t s , e x a m in e rs,

an d p e r s o n a l i t y t y p e s maice i n t h e i r in te ra c tio n a re sig ­

n i f i c a n t s o u r c e s o f v a r i a n c e i n t h e a v e r a g e number of words

per sto ry . T h e se i n t e r a c t i o n s d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y fro m

o n e a n o t h e r , a t t h e .0 0 1 l e v e l o f c o n f i d e n c e .

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65

3. The m o st p r o d u c t i v e c o n f i g u r a t i o n i s t h e one i n v o l v i n g

t h e w h i t e e x a m i n e r w i t h t h e M-TAT a n d t h e Ql p e r s o n a l i t y

group. I t s m ean , h o w e v e r, i s n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t

f ro m f o u r o t h e r c o m b i n a t i o n s :

T-TAT w i t h N egro e x a m in e r a n d Q2 g r o u p .

M-TAT w i t h N eg ro e x a m in e r a n d Ql g r o u p .

T-TAT w i t h w h i t e e x a m in e r and Ql g r o u p .

T-TAT w i t h N egro e x a m in e r and Q3 g r o u p .

4. The s i m p l e i n t e r a c t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s

are a lso s i g n i f ic a n t . The e f f e c t s a r e a s f o l l o w s :

a. The s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t among t h e i n t e r a c t i o n s oft e s t s


a n d e x a m in e r i s a d e c r e a s e i n p r o d u c t i v i t y when t h e e x ­

a m in e r i s w h i t e and t h e p i c t u r e s a r e N e g r o .

b. The e f f e c t o f t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f t e s t s a n d p e r s o n a l i t y

t y p e s i s d i f f e r e n t f o r t h e tw o t e s t s . The p e r s o n a l i t y

t y p e s r e s p o n d s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t l y t o t h e M-TAT.

T h e i r r e s p o n s e s t o t h e T-TAT do n o t d i f f e r s i g n i f i ­

c a n tly .
c. The e f f e c t o f t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f e x a m i n e r s a n d p e r ­

s o n a l i t y t y p e s i s d i f f e r e n t f o r t h e two e x z m i n e r s .

The p e r s o n a l i t y t y p e s r e s p o n d s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t l y

t o t h e w h i t e e x a m in e r . The e f f e c t i s t h a t w h i t e s t i m u ­

l a t i o n , w h e t h e r i n e x a m in e r o r i n t h e p i c t u r e s , i n ­

c r e a s e s p r o d u c t i v i t y o f w o rd s i n t h e Ql g r o u p b u t does
not o th e rw ise a f f e c t th e p e r s o n a lity ty p e s .

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
66

Number o f N eeds p e r I n d i v i d u a l

I n s p e c t i o n o f t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e num ber o f n e e d s p e r

i n d i v i d u a l r a i s e d some q u e s t i o n a b o u t i t s n o r m a lc y and t h e p o s s i ­

b ility , th e re fo re , t h a t t h e v a r i a n c e fro m g r o u p t o g r o u p m ig h t n o t
b e h o m o g e n e o u s. I f s u c h w ere t h e c a s e , a b a s i c a s s u m p t i o n o f an­

a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e t e c h n i q u e w o u ld b e v i o l a t e d a n d t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s

w o uld b e n e c e s s a r y . T h e r e f o r e B a r t l e t t ’ s t e s t f o r h o m o g e n e ity o f

v a r i a n c e was p e r f o r m e d . W ith a P = . 3 0 i t w as d e c i d e d t h a t any

d i f f e r e n c e s i n v a r i a n c e fro m g ro u p t o g ro u p w as l i k e l y d u e t o

chance. I t w as p o s s i b l e t o an ali'-ze t h e v a r i a n c e i n t h e d i s t r i b u ­
t i o n o f t h e num ber o f n e e d s e x p r e s s e d p e r i n d i v i d u a l w i t h o u t r e ­

s o r tin g to tr a n s fo r m a tio n s . The r e s u l t s o f t h i s a n a l y s i s a r e shown

i n T ab le 11.

TABLE 11

ANALYSIS OF THE VARIANCE FOR TOTAL


NUMBER OF NEEDS PER PERSON

S ource SS df V a ria n c e F

T e s t s ................................ .4 4 1 3 .2 2
E x a m i n e r s ...................... 1 8 .7 8 1 1 8 .7 8 1 .2 0
P e r s o n a lity T y p e s .. 1 4 3 .1 7 2 7 1 .5 8 4 .5 9 *
T by E ........................... 6 4 .0 0 1 6 4 .0 0 4 .1 1 *
T b y P ........................... 8 .1 7 2 4 .0 9
E by P ........................... 8 3 .3 8 2 4 1 .9 1 2]s9 b
T b y E b y P ............... 4 3 .9 5 2 2 1 .9 8 „ 1 .4 1
W i t h i n ........................... 3 7 4 .3 3 24 1 5 .6 0 • • •

T o ta l.. . . 736.2-2 35

♦ E ffe c ts s ig n if ic a n t a t th e .0 5 l e v e l o f c o n f id e n c e ,
^ y g r a p h ic i n t e r p o l a t i o n P = .0 5 6 .
^By g r a p h i c i n t e r p o l a t i o n P = . 0 9 9 .

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67

Ttie t r i p l e i n t e r a c t i o n , re p re se n tin g a c o n fig u ra tio n of

t h e e f f e c t s o f a l l t l i r e e in d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s , d o es n o t e v e n ap­

p ro ach. s i g n i f i c a n c e a t t h e .0 5 l e v e l o f c o n f i d e n c e . T h e r e i s no

d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e num ber o f n e e d s o c c u r r i n g among t h e t w e l v e

c o m b in a tio n s o f e x a m in e rs, t e s t s , a n d p e r s o n a l i t y t y p e s w h ic h

c o u l d n o t h a v e b e e n c a u s e d by c h a n c e .

S i m i l a r l y , two o f t h e s i m p l e i n t e r a c t i o n s h av e no s i g n i f ­

ican ce. C o m b in a tio n s o f t e s t s w i t h p e r s o n a l i t y t y p e s a n d o f ex­

a m i n e r s w i t h p e r s o n a l i t y t y p e s do n o t h a v e s i g n i f i c a n c e i n t h e

d i f f e r e n c e s among th em r e s p e c t i v e l y .

The i n t e r a c t i o n o f e x a m i n e r s and t e s t s i s c o n sid e re d s ig ­

n i f i c a n t a t a l e v e l o f c o n f i d e n c e w h ic h i s r o u g h l y (by g r a p h i c

in te rp o la tio n ) .0 5 6 .

Among t h e i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s , o n ly t h e p e r s o n a l i t y

ty p e s have s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s . T h e re i s n o d i f f e r e n c e b e ­

tw e e n t h e t e s t s o r b e tw e e n t h e e x a m in e r s w h ic h c o u l d n o t h a v e come

about by chance.

Oomoari s o n s

T a b l e 13 show s t h e m ea n s o f t h e c o m b i n a t i o n s o f t e s t s and

e x a m in e rs. The mean f o r t h e w h i t e e x a m in e r w i t h t h e T-TAT ( 7 . 3 )

TABLE 13

MEAN NUMBER OF NEEDS PER INDIVIDUAL FOR THE


COMBINATIONS OF EXAMINER AND TESTS

T est F n ite Negro

M-TAT 1 1 .3 1 0 .0

T-TAT 7 .3 1 3 .9

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68

iB s i g n i f i c a n t l y low er titan a l l t h e r e s t ( 1 2 . 9 , 1 1 . 2 , and 1 0 . 0 ) .


I t i s i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e o n ly s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t i s th e te n d e n c y

o f t h e num ber o f n e e d s t o be l o w e r e d when t h e w h i t e e x a m in e r ad­

m i n i s t e r s t h e N egro p i c t u r e s .

T a b l e 13 show s t h e m eans f o r p e r s o n a l i t y t y p e s . The ad­

j a c e n t m eans a r e n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t , a lth o u g h th e d i f f e r ­

e n c e b e t w e e n Q2 a n d Q3 i s l a r g e . Q1 i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r t h a n

Q3.

TABLE 13

MEAN NUMBER OF NEEDS PER INDIVIDUAL


FOR EACH PERSONALITY TYPE

P e rso n a lity No. o f N e ed s


Type p e r P erson

01 1 3 .1

Q2 1 0 .3

Q3 8 .3

Summary o f R e s u l t s f o r Number
o f N eeds p e r I n d i v i d u a l

1. The c o n f i g u r a t i o n s c r e a t e d b y i n t e r a c t i o n o f a l l t h r e e

in d ep en d en t v a r i a b l e s a r e n o t s i g n i f i c a n t s o u rc e s o f

v a r i a n c e i n t h e num ber o f n e e d s p e r i n d i v i d u a l .

2. Among t h e s i m p l e i n t e r a c t i o n s o n l y t h e c o m b i n a t i o n s o f

t e s t s a n d e x a m i n e r s make a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e . The

e ffect is a l o w e r i n g o f t h e num ber o f n e e d s w hen t h e w h i t e

e x a m in e r a d m i n i s t e r s t h e T-TAT.

3. The Q1 g r o u p p r o d u c e s a s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r num ber o f

n e e d s t h a n t h e Q3 g r o u p , b u t n o n e o f t h e o t h e r p o s s i b l e

c o m p a r i s o n s show a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e .

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69

Humber o f P r e s s p e r I n d i v i d u a l

B a r t l e t t ’ s t e s t o f h o m o g e n e ity o f v a r i a n c e show ed a P n=».80

th a t th e v a ria n c e w ith in t h i s d i s t r i b u t i o n i s due to c h a n c e .

The a n a l y s i s o f t h e v a r i a n c e o f P r e s s i s p r e s e n t e d i n

T ab le 14. I t i s shown t h a t t h e t r i p l e i n t e r a c t i o n i s n o t a s i g ­

n if ic a n t so u rce o f v a ria n c e . Among t h e s i m p l e i n t e r a c t i o n s , o n ly

TABLE 14

ANALYSIS OF THE VARIANCE FOR TOTAL


NUMBER OF PRESS PER PERSON

Source SS df V a ria n c e F

T e s t s ................................ .0 3 1 .0 3 • • •

E x a m i n e r s ...................... 4 3 .3 5 1 4 2 .3 5 5 .6 0 *
P e r s o n a l i t y T y p e s .. .1 4 3 .0 7 • • •

T b y E ................. •------ 3 6 .6 9 1 2 6 .6 9 3 .5 4 a
T b y P ........................... 1 7 .3 0 2 8 .6 5 1 .1 5
E b y P ........................... 3 1 .4 3 2 1 0 .7 1 1 .4 2
T by E b y P ............... 3 7 .8 5 3 1 8 .9 3 2 .5 1
W i t h i n ........................... 1 8 0 .6 7 24 7 .5 4

T o t a l .......... 3 7 3 .9 7 35

♦ E f f e c t s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e .0 5 l e v e l o f c o n f i d e n c e ,

^y g r a p h ic i n t e r p o l a t i o n P = .0 7 3 .

t h e c o m b i n a t i o n s o f e x a m in e r s and t e s t s a p p r o a c h s i g n i f i c a n c e ;

w i t h P = .0 7 3 (by g r a p h i c i n t e r p o l a t i o n ) . A p p a ren tly t h i s i s

c a u s e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t among t h e i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s o n l y t h e

e x a m in e r s make a d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e num ber o f P r e s s ( s e e T a b l e 1 5 ) .

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70

TABLE 15

MEAL* NUMBER OF PRESS PER INDIVIDUAL


FOR EACH EXAMINER

A v e rag e Number
of P ress
Examine r per P erson

W h ite 7 .9
Negro 1 1 .4

C o m p a r is o n s

T a b l e 16 show s t h e m eans f o r t h e c o m b i n a t i o n s o f t e s t s

a n d e x a m in e r s a s w e l l a s t h e m eans f o r e x a m i n e r s . T h ese m eans

d i f f e r i n a m ou nts w h ic h c o u ld b e due t o c h a n c e e x c e p t i n g t h e d i f ­

f e r e n c e b e tw e e n e x a m i n e r s on t h e T-TAT. In th is e x c e p tio n th e

N egro e x a m in e r a d m i n i s t e r i n g t h e T-TAT e l i c i t s s i g n i f i c a n t l y m ore

P r e s s p e r i n d i v i d u a l t h a n t h e w h ite e x am in e r. H ow ever, i n t h e

c a s e o f p e r s o n a l i t y t y p e s and e x a m in e rs, none o f t h e i n t e r a c t i o n s

are s ig n ific a n t ( s e e T a b le 1 7 ) .

TABLE 16

MEAN NUMBER OF PRESS PER INDIVIDUAL FOR


THE COMBINATIONS OF EXAMINERS AND TESTS

Test W hit e N egro

M-TAT 9 .2 9 .7

T-TAT 7 .6 1 1 .4

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71

TABLE 17

MEAN NUMBER OF PRESS PER INDIVIDUAL FOR THE


COMBINATIONS OF PERSONALITY TYPES AND EXAMINERS

E x am in e r Q1 Q2 Q3

W h ite 7 .2 5 7 .5 3 7 .6 3
N egro 7 .3 3 6 .1 2 7 .6 9

D e fe n siv e n e s s S cores

B a r t l e t t ' s t e s t show ed t h a t t h e r a w d e f e n s i v e n e s s s c o r e s

w e r e n o t hom ogeneous i n t h e i r v a r i a n c e fro m g r o u p t o g r o u p . T h e se

s c o r e s w ere tr a n s fo r m e d u s in g th e y ‘ X + .5 tra n s fo rm a tio n . A

t e s t o f t h e tra n s fo rm e d s c o re s by B a r t l e t t 's te c h n iq u e p roduced


a P = .1 4 . The a n a l y s i s o f t h e v a r i a n c e o f t h e t r a n s f o r m e d

s c o r e s i s shown i n T a b l e 1 8 .

TABLE 18

ANALYSIS OF THE VARIANCE FOR THE


TRANSFORMED DEFENSIVENESS SCORES
■ . . . - i a - 7T—.

S ource SS df V a ria n c e F

T e s t s ................................ .0 9 5 6 1 .0 9 5 6 1 .1 6
E x a m i n e r s ...................... .0 0 1 7 1 .0 0 1 7 • • •

P e r s o n a l i t y T y p e s .. .0 4 7 5 2 .02 3 7 • • •

T by E ........................... .0 5 0 5 1 .0 5 0 5 • • •

T by P ........................... .0 4 8 0 2 .0 2 4 0 « • *

E by P ........................... .3 3 9 1 2 .1 7 2 3 2 .1 0
T by E by P ............... .0 5 7 6 2 . 0256 • • •

W i t h i n ............................. 1 .9 7 0 0 24 .0 8 2 1 * • •

T o t a l ............. 2 .6 1 0 0 35

a By g r a p h i c i n t e r p o l a t i o n P - .1 7 .

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72

As i n d i c a t e d i n T a b l e 1 8 , n e i t h e r t h e i n t e r a c t i o n s n o r t h e

i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s show s i g n i f i c a n t v a r i a n c e .

D i f f e r e n t i a l R esponses R e f le c te d i n
t h e D epend ent V a r i a b l e s

The r a t i o n a l e o f d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s s t a t e d t h a t t h e a v e r ­

ag e num ber o f w o rd s p e r s t o r y w as a r e s u l t a n t o f d y n a m ic , te m p e r a ­

m e n t a l and s o c i a l f a c t o r s . No s p e c i f i c known d ynam ic p r o c e s s e s


a re r e l a t e d to i t in t h i s r a tio n a le . On t h e o t h e r h a n d t h e o t h e r

dependent v a r i a b le s , n eed s, p re s s , and d e f e n s iv e n e s s , a re p o s tu ­

l a t e d t o h a v e s p e c i f i c dynam ic p r o c e s s e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h th e m .

T a b l e 19 shows t h e o c c u r r e n c e s o f s i g n i f i c a n t v a r i a n c e s

f o r th e f o u r dependent v a r i a b le s . A v e rag e num ber o f w o rd s shows

s ig n if ic a n t v a ria n c e in a l l th e in te r a c tio n s . N eeds a n d P r e s s

show s i g n i f i c a n t v a r i a n c e s o n l y i n t h e i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s ,

p e r s o n a l i t y and e x a m in e rs, r e s p e c t i v e l y . The d e f e n s i v e n e s s i n d e x

shows no s i g n i f i c a n t v a r i a n c e s a t a l l . The one f a c t common t o

TABLE 19

OCCURRENCE OF SIGNIFICANT VARIANCES IN THE FOUR DEPENDENT


VARIABLES SHOWING LEVELS OF CONFIDENCE

A v e ra g e
Number o f D ef e n -
Source o f V a ria n c e Words N eeds P ress siv e n e ss
T e s t s .................................... • • • • »»
E x a m i n e r s ........................... ••• , . , .0 5
P e r s o n a l it y T y p e s .. . . ♦ • • .0 5 •••
T by E ................................ .0 5 .0 5 6 .0 7 3
T by P ................................ .0 6 7 ••• • • •

E b y P ................................ .0 5 .0 9 9 • • • .1 7
T b y E b y . P ...................... .0 0 1 « • •

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73

a l l t h e v a r i a b l e s i s t h a t n o n e o f them r e f l e c t t e s t s a s s o u r c e s

of s ig n if ic a n t v a ria n c e . T hus i t a p p e a r s t h a t a v e r a g e num ber

o f w o rd s i s m o st a f f e c t e d b y t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l c o n t r o l s o f t h i s

e x p erim e n t, d e f e n s i v e n e s s l e a s t a f f e c t e d , a n d t h e t e s t s h a v e no

im p o rta n c e i n t h i s s tu d y as e x p e r im e n ta l f a c t o r s .
P r o d u c t-m o m e n t i n t e r - c o r r e l a t i o n s among t h e d e p e n d e n t

v a r i a b l e s w e r e c o m p u te d . T h e s e a r e shown i n T a b l e 2 0 . The r a n k

o rd e r of th e v a r i a b l e s i n term s o f s i z e of c o r r e l a t i o n w ith a i l

o th e r v a r i a b le s i s a s fo llo w s:

Rank V a ria b le

1 D e fe n s iv e n e s s
2 H eeds
3 Words
4 P ress

The h y p o t h e s i s a b o u t d e f e n s i v e n e s s i s b o r n e o u t . It

c o r r e l a t e s n e g a t i v e l y an d h i g h l y w i t h t h e o t h e r d e p e n d e n t v a r i ­

a b le s.

TABLE 20

SHOWING THE INTER-CORRELATIONS OF THE DEPENDENT VARIABLES

A v e ra g e
Number o f Def e n -
Words N eeds P ress siv e n e s

A v e ra g e num ber o f
w o r d s ................................ ••• .6 8 .3 9 - .3 7

N e e d s ..................................... .6 8 .3 2 - .6 6

P r e s s ..................................... .3 9 .3 2 . .. - .5 7
CO
co•

D e f e n s i v e n e s s ................. - .3 7 -.5 7 •• • •
i

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74

B e a rin g o f R e s u lts upon t h e H y p o th eses

The r e s u l t s o f t h e s t u d y t e s t t h e s p e c i f i c h y p o t h e s e s .

T hese, ta k e n to g e t h e r , a r e th e v e r i f i c a t i o n o f t h e g e n e r a l h y p o th ­

e s is ." . T hus H y p o t h e s e s I I - A , I I - 3 , II-C , I I I - A , and I I I - B w i l l

he ju d g ed f i r s t and H y p o th e sis I , t h e s ta te m e n t o f t h e g e n e r a l

h y p o th e s is , w i l l he e v a lu a te d l a s t a s y n th e s is of a l l t h e r e s u l t s .

H y p o t h e s i s I I - A . — The Q l, o r n o n - a u t h o r i t a r i a n , g r o u p w i l l

n o t r e s p o n d d i f f e r e n t i a l l y i n any o f t h e c o m h i n a t i o n s . As a g en­

e r a l i s a t i o n t h i s h y p o t h e s is h o ld s a t an a c c e p t a h l e l e v e l o f con­

fid e n c e f o r a l l th e r e p lic a tio n s in a l l th e dependent v a ria b le s

e x c e p t one i n s t a n c e a t t h e .0 0 1 l e v e l o f c o n f i d e n c e . The Q l, o r

n o n - a u t h o r i t a r i a n , g ro u p resp o n d ed d i f f e r e n t i a l l y to t h e v a rio u s

c o m h i n a t i o n s o f t e s t s and e x a m i n e r s w h e re a v e r a g e num ber o f w o rd s

p e r s to ry i s th e dependent v a r ia b le . The c o m b i n a t i o n o f w h i t e

p i c t u r e s a n d t h e w h i t e e x a m in e r s t i m u l a t e d t h i s g r o u p t o t h e o n l y

s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t p r o d u c t i v i t y among any o f t h e c o m p a r is o n s

b e tw e e n c o m b i n a t i o n s . T a b l e 21 show s t h e means f o r t h e s e c o m b in a ­

tio n s .

TABLE 21

RESULTS SHOWING MEAN NUMBER OF WORDS PER STORY


FOR COMBINATIONS INVOLVING THE Q l GROUP

C o m b in a tio n Mean

(M—TAT)(W )(Ql) 7 8 .8 7 8 .8 -6 4 .2 = 1 4 .6
6 4 .2 6 4 .2 -6 2 .5 = 1 .7
6 2 .5 7 8 .8 -4 7 .0 = 3 1 .8 *
4 7 .0 6 4 .2 -4 7 .0 = 1 7 .2

* S i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .0 5 l e v e l .

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75

I t i s t r u e t h a t o n t h e d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e , N e e d s , t h e Ql

g ro u p p r o d u c e d an a v e r a g e num ber p e r p e r s o n w h ic h d i f f e r e d fro m

t b e a v e r a g e o f t h e Q3 g r o u p o v e r a l l t h e r e p l i c a t i o n s i n a quan­

t i t y w h ic h i s n o t l i k e l y ( . 0 5 l e v e l of c o n f i d e n c e ) t o h a v e o c ­

c u r r e d by ch an ce. H ow ever, t h i s i s an o v e r a l l d i f f e r e n c e . F or

N eeds t h e Ql g ro u p d o e s n o t p r o d u c e d i f f e r e n t i a l l y among t h e ex­

p e rim e n ta l r e p lic a tio n s .

H y p o t h e s i s I I - B . — The Q2, o r a u t h o r i t a r i a n - p r o j e c t i v e , g

group w i l l re s p o n d d i f f e r e n t i a l l y and t h e co m b in atio n s w i l l have

t h e f o l l o w i n g r a n k o r d e r fro m m o st t o l e a s t :

Rank C o m b in a tio n Symbol

1 Negro p ic tu re s +• N egro e x a m in e r (T-TAT) (N)


2 w h ite p ic tu re s +■ N egro e x a m in e r (M-TAT) (N)
3 'White p ic tu re s + w h ite e x a m in e r (M-TAT) (W)
4 N egro p ic tu re s ■». w h ite e x a m in e r (T-TAT) (W)

The e x p e r i m e n t show s t h ^ t t h e Q2 g r o u p d i d r e s p o n d d i f f e r ­

e n tia lly in th e g e n e ra l d i r e c ti o n h y p o th e siz e d , b u t s t a t i s t i c a l l y

t h e r e s u l t s c o u l d h a v e o c c u r r e d by c h a n c e f o r a l l t h e d e p e n d e n t

v a r i a b l e s e x c e p t Words w h e re t h e d i f f e r e n c e s a r e s i g n i f i c a n t a t

t h e .0 0 1 l e v e l o f c o n f i d e n c e . T h e r e i s t h u s some c o n f i d e n c e t h a t

th e h y p o th e s is i s b orne o u t. T a b le 22 show s t h e r a n k o r d e r o f

c o m b in atio n s. I t i s s u g g e s t i v e t h a t t h e o n l y d i f f e r e n c e fro m

t h e h y p o t h e s i s i s t h e r e v e r s a l o f r a n k s 2 a n d 3 i n Words a n d

N eeds.

H y p o t h e s i s I I - C . — The Q3, o r a u t h o r ! t a r i a n - i n t r a p u n i t i v e ,

g r o u p w i l l r e a c t i n a g e n e r a l l y cors t r i c t e d way and w i l l r e s p o n d

d i f f e r e n t i a l l y i n t h a t t h e N egro e x a m in e r a n d t h e N egro p i c t u r e s

w ill p e rm it in c re a s e in p r o d u c tiv ity . The r a n k o r d e r o f t h e

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76

TABLE 22

SHOWING RESULTS OF COMBINATIONS IN WHICH THE Q2 GROUP


I S INVOLVED FOR ALL DEPENDENT VARIABLES

Rank Symbol Mean


Words

1 (T -T A T )(N )(Q 2) 6 6 .4
2 (M-TAT)(W)(Q2) 5 1 .7
3 (M-TAT)(N)(Q2) 4 3 .2
4 (T-TAT) (W) (Q2) 3 7 .7

N e ed s

1 (T -T A T )(N )(Q 2) 1 6 .3
2 (M-TAT)(W)CQ2) 1 1 .0
3 (M-TAT)(N)(Q2) 9 .3
4 (T-TAT)(W)(Q2) 6 .0

P ress

1 (T -T A T )(N )(Q 2) 1 2 .0
2 (M-TAT)(N)(Q2) 1 1 .0
3 (M-TAT) (W)(Q2) 9 .0
4 (T -T A T )( ¥ ) (Q3) 8 .3

D e f e n s i v e n e s s ( L e a s t t o M ost]

1 (T -T A T )(N )(Q 2) 5 .9 5
2 (M-TAT)(N)(Q2) 6 .2 9
3 (M-TAT)(W)(Q2) 7 .3 6
4 (T-TAT)(W)(Q2) 7 .7 0

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77

c o m b in atio n s w i l l be as fo llo w s:

Rank C o m b in a tio n Symbol

1 N egro p i c t u r e s *■ N egro e x a m in e r (T-TAT) (N)


2 W hite p ic tu re s + N e g ro e x a m in e r (M-TAT)(N)
3 W b ite p ic tu re s w h ite e x a m in e r (M-TAT)(W)
4 N egro p ic tu re s + w h ite e x a m in e r (T-TAT)(W)

The r e s u l t s a r e m ore e q u i v o c a l f o r t h i s h y p o t h e s i s t h a n

i n t h e f i r s t tw o . The h y p o t h e s i s i s b o r n e o u t a t t h e . 0 1 l e v e l

o f c o n f i d e n c e w h e re Words a r e c o n c e r n e d . F o r N e ed s a n d P r e s s t h e

d i r e c t i o n i s as h y p o th e siz e d , b u t t h e r e s u l t s a re n o t s t a t i s t i c a l l y

sig n ific a n t. The d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e , D e f e n s i v e n e s s , show s an u n ­

e x p e c te d d i r e c t i o n . A lth o u g h t h i s p a r t i c u l a r r e s u l t i s p r o b a b l y

a c h a n c e o c c u r r e n c e , t h e i n c r e a s e i n D e f e n s i v e n e s s f o r t h e N egro
e x a m in e r w i l l b e d i s c u s s e d f u r t h e r b e lo w .

We h a v e some c o n f i d e n c e t h a t t h i s h y p o t h e s i s h o l d s f o r

W ords, N e e d s , a n d P r e s s , a s shown i n Tab l e 2 3 , t h e c o m p a r is o n s o f

ra n k o r d e r s i n t h e h y p o th e s is and dep end en t v a r i a b l e s .

H y p o th e sis I I I - A . — T here w i l l n o t b e s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r ­

e n c e s f o r any o f t h e i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s p e r s e m e a s u r e d by an y

o f t h e d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s (m ain e f f e c t s ) .

T h i s h y p o t h e s i s i s p a r t i a l l y b o rn s o u t ( s e e T a b l e 19 a b o v e ) .

The n u l l h y p o t h e s i s i s r e j e c t e d a t t h e .0 5 l e v e l o f c o n f i d e n c e i n

o n ly tw o o u t o f t h e tw e lv e p o s s i b i l i t i e s . Two o u t o f t h e f o u r

dependent v a r i a b l e s are in v o lv e d . The i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s con­

c e r n e d a r e N eeds a n d P r e s s . F o r N e ed s t h e p e r s o n a l i t y t y p e s make

a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e ; t h e Ql g r o u p p r o d u c i n g a s i g n i f i c a n t l y

l a r g e r num ber o f N e ed s t h a n t h e Q3 g r o u p . F o r p r e s s t h e e x a m in e r s

make a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e , s i g n i f i c a n t l y more P r e s s a r e p r o ­

d u c e d f o r t h e N egro e x a m in e r t h a n f o r t h e w h i t e .

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78

TABLE 23

SHOWING THE COMPARISON BETWEEN HYPOTHESIS I I - C


AND THE RESULTS

Rank Symbol Mean


H y p o th e sis II- C
1 (T-TA T)(N )(Q 3) • • •
2 (M-TAT)(N)(Q3) • • •
3 (M-TAT)(W)(Q3) • • •
4 (T-TAT)(W)(Q3) • « •

R e s u l t s f o r W ordsa
1 (T-T A T )(N )(Q 3) 5 7 .8
2 (M-TAT) (W) (Q3) 4 1 .9
3 (M-TAT)(N)(Q3) 3 5 .5
4 (T-TAT)(W)(Q3) 2 7 .2
R e s u lts f o r N eeds0
1 (T-TA T)(N )(Q 3) 1 1 .0
2 (M-TAT)(N)(Q3) 8 .7
3 (M-TAT)(W)(Q3) 7 .0
4 (T-TAT)(W)(Q3) 6 .3
R e s u l t s f o r P r e s s 13
1 (T -T A T )(N )(Q 3) 1 0 .3
2 (M-TAT)(W)(Q3) 8 .7
3 (M-TAT) (N)(Q3) 8 .3
4 (T-TAT)(W)(Q3) 6 .7
R e s u l t s f o r D e f e n s i v e n e s s ( f r o m l e a s t t o m o s t)13
1 (T-TA T)(N )(Q 3) 6 .7 9
2 (M-TAT) (W) (0.3) 7 .2 4
3 (T-TAT)(W)(Q3) 8 .0 1
4 (M-TAT) (N)(Q3) 8 .5 3

S i g n i f i c a n t a t .0 5 l e v e l ,

^ o t sig n ific a n t.

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79

H y p o t h e s i s I I I - B . — T h e re w i l l b e s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s

among t h e t o t a l c o n f i g u r a t i o n s (in te ra c tio n s ). The r a n k o r d e r o f

th e t o t a l c o n f ig u r a tio n w i l l be as fo llo w s:

Rank Symbol
1 (M-TAT)( ¥ ) (Q l)
2 (T-TAT) (N)(Q1)
3 (T-TAT) (II) (Q2)
4 (M-TAT)(IT)(Ql)
5 (M-TAT) (II) (Q2)
6 (T-TA T)(N )(Q 2)
7 (M-TAT) (II) (Q2)
8 (M-TAT) (ll) (Q3)
9 (M-TAT)(W)(Q3)
10 (T-TA T)(W H Q l)
11 'T-TAT)(W )(Q3)
12 T-TAT) (W)(Q3)

T h i s h y p o t h e s i s i s p r o v e d i n t h e c a s e o f a v e r a g e nu m ber

o f W ords. The i n t e r a c t i o n o f a l l t h e i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s m akes

a d i f f e r e n c e w h ic h i s s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e . 0 1 l e v e l o f c o n f i d e n c e .

As shown i n T a b l e 2 4 , t h e r e i s a r a n k c o r r e l a t i o n o f . 7 4 b e t w e e n

h y p o th e s is and t h e r e s u l t s .

TABLE 24

SHOWIIIC- THE 00MPARISOU OF HYPOTHESIS I I I - B


WITH THE RESULTS FOR WORDS

H y p o th e sis I I I - B R e s u l t s f o r Words
Rank Symbol Rank Symbol Means

1 (M-TAT)(W )(Ql) 1 (M-TAT)(W)(Ql) 7 8 .8


2 (T -T A T )(N )(Q l) 7 (T -T A T )(H )(Q l) 4 7 .0
3 (T-TAT) (II) (Q2) 2 (T-TAT) (II (Q2) 6 6 .4
4 (M-TAT)(N)(Q1) 3 (M-TAT)(U)(Q1) 6 4 .2
5 (M-TAT)(W)(Q2) 6 (M-TAT)(W)(Q2) 5 1 .7
6 (T-TAT)(W )(Q2) 10 (T-TAT) (7v) (Q2) 3 7 .7
7 (M-TAT)(U)(Q2) 8 (M-TAT) (11) (02) 4 3 .2
8 (M-TAT)(H)(Q3) 11 (M-TAT)(N)(Q3) 3 5 .5
9 (M-TAT)(W)(Q3) 9 (M-TAT)(W)(Q3) 4 1 .9
10 (T -T A T )(W )(Q l) 4 (T -T A T )(W )(Q l) 6 2 .5
11 (T-TAT) (IT) (Q3) 5 (T -T A T )(N )(Q 3) 5 7 .8
12 (T -T A T )( ¥ ) (Q3) 12 (T-TAT)(W)(Q3) 2 7 .2
Rank c o r r e l a t i o n = . 7 4 .

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80

H y p o t h e s i s I . — The g e n e r a l h y p o t h e s i s i s a s f o l l o w s : The

t o t a l c o n f i g u r a t i o n o f t h e t e s t i n g s i t u a t i o n ox c o m p lex c o m p o n e n ts

o f i t w i l l be s i g n i f i c a n t s o u r c e s o f d i f f e r e n c e i n a l l t h e d e p en d ­

e n t v a r i a b l e s , w hereas s p e c i f i c in d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s w i t h i n i t

w ill not be s ig n if ic a n t so u rces o f d iffe re n c e in th e r e s u l t s .

The r e s u l t s o f t h i s s t u d y do n o t p r o v i d e any e v i d e n c e f o r

r e j e c t i n g th e g e n e ra l h y p o th e sis o f th e r e s e a r c h . On t h e c o n t r a r y
th e re is su ffic ie n t e v id e n c e t o w a r r a n t t h e a ssu m p tio n t h a t th e

h y p o th e s is i s c o r r e c t . F o r e x a m p le , t h e f i n d i n g t h a t t h e t r i p l e

i n t e r a c t i o n i s s i g n i f i c a n t f o r a v e r a g e num ber o f Words p e r s t o r y

b e a rs out th e h y p o th e sis. And t h e f i n d i n g s o f no s i g n i f i c a n c e i n

t h e t r i p l e i n t e r a c t i o n f o r H eeds, P r e s s , and D e f e n s i / e n e s s seem

to d isp ro v e th e h y p o th e s is . I n e v a lu a tin g a l l th e s e r e s u l t s ta k e n

t o g e t h e r , we m ust c o n s i d e r t h e f o l l o w i n g f a c t s :

1. Humber o f v /o rd s i s v ie w e d a s a r e s u l t a n t o f a l l f a c t o r s

i n th e s i t u a t i o n , w h ile H eeds, P r e s s , and D e fe n s iv e n e s s

a r e v ie w e d a s r e s u l t s o f s p e c i f i c p s y c h o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s .

2. M e asu rem en t o f Number o f Words i s h i g h l y r e l i a b l e a n d p r e ­

c is e w h ile th e r e l i a b i l i t y o f th e o th e r s i s lo w .

T h e se f a c t s p e r m i t t h e a rg u m e n t t h a t a v e r a g e num ber o f

Words i s a b e t t e r i n d e x t h a n any o f t h e o t h e r s i n g l e m e a s u r e s .

Hence m ore c o n f i d e n c e m ig h t b e p l a c e d i n i t s p o s i t i v e f i n d i n g

th a n i n th e n e g a tiv e fin d in g s of th e o th e rs . T h i s a rg u m e n t i s

n o t s t r o n g e n o u g h t o c o n s i d e r t h e h y p o t h e s i s c o n c l u s i v e l y demon­

s t r a t e d , but i t g re a tly in c re a ses th e lik e lih o o d th a t i t i s tr u e .

A n o th e r a rg u m e n t i n s u p p o r t o f t h e g e n e r a l h y p o t h e s i s i s

t h e e x t e n t t o w h ic h s p e c i f i c h y p o t h e s e s d e d u c e d fro m i t a r e shown

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81

to be c o r r e c t. A l l o f th e m a r e i n r e a s o n a b l e c o n f i d e n c e shown t o

be e s s e n t i a l l y c o r r e c t , d e s p ite th e f a c t t h a t th e p r e d i c t i o n s

w e re a m is s a t one p o i n t o r a n o t h e r . I n v ie w o f t h e s u p p o r t o f

c o n fid e n ce i n th e g e n e r a l h y p o th e se s, th e s e f a i l u r e s o f p r e d i c ­

t i o n a r e v ie w e d a s m e t h o d o l o g i c a l s h o r t c o m i n g s . The c o r r e c t i o n s

in ra tio n a le , e x p e rim e n ta l d e sig n , and e x p erim e n tal te c h n iq u e a re

s e e n a s v a l u a b l e s u g g e s t i o n s f o r m ore c r u c i a l f u t u r e i n v e s t i g a ­

t i o n o f - t h i s a s s u m p t i o n i m p o r t a n t t o u s e o f t h e TAT a n d p r o j e c t i v e

te stin g .

The c o n c l u d i n g ju d g m e n t i s t h a t t h e p r e s e n t r e s u l t s a d d e d

t o t h o s e o f R i e s s e t a l . a n d H o r c h in e t a l . a r e p r e s u m p t i v e em-
ft
p i r i c a l e v id e n c e a g a in s t t h e a ssu m p tio n t h a t s p e c i a l t e s t s are

r e q u i r e d f o r p a r t i c u l a r g r o u p s e x c e p t i n a h i g h l y s p e c i a l w ay.

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CHAPTER 711

DISCUSSION OF THE PROBLEM

A n a l y s i s o f t h e P r o b le m

S t a te m e n t o f t h e P ro b le m

S t a t e m e n t s b y M u r ra y , H e n ry , a n d Thompson a l r e a d y men­

t i o n e d ( p a g e s 1 - 2 ) c a n b e su m m a riz e d a n d p a r a p h r a s e d a s f o l l o w s :

Sexual d iffe re n c e s , age d i f f e r e n c e s , c u ltu ra l d iffe re n c e s,

and r a c i a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n s u b j e c t s p r e s e n t p e c u l i a r p r o b l e m s

o f TAT a d m i n i s t r a t i o n an d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . T h ese p r o b l e m s a r e
t h o u g h t t o o c c u r b e c a u s e r e s p o n s e p o t e n t i a l i t i e s i n t h e su b ­

j e c t s v a ry a c c o rd in g to th e s e ty p e s of d i f f e r e n c e s . It is

p o s s i b l e to f i n d s tim u lu s p i c t u r e s b e s t a d a p te d t o each group

f o r e l i c i t i n g t h e d e s i r e d q u a l i t y and q u a n t i t y o f f a n t a s y ma­

te ria l.

From t h i s t y p e o f r a t i o n a l e i t f o l l o w s t h a t t h e p r o b l e m

is "What k i n d s o f p i c t u r e s a r e b e s t a d a p t e d t o e l i c i t f a n t a s y ma­

t e r i a l fro m e a c h g r o u p ? "

Thompson p r e s e n t e d a s p e c i f i c a n s w e r t o t h e q u e s t i o n r e ­

g a r d i n g t h e N egro g r o u p . T h is a n s w e r h a s b e e n u n s a t i s f a c t o r y t o

some r e s e a r c h e r s ( s u o r a , p . 6 f f . ) . T h ese s t u d i e s seem t o h a v e

b e e n i n t e r e s t e d i n t e s t i n g w h e t h e r Thom pson’ s a n s w e r i s i n f a c t

c o rre c t. They c o n c l u d e t h a t i t i s n o t.

The w r i t e r h a s f e l t t h a t i t i s i n s u f f i c i e n t t o d e m o n s tra te

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83

t h a t any p a r t i c u l a r a n s w e r i s w r o n g . T h is p r o c e d u r e l e a v e s t h e

p r o b le m u n t o u c h e d , f o r t h e p o s s i b i l i t y r e m a in s t h a t , a lth o u g h

t h e s e p a r t i c u l a r p i c t u r e s may be shown t o f a i l o f t h e i r p u r p o s e ,

o t h e r p i c t u r e s m ig h t be f o u n d w h ic h w i l l s e r v e a s a n sw e r t o t h e
q u e stio n . The w r i t e r h a s f e l t t h a t e v en i f " b e s t ad ap ted " p i c ­

t u r e s w e re f o u n d , t h e o r i g i n a l p r o b l e m s w o u ld r e m a i n .

T h e r e i s an e le m e n t o f s c i e n t i f i c s t r a t e g y i n v o l v e d i n

t h i s m a t t e r w h ic h t o u c h e s upo n t h e p h i l o s o p h y o f s c i e n c e . The

q u e s tio n i s w h e th er or n o t th e p r e s s i n g need f o r a p r a c t i c a l so lu ­

t i o n s h o u l d b e a l l o w e d t o f o r f e i t t h e s o u n d e r s o l u t i o n b a s e d on

o b je c tiv e th e o r e tic a l v a lu e s.

T h i s q u e s t i o n seem s t o h a v e a r i s e n many t i m e s w h e re p r o ­

je c tiv e te s ts in p a rtic u la r, and d i a g n o s i s i n g e n e r a l , a r e con­

cerned. I t h a s b e e n m o st f r e q u e n t l y a n s w e r e d i n f a v o r o f t h e im­

m ed iate p r a c t i c a l p s y c h o lo g ic a l t a s k . F o r e x a m p le , i n R o r s c h a c h

p r o c e d u r e many r e s p o n s e s s u c h a s i n f l a t e d r e c o r d s a n d s e x u a l a n d

a g g r e s s i v e r e s p o n s e s may o c c u r i n r e s p o n s e t o t h e i n t e r p e r s o n a l

r e l a t i o n w ith th e t e s t e r (38) s t i l l t h e p r a c t i c e i s t o i n t e r p r e t

th e m a s i m p o r t a n t c o n t i n u i n g e l e m e n t s o f t h e d y n am ic s t r u c t u r e o f

th e s u b je c t because such i s th e pu rp o se o f th e t e s t i n g .

I t i s f e l t t h a t t h i s p r o c e d u r e i s i l l u s o r y , b u t n o t on

t h e b a s i s o f any d i c h o to m y o f t h e o r y a n d p r a c t i c e w h ic h f a v o r s

th e o ry . I t i s s e e n as i l l u s o r y b e c a u s e o f th e b e l i e f t h a t th e

b e s t s o l u t i o n o f a p r a c t i c a l p r o b le m i s i m m e d i a t e l y t h e b e s t s o l u ­

t i o n o f a t h e o r e t i c a l o ne a rd v i c e v e r s a .

I n th e p r e s e n t c o n n e c tio n , th e a p p li c a t io n o f t h i s p r i n ­

c i p l e i m p l i e s t h a t an i n a d e q u a t e t h e o r e t i c a l a n a l y s i s o f t h e p r o b ­

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84

le m s i n v o l v e d i n t e s t i n g s p e c i a l g ro u p s o f p e o p le w i l l d e f e a t t h e

p r a c t i c a l e n d o f m ost e f f e c t i v e l y t e s t i n g th e m . F o r e x a m p le , i t

i s s u s p e c t e d i n t h e s t u d i e s o f H i e s s e t a l . and H o r c h in e t a l . t h a t

t o p r e s e n t H egro s u b j e c t s w i t h N egro s t i m u l u s f i g u r e s m ig h t make


them ‘' s e l f - c o n s c i o u s ” o r a r o u s e u n p l e a s a n t c o n s t r i c t i n g e f f e c t s .

T h i s w o u ld d e f e a t t h e p r a c t i c a l e n d .

A q u a l i t a t i v e p e r u s a l o f some o f t h e p r o t o c o l s i n t h e

p re s e n t re s e a rc h len d s su p p o rt to t h i s id e a . S e v e ra l o f t h e sub­

j e c t s w r o t e s t o r i e s w h ic h a r e c l e a r l y e x p r e s s i o n s o f t h e i r a t t i ­

t u d e s to w a rd s th e r a c e p ro b lem ( s e e p . 6 a n d A pp en d ix E ) . If

t h i s be t r u e , t h i s k i n d o f a r e s p o n s e may b e a v a l i d i n d e x t o t h e

s i t u a t i o n a l a d a p t a t i o n ; b u t i t i s a l e s s v a l i d in d e x t o th e p e r ­

s o n a l i t y d y n a m ic s , a l t h o u g h t o v a r y i n g d e g r e e s i t i s an i n d e x t o

b o th . A n o th e r way o f s t a t i n g t h i s n o t i o n i s a s f o l l o w s : I t may

b e t h a t t h e T-TAT i s more v a l i d l y an i n s t r u m e n t f o r i n v e s t i g a t i n g

t h e s p e c i f i c r a c i a l a d ju stm e n t t h a n i t i s an i n s t r u m e n t f o r i n ­

v e s t i g a t i n g t o t a l p e r s o n a l i t y d y n a m ic s .

T h u s, even i f some p i c t u r e s w e re show n t o b e b e s t a d a p t e d

t o a p a r t i c u l a r group f o r e l i c i t i n g f a n t a s y m a t e r i a l , t h e q u e s tio n

w o u ld r e m a i n I s t h i s m a t e r i a l t h e b e s t f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f d i a g ­

n o s i n g p e r s o n a l i t y d y n a m ic s?

It se e m s , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t t h e a ssu m p tio n t h a t s p e c i a l

t e s t s a r e r e q u i r e d m u st b e c a l l e d i n t o s u s p i c i o n b e c a u s e i t i s not

f r u i t f u l i n s o l u t i o n s t o t h e o r i g i n a l p ro b lem .

R e s t a t e m e n t o f t h e P r o b le m

It a p p e a rs t h a t p s y c h o lo g is ts have fo u n d p r o j e c t i v e t e s t s

t o be v a l u a b l e , t h e TAT p a r t i c u l a r l y so, b e c a u se th ey p r e s e n t a

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85

p s y c h o l o g i c a l t a s k w h ic h i s an o p t i m a l s i t u a t i o n f o r t h e s u b j e c t

to ex p re ss h im s e lf w ith o u t g iv in g i r r e l e v a n t in fo rm a tio n o r be­

c o m ing d e f e n s i v e and s o d i s t o r t i n g t h e i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t i t i s u s e ­
le s s.

We m u s t a c c e p t t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e r e s p o n s e p o t e n t i a l i ­

t i e s o f i n d i v i d u a l s a r e d i f f e r e n t fro m p e r s o n t o p e r s o n . T here­

f o r e we m u st a c c e p t t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e TAT a n d e t h e r p r o j e c ­

t i v e t e c h n i q u e s may h a v e v a r i a b l e e f f e c t i v e n e s s f o r d i f f e r e n t p e r ­

sons. Why i s t h i s so? Why do c h i l d r e n g i v e i r r e l e v a n t m a t e r i a l

(when t h e y d o ) when p r e s e n t e d w i t h a d u l t p i c t u r e s ? Or f e m a l e s

when p r e s e n t e d w i t h m ale f i g u r e s (when t h e y d o ) ? Why a r e t h e s t o ­

r i e s fro m t h e ITavajo so v e r y s h o r t ? Why d i d T h o m p so n 's lle g r o su b ­

j e c t s b lo ck ?

It is e n t i r e l y p r o p e r f o r b o th t h e o r e t i c a l and p r a c t i c a l

p r o g r e s s t o a ssum e a n s w e r s t o t h e s e q u e s t i o n s a n d t e s t th e m . But

n o t a l l a ssu m p tio n s a r e o f e q u a l v a l u e . Some a s s u m p t i o n s p e r m i t

q u e s t i o n s t o b e a s k e d w h ic h a r e b e t t e r t h a n o t h e r s . To assum e t h a t

t h e s e q u e s t i o n s axe a n s w e r e d b y s i m p l e r e f e r e n c e t o t h e s t i m u l u s

q u a l i t i e s o f t h e p i c t u r e s l e a d s t o t h e a s k i n g o f a q u e s t i o n w h ic h

may be u n f r u i t f u l b e c a u s e s i g n i f i c a n t d e t e r m i n i n g f a c t o r s a r e n o t
in c lu d e d in th e fo rm u la tio n .

The a l t e r n a t e a s s u m p t i o n i s t h a t i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s

a r e th e u n iq u e r e s u l t a n t s of th e i n t e r a c t i o n o f p e r s o n a l i t y and

c u ltu re . T h is a ssu m p tio n a t t r i b u t e s a s p e c i a l im p o rta n c e t o s o c i a l -


p s y c h o l o g ic a l f i e l d c o n d itio n s i n d e te rm in in g th e r e s p o n s e p o te n ­

t i a l o f a n i n d i v i d u a l a n d p e r m i t s t h e i n c l u s i o n o f any o r a l l f a c ­

t o r s re le v a n t to th e q u e stio n .

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86

The p r o b le m s i n v o l v e d when c h i l d r e n , I n d i a n s , o r N e g ro e s

g i v e i r r e l e v a n t o r d i s t o r t e d r e s p o n s e s o r b l o c k t o TAT p i c t u r e s

w o u ld become s o l v a b l e i f we knew t h e a n sw e r t o t h e q u e s t i o n What

i s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n s o c i a l - p s y c h o l o g i c a l b a c k g r o u n d f a c t o r s

a n d t h e p r o c e s s o f m a k in g a TAT s t o r y ?

An a n sw e r t o t h i s q u e s t i o n i s s u g g e s t e d i n t h e e x t e n t t o

w h ic h t h e g e n e r a l h y p o t h e s i s o f t h i s stu d y i s d e m o n s tra te d i n th e

r e s u l t s of th e e x p erim e n t.

M eaning o f t h e G e n e r a l H y p o t h e s i s i n Terms
o f t h e P r e s e n t E x p e r im e n t

I n t h e c a s e o f N egro s u b j e c t s , w h i t e a n d N egro TAT p i c t u r e s ,


a n d w h i t e a n d N egro e x a m i n e r s , e a c h one o f t h e t w e l v e p o s s i b l e

c o m b in atio n s i s a d i f f e r e n t s o c ia l-p sy c h o lo g ic a l s itu a tio n . Each

s i t u a t i o n c o n ta in s ( l ) an i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p in v o lv in g t h e
s u b j e c t a n d t h e e x a m i n e r , w h ic h i s d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e s o c i e t y ;

(2) a p e r c e p t u a l - c o g n i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p in v o lv in g t h e s u b j e c t and

th e p ic tu re s , d e t e r m i n e d m a i n l y by t h e p e r s o n a l i t y o r g a n i z a t i o n

of th e s u b je c t; and (3) a p r o d u c t i o n r e l a t i o n s h i p , t h e o r g a n i z e d

in te r a c tio n of su b je c t and t e s t s i t u a t i o n , d o m in a t e d b y t h e ego

s t r u c t u r e o f t h e s u b j e c t i n w h ic h h e (a ) o r g a n i z e s t h e TAT t a s k

in to h im se lf, (b ) a cco m m o d ates h i m s e l f t o t h e e m o t i o n a l c l i m a t e

c r e a t e d by t h e e x a m in e r a n d t h e p i c t u r e s , (c) u n d e rg o e s an a p p e r­

c e p tiv e r e o r g a n iz a tio n u n d er stim u lu s of th e p i c t u r e s , (d) p r e ­


s e n ts th e r e l a t i v e l y o rg a n iz e d s to r y .

The g e n e r a l h y p o t h e s i s m eans t h a t t h e f u n c t i o n i n g o f t h e

p e r s o n i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n r e l a t i o n s h i p w i l l b e d e t e r m i n e d by t h e

c o m b in ed e f f e c t s o f t h e i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p , t h e p e r c e p t u a l -

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87

c o g n itiv e r e la tio n s h ip , and t h e p e r s o n ’ s t e n d e n c i e s and c a p a c i t i e s

fo r a d a p tiv e r e o r g a n iz a tio n . T h i s s t u d y h a s shown r e a s o n a b l y w e l l

t h a t each o f t h e s e c o m b in atio n s i s d i f f e r e n t i n i t s e f f e c t upon

th e p ro d u c tio n r e la tio n s h ip . Some f a c i l i t a t e p r o d u c t i v i t y , o th e rs

c o n stric t i t . The e x p l a n a t i o n s o f f e r e d f o r t h e s e f a c i l i t a t i n g a n d

c o n stric tin g e ffe c ts u t il i z e c o n c e p t s o f t h e d y n a m ic s o f i n t e r ­

p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s and c o n c e p t s o f p e r c e p t u a l - c o g n i t i v e o rg a n iz a ^ -
tio n .

E x p l a n a t o r y C o n c e p ts

" C o m p e t i t i o n , 11 " c o o p e r a t i o n , " " w a r m t h ," and " t e n s i o n " a r e

some o f t h e c o n c e p t s w h ic h r e f e r t o t h e e m o t i o n a l c l i m a t e w i t h i n

w h ic h i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s t a k e p l a c e . In d iv id u a ls in i n t e r ­

p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s a r e m o tiv a te d by f e e l i n g s w h ich , e n s e m b le ,

c re a te th e c lim a te . I n d i v i d u a l m o t i v a t i o n s i n i n t e r p e r s o n a l con­

t a c t s a r e d e s c r i b e d by c o n c e p t s l i k e " a n x ie ty ," " su b m iss io n ,"


" a f f i l i a t i o n , 11 and o t h e r m e c h a n is m s . The " c o o p e r a t i v e , " "w arm ,"

e m o t i o n a l c l i m a t e i s a ssu m e d t o f a c i l i t a t e TAT s t o r y m a k in g . The

" c o m p e titiv e ," " te n s e ," " t h r e a t e n i n g " c l i m a t e a r e a ssu m e d t o c o n ­

s t r i c t t h e s t o r y m a k in g . The p a r t i c u l a r i n d i v i d u a l w i l l p e r c e i v e

t h e s i t u a t i o n a s "hom ogeneous" o r " in h o m o g e n e o u s " w i t h r e s p e c t t o

w a rm th a n d c o o p e r a t i v e n e s s o r t e n s e and t h r e a t e n i n g a c c o r d i n g t o

t h e c o g n i t i v e s t r u c t u r e w h ic h he b r i n g s t o t h e s i t u a t i o n . The

t a s k o f o r g a n iz in g t h e p e r c e p tio n o f th e s i t u a t i o n i s d e te rm in e d

b y t h e ego s t r u c t u r e o f t h e s u b j e c t . T h is p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e s i t u a ­

t i o n w i l l d e te rm in e h i s re s p o n s e . I f he p e r c e i v e s a H egro o r w h i t e

who m u st b e c o m p e te d w i t h , f e a r e d , or g u ard ed a g a i n s t , h is p ro d u c­

tio n w ill su ffe r. Or i f t h e p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e p i c t u r e s a r o u s e s

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83

such e f f e c t s , t h e p r o d u c tio n w i l l h e a f f e c t e d (4 6 ).

E x p la n a tio n o f R e s u lts

How Some S i t u a t i o n s Are F a c i l i t a t i n g and


O t h e r s Are C o n s t r i c t i n g

I n t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e r e s e a r c h i t was e x p e c t e d t h a t e f ­

f e c t s o f more o r l e s s f a c i l i t a t i o n w o u ld o c c u r o n l y i n t h e c a s e s

o f t h e Q2 and Q3 g r o u p s a n d t h a t t h e e x a m in e r s w ou ld p l a y t h e m ain

ro le in th is e ffe c t. The r e a s o n i n g b e h i n d t h e e x p e c t a t i o n w as a s

fo llo w s:

1. The Ql g ro u p w i l l n o t show any d i f f e r e n t i a l r e s p o n s e s b e ­

cause o f i t s assu m ed n o n - a u t i s t i c , n o n - s t e r e o t y p e d , u n ­

p r e j u d i c e d b a c k g r o u n d w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e Hegro a n d w h i t e

p e rc e p tio n s.

2. S i n c e b o t h t h e Q2 a n d Q3 g r o u p s p o s s e s s d i s p o s i t i o n s t o

a u tistic s te re o ty p e d d i s t o r t i o n s o f r a c i a l p e rc e p tio n , th e y

w o u ld make d i f f e r e n t i a l r e s p o n s e s . The Q2 a n d Q3 g r o u p s

w o u ld t e n d t o b e c o n s t r i c t e d i n t h e c a s e o f t h e w h i t e ex­

a m in er. U n a b le t o d e a l w i t h t h e a n x i e t y i n v o l v e d i n com­

m e n t i n g u p o n t h e p e r c e i v e d c o n f l i c t w i t h h im , t h e s e s u b j e c t s

w o u ld d e f e n d t h e m s e l v e s b y c o n s t r i c t i n g t h e q u a n t i t y and

q u a l i t y o f t h e s t o r i e s t h e y m ade.

The r e s u l t s o f t h e s t u d y i n d i c a t e t h a t t h i s t h i n k i n g must

be re v is e d , f o r tw o r e a s o n s :

1. I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e r o l e o f t h e w h ite e x a m in e r i n c o n s t r i c t ­

i n g t h e Q2 a n d Q3 g r o u p s , we h a v e t h e e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e

Hegro e x a m in e r h a s a s i m i l a r r o l e w i t h t h e s e two g r o u p s

when he i s a d m i n i s t e r i n g t h e w h i t e p i c t u r e s .

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
2. The Ql g r o u p d o e s i n f a c t d i f f e r e n t i a t e i n i t s resp o n se

t o th e tw e lv e c o m h in a tio n s. T h e r esponse of t h i s group to

(M-TAT)(W) i s e x t r e m e l y f a c i l i t a t e d (mean 7 8 .8 w o rd s o f

g r a n d mean 5 1 .1 w o r d s ) .

T h is r e s u l t i s c o n t r a r y t o e x p e c t a t i o n a n d r e q u i r e s ex­

p la n a tio n . To e x p e c t t h a t t h i s g r o u p w ould n o t make a d i f f e r e n t i a l

r e e p o n s e w as a v e r y r i g i d u s e o f t h e o p e r a t i o n a l d e f i n i t i o n . Such

r i g i d u s e was c o n t r a d i c t o r y t o t h e c o n c e p t o f t h e n o n - a u t h o r i t a r i a n

ty p e . I t i s p o s t u l a t e d t h a t t h e n o n - a u t h o r i t a r i a n t y p e i s n ot
ste re o ty p e d , is not p re ju d ic e d . I t f o l l o w s from t i n s t h a t t h e

g r o u p w i l l n o t d i f f e r e n t i a t e on t h e b a s i s o f s t e r e o t y p e d p e r c e p t u a l -

c o g n itiv e -p ro cesses. T h is i s t h e c a s e h e r e . The d a t a show t h a t

w h i l e (M-TAT) (f?) f a c i l i t a t e s Ql, t h e o b v e r s e i s n o t t r u e ; (T-TAT) (N)

d o e s n o t c o n s t r i c t Q l.

Thus t h e d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g r e s p o n s e o f t h e Ql i s n o t b a s i c ­

a lly c o n tra d ic to ry to th e r a tio n a le . T h is r e s p o n s e i s i n t e r p r e t a b l e

by t h e n o t i o n t h a t i t i s t h e t o t a l s i t u a t i o n w h ic h d e t e r m i n e s t h e

resp o n se . Ag i n d i c a t e d a b o v e , i t d o e s n o t h o l d t h a t t h e w h i t e ex­

a m in e r p e r s e c o n s t r i c t s Ql a n d Q2, f o r t h e N e g ro e x a m in e r a l s o

c o n s t r i c t s th e m . So i n t h i s in sta n c e , i t w i l l not h o ld t h a t th e

Ql g ro u p i s n o n - d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g i n i t s r e s p o n s e ; i t i s shown t h a t

t h e d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n i s n o t o f an e t h n o c e n t r i c b a s i s .

T here i s a g e n e r a l s ta te m e n t p e r t a i n i n g t o t h e t o t a l con­

f i g u r a t i o n w h ic h e x p l a i n s t h e s e r e s u l t s : A c o n stric tin g e ffe c t in

t h e m ore e t h n o c e n t r i c s u b j e c t s o c c u r s when r a c e o f e x a m in e r a n d

rac e of fig u re s d i f f e r . A fa c ilita tin g e f f e c t o c c u r s i n a l l sub­

j e c t s when t h e r a c e o f e x a m in e r a n d r a c e o f f i g u r e i s t h e sam e.

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E x p la n a tio n o f th e P r i n c ip l e

A p e r s o n a l i t y may be v ie w e d a s a r e l a t i v e l y s t a b l e e q u i l i b ­

riu m a c h i e v e d i n t h e p e r s o n ’ s e f f o r t s t o b a l a n c e h i m s e l f w i t h i n
h i s own b o u n d a r i e s and w i t h t h e w i d e r b o u n d a r i e s o f t h e c u l t u r a l

m i l i e u w ith w h ic h he m in g le s a s h is l i f e h is to r y u n fo ld s i t s e l f .

P r a c t i c a l l y a l l p e r s o n s g ro w n t o n o r m a l a d u l t h o o d i n .Amer­

i c a a r e a w a re o f t h e N e g r o - w h i t e p r o b l e m . B ecause o f t h e i r p a r ­

t i c i p a t i o n i n a c u l t u r e i n w h ic h t h i s i s s u c h a c r u c i a l m a t t e r ,

m embers o f b o t h g r o u p s h a v e d e v e l o p e d a t t i t u d e s , ste re o ty p e s, or

o th e r a d a p tiv e te c h n iq u e s fo r d e a lin g w ith i t . T hese a d a p t a t i o n s

a re i n f i n t e l y v a r i o u s , b u t i n a l l c a s e s th e y a r i s e out o f t h e i n ­

t e r a c t i o n o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l and h i s s o c i e t y . These a d a p t a t i o n s ,
f o r m embers o f b o t h g r o u p s , c a n b e c o m p re h e n d e d i n t e r m s o f t h e

c o n c e p t o f e t h n o c e n t r i s r a and t h e i m p l i e d p e r s o n a l i t y s t r u c t u r e .

The a s p e c t o f e t h n o c e n t r i s m m o st r e l e v a n t i n t h e im m e d ia te c o n n e c ­

t i o n i s w hat i t im p lie s about s o c i a l p e r c e p t i o n . The i m p l i c a t i o n

i s t h a t e t h n o c e n t r i c p e r s o n s p e r c e i v e i n r i g i d p a t t e r n s w h ic h a r e

d i s t u r b e d when p e r c e p t u a l o r g a n i z a t i o n i s r e q u i r e d by t h e o b j e c t i v e

c o n fig u ra tio n . Where s o c i a l p e r c e p t i o n i s c o n c e r n e d when t h e p e r ­

c e p t u a l f i e l d i s h o m o g en e o u s, t h e y a r e n o t d i s t u r b e d . When i t i s

n o t h o m o g e n e o u s, t h e r e o r g a n i z i n g e ffo rt re q u ire d i s d is tu rb in g .

The s i t u a t i o n i n w h i c h t h e e x a m in e r a n d t h e p i c t u r e ma­

te ria ls s i g n i f y t h e same r a c e i s a hom ogeneous f i e l d w i t h r e s p e c t

to race. P e r c e p t u a l - c o g n i t i v e p r o c e s s e s n e e d e x p en d l e a s t e f f o r t

i n o r g a n i z i n g th em . The s e l f , w ith i t s a n x ie tie s , te n s io n s , and

o th e r c o n s t r i c t i n g e f f e c t s , i s not bro u g h t i n t o fo c u s . T hus p r o -

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91

d u c tiv ity i s f a c i li t a t e d .

On t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e s i t u a t i o n i n w h ic h r a c e o f e x a m in e r

a n d r a c e o f p i c t u r e s d i f f e r p r e s e n t s an i n h o m o g e n e i t y w h ic h m u st

be o rg a n iz e d . I n th e case of e th n o c e n tric p e rso n s in t h i s e x p e ri­

m e n t, t h e y a r e p r e s e n t e d w i t h a h e t e r o g e n e i t y w h ic h i n v o l v e s t h e i r

i n n e r c o n f l i c t s and o th e r d i s t u r b i n g e f f e c t s . These th e y have

l e a r n e d t o c o n t r o l o n l y i n t h e a u t h o r i t a r i a n m a n n e r. The t e c h ­

n iq u e i s c o n s t r i c t i o n .

For th e n o n - a u th o r ita r ia n p e rso n , th e ta s k o f o rg a n iz in g

i s s t i l l p re se n t. E n e rg y i s r e q u i r e d so t h e r e i s no e s p e c i a l l y

h e ig h te n e d f a c i l i t a t i o n . However t h e s e l f b r o u g h t i n t o f o c u s i s

a re la tiv e ly a d e q u a t e one and t h e r e a r e no u n m a n a g e a b le c o n f l i c t s

a r o u s e d , so t h e r e i s no c o n s t r i c t i o n .

The more s p e c i f i c q u e s t i o n may a r i s e r e g a r d i n g t h i s p r i n ­

c ip le : How i s i t t h a t N egro e x a m i n e r s a n d w h i t e e x a m in e r s c a n p a r ­

t i c i p a t e t h e same way i n t h i s e f f e c t s i n c e t h e y a r e so d i f f e r e n t ?

Or N egro p i c t u r e s and w h i t e p i c t u r e s ? E sp e c ia lly sin c e th e s e a re

N e g ro s u b j e c t s who w i l l c e r t a i n l y v i e w them d i f f e r e n t l y ?

T h i s s t u d y i s a t t e m p t i n g t o show t h a t n e i t h e r t e s t s -per s e

n o r e x a m in e r s p e r s e make a d i f f e r e n c e . The a c t u a l s o c i a l - p s y c h o ­

l o g i c a l s i t u a t i o n , p o s i t e d by d a t a fro m s o c i a l s c i e n c e s , i n d i c a t e s

th e p o t e n t i a l d is t u r b a n c e o f N e g ro -w h ite r e l a t i o n s a s w e ll a s th e

p o t e n t i a l w arm th o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p . S im ila rly i t i s p o s ite d

t h a t N e g ro -N e g ro r e l a t i o n s c a r r y t h e sam e p o t e n t i a l i t y . T h erefo re

we a r e d i r e c t e d t o s e a r c h f o r f i e l d c o n d i t i o n s .

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92

E x p la n a tio n o f O th e r R e su lts

The r e s u l t s o f t h i s s t u d y a r e e x p l a i n a b l e i n t e r m s o f t h e
p e r c e p t i o n o f r a c i a l l y hom ogeneous a n d in h o m o g e n eo u s t e s t i n g s i t u ­

a t i o n s by p e r s o n s w i t h ego s t r u c t u r e s o r g a n i z e d i n t h r e e d i f f e r e n t

c o n fig u ra tio n s o f e th n o c e n trism .

1. How ho m o geneou s w h i t e s t i m u l a t i o n f a c i l i t a t e s t h e Ql
g r o u p . — The i n d i v i d u a l s i n t h i s g r o u p show a t e n d e n c y t o b e p e r ­

s o n s f o r whom o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r e d u c a t i o n a n d h i g h e r s o c i a l s t a t u s

have b e en g r e a t e r th a n p e rs o n s i n th e o t h e r g ro u p s. T h is f a c t im­

p l i e s t h a t t h e y may h a v e d e v e l o p e d a d a p t a t i o n s t o t h e i r r a c i a l

s t a t u s d i f f e r e n t fro m p e r s o n s i n t h e o t h e r g r o u p s . It i s tr u e th e y

may h a v e h a d many o c c a s i o n s t o s u f f e r fro m t h e s o c i a l s y s te m i n

w h ic h t h e y l i v e . But t h e i r h i g h e r s o c i a l a n d e d u c a t i o n a l s t a t u s

h as p ro v id e d u n iq u e o p p o r t u n it i e s f o r h a n d lin g t h e s e d is a d v a n ta g e s .

They c a n p r a c t i c e a v o i d a n c e . T h e ir i n t e r r a c i a l c o n ta c ts a re l i k e l y

to have b e e n l e s s tra u m a tic . They a r e t h u s l i k e l y t o h a v e h a d more

e q u a lita r ia n p a r t i c i p a ti o n th an th e o th e r groups. The h o p e o f t h e

" g r e a t A m e ric a n dream " c om ing t r u e i s b r i g h t e r f o r th em .

They h a v e r e a s o n f o r s t r o n g e r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h w h i t e s

th an o th e r gro u p s. It is e a s i e r f o r them t o s u p p r e s s t h e n e g a t i v e

a sp e c ts of t h e i r r a c i a l s ta tu s .

I n a l a r g e r c o n t e x t t h e s e f a c t s may be p a r t o f t h e r o o t s

o f i n t r a - g r o u p c o n f l i c t i m p l y i n g t h a t t h e s e p e r s o n s may b e t e n d i n g

t o d i s s o c i a t e t h e m s e l v e s fro m " t h e i r own g r o u p s . " The d a t a o f t h i s

research , h o w e v e r, do n o t p o i n t t o t h e a r o u s a l o f c o n f l i c t s i n t h e s e

p e r s o n s by t h e N egro e x a m i n e r . T h e r e a r e no d a t a i n t h i s r e s e a r c h

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93

w h ic h i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e s e p e r s o n s e v e n p e r c e i v e d t h e d a r k e x a m in e r

a s a "N egro " o r t h e w h i t e one a s a " w h i t e p e r s o n . " I t i s a sh o rt­

coming o f t h e r e s e a r c h t h a t i t s d e sig n d id not in c lu d e a sy s te m a tic

c o lle c tin g o f t h i s in fo rm a tio n . H ow ever, i n f o r m a l i n q u i r y b r o u g h t

f o r t h d e n i a l s t h a t t h e T-TAT p i c t u r e s c o n t a i n e d N e g r o e s , a l t h o u g h

t h e s u b j e c t s r e c o g n i z e d t h e f a c t when i t w as p o i n t e d o u t t o th em .

The i n d i c a t i o n i s s t r o n g t h a t t h e s e p e r s o n s , a l o n g w i t h

t h e i r n e g a t i v e r a c i a l e x p e r i e n c e s , h a v e i n c o r p o r a t e d , t h r o u g h edu­

c a t i o n a l a n d o t h e r o p p o r t u n i t i e s , t h e v a l u e s of t h e t o t a l s o c i e t y .

The n o n - e t h n o c e n t r i c v a l u e s i n t h e s o c i e t y w o u ld b e e x p e c t e d t o

h a v e a g r e a t e r v a l e n c e f o r th em s i n c e t h e s e v a l u e s p r o m is e e s c a p e

fro m t h e e f f e c t s o f r a c i a l p r e j u d i c e . They m ig h t even b e s t i m u ­

l a t e d t o show t h e i r " l i b e r a l n e s s " u n d e r w h i t e s t i m u l a t i o n . When

t h e w h i t e s t i m u l a t i o n i s i n b o t h e x a m in e r a n d p i c t u r e s , t h e y h a v e

no r e m i n d e r o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n t h e s t i m u l u s p a t t e r n a n d

th e m se lv e s. I t i s c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e hom ogeneous w h i t e s t i m u l a t i o n

b rin g s in to fo cu s stro n g te n d e n c ie s to i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith th e to ­

t a l s o c i e t y w h ic h a r e p r e s e n t i n t h i s g r o u p a n d th e r e s u l t i s f a ­

c ilita tio n .
3. How t h e hom ogeneous Negro s t i m u l a t i o n f a c i l i t a t e s t h e

QZ a n d Q.3 g r o u p s a n d t h e w h i t e e x a m in e r c o n s t r i c t s th em on t h e

T-TAT. — 3 o t h t h e s e g r o u p s a r e p e o p l e w i t h l e s s e r s o c i a l o p p o r t u n i ­

tie s. The Q2 p e o p l e d i f f e r fro m t h e Q3 p e o p l e i n t h a t t h e y seem

t o b e s t r i v i n g t o im p ro v e t h e i r l o t i n w ays w h ic h t h e Q3 p e o p l e

are n o t. One o f t h e c l u b s fro m w h ic h s e v e r a l Q2*s came w as e s p e c i ­

a l l y p r o u d t h a t i t was n o t i n t e r e s t e d i n g i v i n g d a n c e s ; i t w as p r e ­

s e n t i n g a fam o u s m u s i c a l a r t i s t . I f th e b ro ad g e n e r a liz a tio n

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94

w o u ld b o l d , i t w ould s e e n t h a t t h i s d i f f e r e n c e i s c r e a t e d b y t e n ­

d e n c i e s i n t h e Q2 p e o p l e t o r e s i s t t h e n e g a t i v e e f f e c t s (ste re o ­

ty p e s) of t h e i r r a c i a l s t a t u s and t e n d e n c i e s o f Q3 p e o p l e t o s u f f e r

them p a s s i v e l y . E f f o r t s i n c h i l d t r a i n i n g by m o b i l e N e g r o e s t o

c o u n te r a c t u n f a v o r a b le s t e r e o t y p e s a r e w id e ly p o in te d o ut ( 3 3 ).

A lso t e n d e n c i e s t o g r e a t e r v i o l e n c e i n f a m i l y l i f e a n d p r i m a r y

g r o u p c o n t a c t s h a s b e e n p o i n t e d o u t a s a dynam ic c o n s e q u e n c e o f

t h e im p o te n ce o f lo w e r c l a s s e s o f N egroes i n t h e f a c e o f t h e i r

ra c ia l situ a tio n .
For b o th g ro u p s, th e n , a s t i m u l u s p a t t e r n w h ic h b r o u g h t

t h e s e l f i n t o f o c u s w o u ld b e a r o u s i n g s t r o n g t e n s i o n s , e ffe c ts,

a n d s t r i v i n g s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y r e l a t e d t o TAT s t o r y m a k in g . The

i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e hom ogeneous N egro s t i m u l a t i o n i s t h a t t h e s t i m u ­

lu s p a tt e r n does not b rin g th e s e l f in to fo c u s. T h e r e i s no n e e d

t o o r g a n i z e a r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n a s t i m u l u s p a t t e r n w h ic h t h e y

h a v e a t e n d e n c y t o p e r c e i v e a s w h i t e a n d t h e m s e l v e s w h ic h t h e y

m u st p e r c e i v e a s N e g r o .
T h e s e a r e i n d i v i d u a l s who r e v e a l e d t h e i r s e n s i t i v i t y t o

s o c i a l p e r c e p tio n s e i t h e r i n th e s t o r i e s th e m se lv e s o r i n th e in ­

form al in q u ir y . W ith o u t any s u g g e s t i o n s a b o u t r a c e i n t h e c o n ­

v e rsa tio n , t h r e e Q2 p e r s o n s r e m a r k e d t h a t t h e T-TAT w as a b o u t

N eg ro p e o p l e .
S in c e t h e r a c i a l p e r c e p t i o n s o c c u rre d i n th e f a c i l i t a t i o n

o f N egro e x a m in e r - N e g r o p i c t u r e s i t u a t i o n , it i s p e r tin e n t to ask

w h e t h e r o r n o t t h e y o c c u r r e d i n t h e hom ogeneous w h i t e s t i m u l u s

c o n f i g u r a t i o n , o r w h e th er th e y o c c u r r e d i n th e s i t u a t i o n o f w h ite

e x a m in e r a n d N egro p i c t u r e s . T h e r e i s no i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t h e y

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95

o c c u r r e d i n t h e hom og en eo us w h i t e s i t u a t i o n , b u t t h e y may h a v e

o c c u r r e d s i n c e t h e r e w as no d e s i g n e d s e a r c h f o r th e m . T hey d i d

o c c u r i n t h e w h i t e e x a m in e r - N e g r o p i c t u r e s i t u a t i o n .

T hese f a c t s r a i s e a q u e s t io n ab o u t t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e

f a c i l i t a t i o n f o r t h e s e g r o u p s w h ic h t h e hom ogeneous N egro s t i m u ­

la tio n causes. I s t h e r e a d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n t h e e t h n o c e n t r i c

p e r c e p t i o n s i n t h e s i t u a t i o n w h e re t h e y a r e f a c i l i t a t e d and t h e

s i t u a t i o n w h e re t h e f i e l d i s in h o m o g e n eo u s? A re a d in g of ty p ic a l

s t o r i e s su g g e sts a g re a t d if f e r e n c e . From t h e s i t u a t i o n o f a l l

N egro s t i m u l a t i o n came some s t o r i e s o f d i r e c t s o c i a l p r o t e s t (see

A p p e n d ix E, 2 - 2 5 , 1 2 M -2 5 ). Where t h e w h i t e e x a m in e r was p r e s e n t ,

t h e h o s t i l i t y w as m ore s u b t l y e x p r e s s e d o r w hat m ig h t b e c o n s i d e r e d

a r e a c t i o n - f o r m a t i o n was p r e s e n t e d ( s e e A p p e n d ix E, 2 - 5 , 2 - 1 9 ) .

The common f a c t o r i n b o t h t h e s e s i t u a t i o n s i s t h e T-TAT.

T h r e e s u g g e s t i o n s em erge fr o m t h i s e x p l a n a t i o n : (1 ) The

TAT e x p l o r e s f a n t a s i e s a b o u t t h e r a c e p r o b le m , (2 ) a N e g ro e x a m in e r

f r e e s th e s e s u b je c ts to ex p ress t h e i r a tt i tu d e s , (3) w i t h t h i s

a ttitu d e a r o u s e d , t h e s e s u b j e c t s m u st becom e d e f e n s i v e when t h e

e x a m in e r i s w h i t e . In c lu d e d in t h i s e x p l a n a t i o n a r e t h e tw o sub ­

s id ia r y fin d in g s (l) t h a t t h e w h i t e e x a m in e r c o n s t r i c t s t h e ex­

p r e s s i o n o f N eeds o n t h e T-TAT, an d (2 ) t h e N egro f a c i l i t a t e s t h e


e x p r e s s i o n o f P r e s s o n t h e T-TAT.

5 . How t h e Q1 g r o u p p r e s e n t s more N eeds t h a n t h e o t h e r

g r o u p s . — T h is f a c t seem s t o b e b e s t e x p l a i n e d b y t h e t h e o r y a b o u t

th e n o n -a u th o rita ria n p erso n . A ll th e s o c i a l f a c t s about t h i s

gro u p su p p o rt t h a t e x p la n a tio n . T h eir g r e a te r e d u c a tio n , t h e i r

h i g h e r s o c i a l s t a t u s , t h e i r a c c e p t a n c e o f '’l i b e r a l " p o i n t s o f v ie w

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96

a l l ad d t o t h e l i k e l i h o o d t h a t t h e s e p e r s o n s w o u ld a c c e p t t h e

TAT t a s k . F i v e o f t h e s e i n d i v i d u a l s w e re i n f o r m e d from c a s u a l

k n o w le d g e a b o u t t h e g e n e r a l n a t u r e o f p r o j e c t i v e t e s t s . S u sp icio n

a b o u t r e v e a l i n g t h e m s e l v e s w a s m in i m a l .

A w e a k n e s s i n t h e e x p l a n a t i o n i s t h e m e t h o d o l o g i c a l con­

s i d e r a t i o n t h a t th e d e p th p s y c h o lo g ic a l a s p e c t s o f th e l i v i n g p e r ­

s o n a r e s o m e th in g more t h a n m ere w o r d s . C lin ic a l te c h n iq u e s of

i n v e s t i g a t i o n s u c h a s w e re u s e d i n t h e C a l i f o r n i a s t u d y may b e

f e l t t o h a v e a n a b i l i t y t o p e n e t r a t e b ey o n d m ere w o rd s . The Aron

schem e a s o ne o f t h e t e c h n i q u e s s h a r e s somewhat i n t h i s p o w e r.

P e r h a p s t o t o o l a r g e an e x t e n t t h e b l i n d s c o r i n g o f a p r o t o c o l

i s d e p e n d e n t u p o n t h e w o rd s w r i t t e n t h e r e . T h is l e a v e s t h e p o s s i ­

b i l i t y t h a t t h e s c o r i n g o f H eeds i n t h i s c a s e h a s an 'unknown l o a d i n g

o f e d u c a t i o n a l a c h i e v e m e n t o r w o rd f l u e n c y .

N e v e rth e le s s t h i s r e s u l t h e ig h te n s th e c o n fid e n ce t h a t th e

p e r s o n a l i t y t y p i n g was a d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n i m p o r t a n t t o t h e p u r p o s e

of th e stu d y .
4. How D e f e n s i v e n e s s i s n o t r e s p o n s i v e t o e x p e r i m e n t a l

v a r i a t i o n s . — An a t t e m p t m ust b e made t o e x p l a i n t h e f i n d i n g t h a t

t h e i n d e x o f D e f e n s i v e n e s s d i d n o t show any d i f f e r e n c e s i n v a r i a n c e

a t t r i b u t a b l e to th e e x p erim e n tal v a r i a b l e s . In c o n s tru c tin g th e

s c a l e i t w as h y p o t h e s i z e d t h a t t h e f a c i l i t a t i n g and c o n s t r i c t i n g

e f f e c t s o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l s i t u a t i o n s w o u ld s t i m u l a t e t h e s u b j e c t

e ith e r to e x p r e s s o r i n h i b i t h i s a f f e c t s an d m odes o f e x p r e s s i o n ;

t h e aim w as t o m e a s u re t h e e f f e c t s o f t h e s e p r o c e s s e s i n t h e s t o ­

rie s. S i n c e t h e s t o r y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s s c a l e d c an b e shown t o h a v e

a re a so n a b ly h ig h r e l i a b i l i t y , th e f a i l u r e o f th e m easure t o r e ­

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97

f l e e t e x p e rim e n ta l m a n ip u la tio n cann o t be a t t r i b u t e d to t h a t

so u rce. I t i s i m p o r t a n t , t h e r e f o r e , t o c o n s i d e r t h e m ean ing o f

th e s c a l i n g o p e ra tio n . As c a n b e s e e n by e x a m in in g t h e D e f e n s i v e ­

n e s s s c a l e , t h e o p e r a t i o n a l d e f i n i t i o n of D e fe n siv e n e ss i s b a s e d

a s much u p o n p s y c h o l o g i s t s ’ e s t i m a t e s o f t h e i r i n t e r p r e t i v e a b i l ­

ity a s u p o n " s e c u r i t y o p e r a t i o n s " i n t h e d y n a m ic s o f t h e s u b j e c t

(see

The i d e a a r i s e s t h a t t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s a n d t h e c h a r a c t e r ­

i s t i c s t h e m s e l v e s a l l r e f l e c t a n i n t e r e s t i n how much o f t h e s u b ­

j e c t ' s p e r s o n a l i t y can b e seen th ro u g h h is s t o r y . The s c a l e i n ­


d i r e c t ^ m e a s u r e s t h e i n v e s t m e n t o f e f f o r t on t h e p a r t o f t h e

s u b je c t to c o n c e a l h im s e lf . In a sense t h i s m o tiv a tio n i s a neg­

a tiv e task o rie n ta tio n . T h e r e f o r e a more a c c u r a t e s t a t e m e n t o f

w h at t h e s c a l e m e a s u r e s may b e t h a t i t m e a s u r e s t h e s u b j e c t ’ s

D e f e n s i v e n e s s a g a i n s t t h e TAT t a s k i t s e l f . I f th is is tru e , it

i s a m easure o f a h ig h ly i n d i v i d u a l t h i n g , s h o w in g t h e s u b j e c t ’ s

s u p e r f i c i a l m o tiv a tio n to p a r t i c i p a t e in t h i s stu d y . T h e r e i s no

reaso n to th in k th a t i t s d i s t r i b u t i o n w ould b e a f f e c t e d by t h e

e x p e rim e n ta l v a r ia b le s . The e f f o r t t o a c h i e v e r a p p o r t by b o t h

e x a m in e r s w o u ld t e n d t o h e l p m i t i g a t e any e f f e c t s t h e v a r i a b l e s

m ig h t h a v e on t h i s m e a s u r e .

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CHAPTER V I II

CONCLUSION

S nT n raa-ry

The P r o b le m

An i n v e s t i g a t i o n w as d e s i g n e d t o t e s t t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t

s p e c i a l s e t s o f TAT p i c t u r e s a r e m o st e f f e c t i v e f o r t e s t i n g p a r ­

t i c u l a r g ro u p s. The m o d e l was t h e c a s e of t h e Thompson r e v i s i o n

(T-TAT) o f t h e M u rra y T h em atic A p p e r c e p t i o n T e s t (M-TAT) f o r u s e

w i t h N egro s u b j e c t s .

An a l t e r n a t e a s s u m p t i o n w as p r o p o s e d i n w hich t h e d e t e r ­

m in a tio n o f th e r e s u l t s o f t e s t i n g i n t h i s m odel depended u p o n

t h e t o t a l s i t u a t i o n r a t h e r t h a n u p o n any s i n g l e e l e m e n t . The
s ta te m e n t o f th e a ssu m p tio n i s as f o llo w s :

The TAT t e s t i n g s i t u a t i o n f u n c t i o n s a s a t o t a l s o c i a l -
p s y c h o l o g i c a l s i t u a t i o n w i t h i n w h ic h a p a r t i c u l a r p e r ­
s o n a l i t y s t r u c t u r e m a n i f e s t s i t s e l f w i t h more o r l e s s
ease.

An e x p e r i m e n t was d e s i g n e d t o t e s t t h e f o l l o w i n g h y p o t h e ­

sis: The p e r s o n a l i t y s t r u c t u r e o f t h e Negro s u b j e c t i n t e r a c t s

w i t h t h e p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e s t i m u l u s p i c t u r e and t h e p e r c e p t i o n

o f t h e e x a m in e r t o p r o d u c e e f f e c t s u n i q u e t o t h e p a r t i c u l a r s i t u a ­

tio n .

98

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99

D e s ig n

The d e s i g n was a f a c t o r i a l o n e i n w h ic h t h e e f f e c t s o f

t h r e e i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s and t h e i r c o m b i n a t i o n s c o u l d b e s t u d i e d

i n fo u r dependent v a r ia b le s . The i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s w e r e :

1. T e sts (M-TAT) an d (T-TAT)

2. E x a m in e rs (lle g ro and w h i t e )

3. P e rso n a lity ty p es (n o n -a u th o rita ria n , a u th o rita ria n -

p ro je c tiv e , and a u t h o r i t a r i a n - i n t r a p u n i t i v e )

The d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s w e r e :

1. P ro d u c tiv ity :

a. A v e ra g e num ber o f W ords p e r s t o r y p e r i n d i v i d u a l


b. T o t a l num ber o f H e ed s p e r i n d i v i d u a l .

c. T o t a l num ber o f P r e s s p e r i n d i v i d u a l .

2. D e fe n s iv e n e s s: c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e s t o r i e s s c a l e d ac­

c o r d i n g t o how much o r how l i t t l e in te r p r e ta tio n of th e

p e r s o n a l i t y w as p e r m i t t e d .

P rocedure

A p r e - s t u d y was c o n d u c t e d t o f i n d o u t w h e t h e r o r n o t t h e

q u e s t i o n n a i r e o f t h e C a l i f o r n i a P u b l i c O p i n i o n S tu d y c o u l d b e u s e d

i n t h e a t t e m p t t o t y p e H egro p e r s o n a l i t i e s a c c o r d i n g t o e t h n o c e n -

tric ity . The r e s u l t s o f t h i s s t u d y s u p p o r t e d t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t

s u c h u s e was p o s s i b l e . The o p e r a t i o n f o r i d e n t i f y i n g t h e t h r e e

p o e t i o l a t e d t y p e s w as c a r r i e d o u t .

T w elve m ost e x tr e m e c a s e s o f e a c h t y p e w e r e ra n d o m ly a s ­

s i g n e d t o one o f f o u r e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p s :

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100

1. W hite e x a m in e r a d m i n i s t e r i n g 2i-TAT

2. W hite e x a m in e r a d m i n i s t e r i n g T-TAT

3. N egro e x a m in e r a d m i n i s t e r i n g M-TAT

4. N egro e x a m in e r a d m i n i s t e r i n g T-TAT

The 11 p i c t u r e s i n e a c h t e s t w e re a d m i n i s t e r e d by s c r e e n p r o j e c t i o n

and s ta n d a rd iz e d i n s t r u c t i o n s . S u b j e c t s w r o t e t h e i r own s t o r i e s .

T r e a tm e n t o f D a ta

E ach s t o r y was t y p e d up o n a h a l f s h e e t a n d l e f t u n i d e n t i ­

f i e d e x c e p t f o r a code n u m b e r. They were p l a c e d i n random o r d e r .

Words w e re c o u n t e d . N e ed s a n d P r e s s w ere s c o r e d a c c o r d i n g t o th e

A ron schem e a n d a D e f e n s i v e n e s s i n d e x was s c o r e d .

A m easure o f r e l i a b i l i t y was s o u g h t f o r e a c h v a r i a b l e .

The c o u n t i n g o f Words show ed 97 p e r c e n t a g r e e m e n t b e tw e e n s c o r e r s .

S c o r i n g o f N eed s a n d P r e s s w as i n a c c e p t a b l e a g r e e m e n t w i t h a compe­

t e n t ju d g e. The D e f e n s i v e n e s s i n d e x w as c o n s t r u c t e d and t h e r e l i a ­

b ility c o e f f i c i e n t s on tiro fo rm s o f t e s t w e r e . 5 3 w i t h o n e j u d g e

a n d .4 9 w i t h a n o t h e r j u d g e . T h is w a s a c c e p t e d a s sh o w in g t h e r e ­

s e a r c h e r ’ s c a p a c i t y t o do t h e s c o r i n g i n r e a s o n a b l e a g r e e m e n t w i t h

an o u ts id e c r i t e r i o n . The c o d i n g a n d r a n d o m i s a t i o n s a f e g u a r d e d

a g a i n s t h a lo e f f e c t s and u n c o n s c io u s v i o l a t i o n s o f t h e s c o r i n g

ru le s.

R e su lts

1. The i d e a t h a t t h e c o u n t i n g o f w o rd s w as a t o t a l l y i n a d e ­

q u a t e i n d e x o f t h e s o c i a l - p s y c h o l o g i c a l e f f e c t s was d i s ­

pro v ed . C o r r e l a t i o n o f t h i s m e a s u r e w i t h N e e d s, P r e s s ,

and D e fe n s iv e n e s s w as h i g h e r th a n e x p e c te d . The a s s u m p -

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
1G1

t i c n t h a t a l l o f t h e s e w o u ld c o r r e l a t e n e g a t i v e l y w i t h

D e fe n siv e n e ss w as w e ll h o rn e o u t. 3ecause of d isp ro o f of

t h e a s s u m p t i o n a b o u t t h e tro rd c o u n t , more i n t e r p r e t i v e

w e i g h t was g i v e n t o r e s u l t s in th is v a r ia b le th a n in th e
o th e rs.

2. The t w e l v e d i f f e r e n t c o m b i n a t i o n s showed s i g n i f i c a n t d i f ­

f e r e n c e s on a v e r a g e num ber o f Words, b u t n o t o n a n y o t h e r

dependent v a r i a b l e . The t e s t s p e r s e show ed s i g n i f i c a n c e

i n no c a s e , a l t h o u g h e x a m i n e r s and p e r s o n a l i t y t y p e s d i d

f o r P r e s s a n d N eeds r e s p e c t i v e l y .

3. The Q l, o r n o n - a u t h o r i t a r i a n , g ro u p was f a c i l i t a t e d by t h e

c o m b i n a t i o n o f M-TAT a n d t h e w h i t e e x a m in e r . I t w as n o t

d e f i n i t e l y c o n s t r i c t e d by t h e T-TAT and t h e N egro exam in­

e r o r any o t h e r c o m b i n a t i o n .
4. The Q2 and Q3 g r o u p s , a u t h o r i t a r i a n - p r o j e c t i v e a n d a u t h o r i -

t a r i a n - i n t r a p u n i t i v e , w e re f a c i l i t a t e d b y t h e N e g ro exam­

i n e r a n d t h e T-TAT. They w e r e n o t c o n s t r i c t e d b y t h e com­

b i n a t i o n of w h i t e e x a m in e r a n d t h e M-TAT, b u t t h e y w e re

c o n s t r i c t e d b y t h e N egro e x a m in e r a n d t h e M-TAT.
5. O ver a l l g r o u p s , a g e n e r a l r e s u l t p r e s e n t e d i t s e l f : When

r a c e o f e x a m in e r and r a c e o f p i c t u r e s a r e t h e sam e, r e g a r d ­

l e s s o f w h ic h r a c e , p r o d u c t i v i t y i s f a c i l i t a t e d . When

r a c e o f e x a m in e r and r a c e o f p i c t u r e s d i f f e r i n any com­

b in a tio n , p ro d u c tiv ity i n t h e more e t h n o c e n t r i c g r o u p s i s

c o n stric te d .

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102

C o n c lu s io n s

S o c ia l-P sy c h o lo g ic a l E ffe c ts

T h is s tu d y h a s s u p p o r te d th e assu m p tio n t h a t t h e i n t e r ­

a c t i o n o f s o c i a l - p s y c h o l o g i c a l f o r c e s c o u ld he d e m o n s t r a b l e . Al­

t h o u g h i t was n o t e x p e c t e d i n a d v a n c e , t h e p r i n c i p l e o f r e l a t i o n ­

s h i p b e tw e e n r a c i a l l y hom ogeneous o r r a c i a l l y h e t e r o g e n e o u s p e r ­

c e p t u a l f i e l d s t o t h e p e r s o n a l i t y t y p e i s d e d u c i b l e fro m m o d ern

c o n c e p t s o f p e r c e p t i o n and s o c i a l p s y c h o l o g y . T h a t t h e r e s u l t w as

so c l e a r l y p r e s e n t e d s u g g e s t s t h e s c i e n t i f i c f r u i t f u l n e s s o f t h e

ap p ro ach .

The T e s t i n g S i t u a t i o n

The s u g g e s t i o n i s t h a t t h e c o n c e p t o f t h e t e s t i n g s i t u a t i o n

a s a s o c i a l - p s y c h o l o g i c a l f i e l d m ig h t b e a p p l i c a b l e t o p r o j e c t i v e

t e s t s o t h e r t h a n TAT. The r e c e n t f i n d i n g s t h a t R o r s c h a c h e x a m in e r s

h a v e c o n s i s t e n t e f f e c t s u p o n p a t i e n t s o r t h a t women e x a m i n e r s h a v e

e f f e c t s o n R o r s c h a c h p r o t o c o l s d i f f e r e n t fro m men m ig h t a l l b e
fru itfu lly s tu d ie d w ith t h i s c o n c e p t.

The A s s u m p tio n o f S p e c i a l T e s t s
f o r P a r t i c u l a r Groups

T h i s s t u d y h a s a t t e m p t e d t o show t h a t t h e t e s t p r o d u c t s

a re resp o n siv e not to s in g le a sp e c ts b u t to th e t o t a l c o n fig u ra ­

t i o n of th e t e s t s i t u a t i o n . I f th is is tru e , th e g e n e ra lity of

th e a ssu m p tio n i s d e n ie d . I n some s i t u a t i o n s i t h o l d s . In o th e r

situ a tio n s i t does not h o ld . The p r o b le m i s s h i f t e d fro m t h e q u e s ­

t i o n "What t e s t s a r e b e s t ? " t o t h e q u e s t i o n "U nd er w hat c o n d i t i o n s

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
d o e s any t e s t work b e s t ? "

Inasm uch, a s t h e p ro b le m o f t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n was fo rm u ­

l a t e d a s f o l l o w s — How i s t h e p r o c e s s o f m aking a TAT s t o r y a f f e c t e d

by th e o p e ra tio n o f s o c ia l- p s y c h o lo g ic a l v a r i a b l e s i n th e t o t a l

s i t u a t i o n ? — t h e a n sw e r p r o v i d e d by t h e s t u d y se em s t o b e a s f o l l o w s

When t h e s o c i a l - p s y c h o l o g i c a l v a r i a b l e s i n t h e t o t a l situ a ­

t i o n fo rm a hom ogeneous f i e l d i n any r e l e v a n t a s p e c t , t h e p e r c e p ­

t u a l - c o g n i t iv e p ro c e s s e s re g a rd in g t h a t a sp ec t a re not p r e s e n te d

w i t h a n e x t e r n a l s o u r c e o f d i s t u r b a n c e and p e r s o n a l i t y p r o c e s s e s

o f m a in i n t e r e s t t o t h e TAT c a n b e o b s e r v e d i n i n c r e a s e d p r o d u c ­

t i v i t y ; b u t when t h e s o c i a l - p s y c h o l o g i c a l v a r i a b l e s i n t h e f i e l d

a re h e te ro g en e o u s re g a rd in g a p a r t i c u l a r a s p e c t, a d istu rb a n c e of
e q u ilib riu m i s s e t u p w h ic h i s a s much a t t r i b u t a b l e t o t h e s i t u a ­

t i o n a s t o t h e p e r s o n a l i t y o f t h e subj e c t and n o t a t a l l a t t r i b u ­

t a b l e t o a s i n g l e a s p e c t o f t h e s i t u a t i o n such a s a t e s t fo rm .

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
APPENDIX A

QUESTIONNAIRE OF THE CALIFORNIA

PUBLIC OPINION SURVEY-

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
T h i s i s a s t u d y o f w h at t h e g e n e r a l p u b l i c t h i n k s a b o u t
a num ber o f s o c i a l q u e s t i o n s . The b e s t a n s w e r t o e a c h
s t a t e m e n t b e lo w i s y o u r - p e r s o n a l o p i n i o n . We h a v e t r i e d
t o c o v e r many d i f f e r e n t p o i n t s o f v i e w . You may f i n d
y o u r s e l f a g r e e i n g s t r o n g l y w i t h some o f t h e s t a t e m e n t s ,
d i s a g r e e i n g j u s t a s s t r o n g l y w i t h t h e o t h e r s , and p e r h a p s
u n c e rta in about o th e rs . W hether you a g r e e o r d i s a g r e e
w i t h any s t a t e m e n t , y o u c a n b e s u r e t h a t many o t h e r p e o p l e
f e e l t h e same way t h a t you d o .

Mark e a c h s t a t e m e n t i n t h e l e f t m a r g i n a c c o r d i n g t o how
much you a g r e e o r d i s a g r e e w ith i t . p l e a s e m ark e v e r y
o n e . W r i t e i n + 1, + 2 , + 3; o r - 1, - 2 , o r - 3 , d e ­
p e n d i n g on how y o u f e e l i n each case.

- 1:
1 I AGREE A LITTLE - 1: I DISAGREE A LITTLE
1-2 : I AGREE PRETTY MUCH - 2: I DISAGREE PRETTY MUCH
1-3 : I AGREE VERY MUCH - 3: I DISAGREE VERY MUCH

1. Human n a t u r e b e i n g w h a t i t i s , t h e r e w i l l a lw a y s b e w ar
and c o n f l i c t .

2. O b e d ie n c e a n d r e s p e c t f o r a u t h o r i t y a r e t h e m ost i m p o r t a n t
v i r t u e s c h il d r e n sh o u ld l e a r n .

3. Z o o t s u i t e r s p r o v e t h a t when p e o p l e o f t h e i r t y p e h a v e t o o
much money a n d f r e e d o m , t h e y j u s t t a k e a d v a n t a g e a n d c a u s e
tro u b le .
4. I t i s up t o t h e g o v e rn m e n t t o make s u r e t h a t e v e r y o n e h a s
a s e c u r e j o b a n d a go o d s t a n d a r d o f l i v i n g .

5. Ho w e a k n e s s o r d i f f i c u l t y c a n h o l d u s b a c k i f we h a v e
enough w i l l p o w er.

.6. N e g r o e s h a v e t h e i r r i g h t s , b u t i t i s b e s t t o k e e p th em i n
t h e i r own d i s t r i c t s a n d s c h o o l s and t o p r e v e n t t o o much
c o n ta c t w ith w h ite s .

7. S c i e n c e h a s i t s p l a c e , b u t t h e r e a r e many i m p o r t a n t t h i n g s
t h a t c a n n e v e r p o s s i b l y b e u n d e r s t o o d b y t h e human m in d .

8. E v e r y p e r s o n s h o u l d h a v e c o m p l e t e f a i t h i n some s u p e r ­
n a t u r a l p o w e r w h o se d e c i s i o n s he o b e y s w i t h o u t q u e s t i o n .

9. One t r o u b l e w i t h J e w i s h b u s i n e s s men i s t h a t t h e y s t i c k
t o g e t h e r a n d p r e v e n t o t h e r p e o p l e fro m h a v i n g a f a i r
chance in c o m p e titio n .
105

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106

.1 0 . The g o v e rn m e n t s h o u l d own and o p e r a t e a l l o u b l i c u t i l i ­


t i e s ( r a i l r o a d s , g a s and e l e c t r i c i t y , e tc ." ).

.11. When a p e r s o n h a s a p ro b le m o r w o r r y , i t i s b e s t f o r him


n o t t o t h i n k a b o u t i t , b u t t o k e e p b u sy w i t h more c h e e r ­
f u l th in g s .

.12. The w o r s t d a n g e r t o r e a l A m e ric a n ism d u r i n g t h e l a s t 50


y e a r s h a s come fro m f o r e i g n i d e a s and a g i t a t o r s .

.13. A p e r s o n who h a s b a d m a n n e r s , h a b i t s a n d b r e e d i n g c a n
h a r d l y e x p e c t t o g e t a lo n g w ith d e c e n t p e o p le .

.14. F n a t t h e y o u t h n e e d s m ost i s s t r i c t d i s c i p l i n e , r u g g e d
d e t e r m i n a t i o n , and t h e w i l l t o w ork a n d f i g h t f o r f a m i l y
and c o u n try .

.15. I t w o u ld b e a m i s t a k e e v e r t o h a v e N e g r o e s f o r f o r e m e n
and l e a d e r s o v e r W h ites.

.16. Men l i k e H enry F o r d o r J . P . M organ, who o v e rc a m e a l l


c o m p e t i t i o n on t h e r o a d t o s u c c e s s , a r e m od els f o r a l l
y o u n g p e o p l e t o a d m ir e and i m i t a t e .

17. Some p e o p l e a r e b o r n w i t h an u r g e t o jump fro m h i g h


p la c e s.

.18. I c a n h a r d l y im a g in e m y s e l f m a r r y i n g a Je w .

19. Nowadays when s o many d i f f e r e n t k i n d 3 o f p e o p l e move


a r o u n d a n d m ix t o g e t h e r so much, a p e r s o n h a s t o p r o t e c t
h im s e lf e s p e c ia lly c a r e f u l l y a g a in s t c a tc h in g an i n f e c ­
t i o n o r d i s e a s e fro m th e m .

30. The o n l y way t o e l i m i n a t e p o v e r t y i s t o make c e r t a i n


b a s i c c h a n g e s i n o u r p o l i t i c a l and econom ic s y s t e m .
31. Now t h a t a new w o r l d o r g a n i z a t i o n i s s e t u p , A m e ric a m ust
b e s u r e t h a t s h e l o s e s n o n e o f h e r i n d e p e n d e n c e a n d com­
p l e t e po w er a s a s o v e r e i g n n a t i o n .

22. An i n s u l t t o o u r h o n o r s h o u l d a lw a y s b e p u n i s h e d .

.23. Young p e o p l e s o m e tim e s g e t r e b e l l i o u s i d e a s , b u t a s t h e y


grow u p t h e y o u g h t t o g e t o v e r them a n d s e t t l e down.

.24. N e g ro m u s i c i a n s may s o m e tim e s be" a s g o o d a s w h i t e m u s i c i a n s


b u t i t i s a m i s t a k e t o h a v e m ix ed N e g ro -W h ite b a n d s .

.25. What t h i s c o u n t r y n e e d s m o s t , m ore t h a n l a w s and p o l i t i ­


c a l p r o g r a m s , i s a few c o u r a g e o u s , t i r e l e s s , d e v o t e d
l e a d e r s i n whom t h e p e o p l e c a n p u t t h e i r f a i t h .

26. Sex c r i m e s , s u c h a s r a p e a n d a t t a c k s on c h i l d r e n , deserve

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107

m ore t h e n m ere i m p r i s o n m e n t ; s u c h c r i m i n a l s o u g h t t o h e
p u b l i c l y w h ip p e d or w o r s e .

27 . T h ere may b e a few e x c e p t i o n s , b u t i n g e n e r a l , Je w s a r e


p r e t t y much a l i k e .

28. I n a new t a x p ro g ra m i t i s e s s e n t i a l n o t t o r e d u c e t h e
incom e t a x e s o n c o r p o r a t i o n s and w e a l t h y i n d i v i d u a l s .

29. P e o p l e c an b e d i v i d e d i n t o two d i s t i n c t c l a s s e s : th e
weak and t h e s t r o n g .

30. C e r t a i n r e l i g i o u s s e c t s who r e f u s e t o s a l u t e t h e f l a g
s h o u l d b e f o r c e d t o c o n fo rm t o su ch a p a t r i o t i c a c t i o n ,
o r e l s e be a b o lis h e d .

31 . T h e r e i s h a r d l y a n y t h i n g l o w e r t h a n a p e r s o n who d o e s n o t
f e e l a g r e a t l o v e , g r a t i t u d e , and r e s p e c t f o r h i s p a r e n t s .

32. I n g e n e r a l , f u l l econo m ic s e c u r i t y i s b a d ; most men


w o u l d n 't work i f t h e y d i d n ' t n e e d t h e money f o r e a t i n g
and l i v i n g . ,

33. M anual l a b o r a n d u n s k i l l e d j o b s seem t o f i t t h e N egro


m e n t a l i t y and a b i l i t y b e t t e r t h a n more s k i l l e d o r r e s p o n ­
s i b l e w o rk.

34. Some day i t w i l l p r o b a b l y b e shown t h a t a s t r o l o g y c a n


e x p la in a lo t of th in g s .

35. Nowadays more and more p e o p l e a r e p r y i n g i n t o m a t t e r s


t h a t s h o u ld r e m a i n p e r s o n a l and p r i v a t e .

36. The t r o u b l e w i t h l e t t i n g Je w s i n t o a n i c e n e i g h b o r h o o d
i s t h a t t h e y g r a d u a l l y g i v e i t a t y p i c a l J e w i s h a tm o s ­
p h ere.

.37. Wars and s o c i a l t r o u b l e s may someday b e e n d e d b y an


e a r t h q u a k e o r f l o o d t h a t w i l l d e s t r o y t h e w h o le w o r l d .

38. Most o f o u r s o c i a l p r o b l e m s w ould b e s o l v e d i f we c o u ld


somehow g e t r i d of t h e im m o r a l, c r o o k e d and f e e b l e m i n d e d
p e o p le .

39. F i l i p i n o s a re a l l r i g h t i n t h e i r p l a c e , b u t th e y c a r r y
i t t o o f a r when t h e y d r e s s l a v i s h l y and go a r o u n d w i t h
w h ite g i r l s .

40 . T h ere s h o u l d be some u p p e r l i m i t , s u c h a s $ 2 5 ,0 0 0 p e r
y e a r , on how much any i n d i v i d u a l c a n e a r n .

41. The w i l d s e x l i f e o f t h e o l d G reek s a n d Romans was tam e


com pared t o some o f t h e g o i n g s - o n i n t h i s c o u n t r y , even
i n p l a c e s w h e r e p e o p l e m ig h t l e a s t e x p e c t i t .

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108

42. The p e o p l e who r a i s e a i l t h e t a l k a b o u t p u t t i n g N e g r o e s


on t h e sane l e v e l a s F n i t e s a re m o stly r a d i c a l a g i t a t o r s
t r y i n g to s t i r up c o n f l i c t s .

43. I f p e o p l e w o u ld t a l k l e s s a n d w ork m o re , e v e r y b o d y w o u ld
be b e t t e r o f f .
AA' The t r u e A m e ric a n way o f l i f e i s d i s a p p e a r i n g s o f a s t
t h a t f o r c e may b e n e c e s s a r y t o p r e s e r v e i t .

45. To e n d p r e j u d i c e a g a i n s t J e w s , t h e f i r s t s t e p i s f o r t h e
Je w s t o s i n c e r e l y t r y to g e t r i d o f t h e i r h a r m f u l a n d
irrita tin g fa u lts.

46. M ost p e o p l e d o n ' t r e a l i z e how much o u r l i v e s a r e c o n ­


t r o l l e d by p l o t s h a t c h e d i n s e c r e t p l a c e s .
47. H o m osex uals a r e h a r d l y b e t t e r t h a n c r i m i n a l s and s h o u l d
be se v e re ly p u n ish e d .

48. A m e ric a may n o t b e p e r f e c t b u t t h e A m erican Way h a s


b r o u g h t u s a b o u t a s c l o s e a s human b e i n g s c a n g e t t o a
p e rfe c t so c ie ty .

49. No s a n e , n o r m a l , d e c e n t p e r s o n c o u l d e v e r t h i n k o f h u r t ­
in g a c lo s e f r i e n d or r e l a t i v e .

50. M ost o f t h e p r e s e n t a t t e m p t s t o c u r b and l i m i t u n i o n s


w o u ld i n t h e l o n g r u n do more harm t h a n g ood .

51. Most N e g r o e s w o u ld becom e o v e r b e a r i n g a n d d i s a g r e e a b l e


i f not kept in t h e i r p la c e .

52. F a m i l i a r i t y b r e e d s c o n te m p t.

53. I t i s e s s e n t i a l f o r l e a r n i n g o r e f f e c t i v e w ork t h a t o u r
t e a c h e r s o r b o s s e s o u t l i n e i n d e t a i l w h at i s t o b e done
a n d e x a c t l y how t o go a b o u t i t .

54. T h e r e i s s o m e th i n g d i f f e r e n t a n d s t r a n g e a b o u t J e w s ; i t ' s
h a r d t o t e l l w h a t t h e y a r e t h i n k i n g and p l a n n i n g , a n d
w hat m akes th em t i c k .

_55. Some l e i s u r e i s n e c e s s a r y b u t i t i s g oo d h a r d w o rk t h a t
m akes l i f e i n t e r e s t i n g a n d w o r t h w h i l e .

56. The b u s i n e s s man and t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r a r e p r o b a b l y m ore


im p o rtan t to s o c i e t y th a n th e a r t i s t and th e p r o f e s s o r .

57. I t i s o n ly n a t u r a l and r i g h t f o r each p e rs o n to t h in k


t h a t h i s f a m i l y i s b e t t e r t h a n any o t h e r .

58. Books a n d m o v ie s o u g h t n o t t o d e a l so much w i t h t h e un ­


p l e a s a n t a n d seam y s i d e o f l i f e ; t h e y o u g h t t o c o n c e n t r a t e
o n th e m e s t h a t a r e e n t e r t a i n i n g o r u p l i f t i n g .

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109

59. When y o u come r i g h t down t o i t , i t ' s human n a t u r e n e v e r


t o do a n y t h i n g w i t h o u t an eye t o o n e ' s own p r o f i t .

60. The b e s t g u a r a n t e e o f o u r n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y i s f o r A m e ric a


t o h a v e t h e b i g g e s t Army and Havy i n t h e w o rld a n d t h e
s e c r e t o f t h e ato m bomb.

The f o l l o w i n g q u e s t i o n s g i v e you a c h a n c e t o e x p r e s s
y o u r i d e a s and o p i n i o n s i n y o u r own way. P l e a s e a n s w e r
th em a l l AS FULLY AS P 0 S S I3IE .

1. We a l l n a v e t i m e s when we f e e l b e lo w p a r . What moods o r


f e e l i n g s a r e t h e m o st u n p l e a s a n t o r d i s t u r b i n g t o you?

2. We a l l h a v e i m p u l s e s and d e s i r e s w h ic h a r e a t t i m e s h a r d t o
c o n t r o l , b u t w h ich we t r y t o k e e p i n c h e c k . What d e s i r e s do
you o f t e n h a v e d i f f i c u l t y i n c o n t r o l l i n g ?

3. What g r e a t p e o p l e , l i v i n g o r d e a d , do y o u a d m i r e m ost?

4. T h e r e i s h a r d l y a p e r s o n who h a s n ' t s a i d t o h i m s e l f , " I f t h i s


k e e p s u p , I ' l l go n u t s l " What m ig h t d r i v e a p e r s o n n u t s ?

5. What do y o u c o n s i d e r t h e w o r s t c r i m e s a p e r s o n c o u l d commit?

6. I t seem s t h a t n o m a t t e r how c a r e f u l we a r e , we a l l s o m e tim e s


h a v e e m b a r r a s s i n g m om ents. What e x p e r i e n c e s make you f e e l
l i k e s in k in g th ro u g h th e flo o r ?

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110

7. I f y o u knew y ou h a d o n l y s i x m o n th s to l i v e b u t c o u l d do j u s t
a s y o u p l e a s e d d u r i n g t h a t p e r i o d , how would you sp e n d y o u r
tim e ?

8. 7/e g e t a f e e l i n g o f awe when s o m e th i n g seem s t o u s w o n d e r f u l ,


o r im p re ssiv e , o r r e a l l y im p o rta n t. What t h i n g s w o u ld g i v e
y o u t h e g r e a t e s t f e e l i n g o f awe?

( I f you f i n d t h a t you w ant m ore s p a c e t o a n s w e r any o f t h e s e e i g h t


q u e s t i o n s , you may do so on t h e b a c k o f t h e l a s t p a g e . )

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
APPENDIX B

SOCIAL DATA SHEET

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
1 . Sex_______ D a te o f B i r th .____________ P l a c e o f B i r t h
D a te yo u f i r s t came t o C h ic a g o t o l i v e ___________
Number o f B r o t h e r s ____________Number o f S i s t e r s __
2 . What i s y o u r j o b and. w h a t do you do on i t ? ______

3 . L i s t t h e d i f f e r e n t j o b s y o u h a v e h e l d s i n c e you f i r s t s t a r t e d
w o r k in g f u l l t i m e — fro m t h e f i r s t one t o t h e p r e s e n t o n e ;

4 . I f t h e r e w e r e n o t h i n g i n t h e w o r ld t o s t o p y o u from g e t t i n g
t h e t r a i n i n g a n d t h e j o b , w h a t work w o u ld y o u do? G ive f i r s t
seco n d , and t h i r d c h o ic e s , ( l )
(3) (37 " ' ............................... ...............
5 . W r i t e i n t h e num ber o f t h e h i g h e s t g r a d e w n ic h you an d t h e
members o f y o u r f a m i l y h a v e f i n i s h e d . W rite i n 0 , 1, 2, 3, 4
5 , 6 , 7, 8 , 9 , 1 0 , 11, 1 3, o r m ore t h a n 1 2 .
Y o u r s e l f ___________ W ife o r h u s b a n d ___________ F a t h e r __________
M o th e r_______________ B r o t h e r s _________________ S i s t e r s _ _ ___________
6 . What j o b s a r e t h e members o f y o u r f a m i l y h o l d i n g o r d i d h o l d
when t h e y w e re w o rk in g ? W ife o r h u s b a n d _______________________
F a t h e r ____________________________M o th e r_______________________________
B r o t h e r s ________________________________________________________________
S i s t e r s _________________________________________________________________
7 . W r i t e i n t h e name a n d a d d r e s s e s o f t h e c h u r c h e s w h ic h you a n d
t h e m embers o f y o u r f a m i l y a t t e n d .
Y o u r s e l f ________________________________________________________________
W ife o r h u s b a n d _______________________________________________________
F a t h e r __________________________________________________________________
M o th e r__________________________________________________________________
S i s t e r s _________________________________________________________________
B r o t h e r s ________________________________________________________________
8 . W r i t e i n how o f t e n y o u a n d t h e members o f y o u r f a m i l y a t t e n d
ch u rch . W rite i n n e v e r , se ld o m , o f t e n , e v e ry Sunday.
Y o u r s e l f ______________ W ife o r h u s b a n d _____
F a t h e r _______________ M o th e r_________________ S i s t e r s _______________ _
B r o t h e r s ______________________________________________________________ _
9 . I n t h e l i n e s w i t h t h e t y p e s o f s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s l i s t e d on
t h e f o l l o w i n g p a g e , w r i t e i n t h e names o f t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n s
t o w h ic h you and y o u r f a m i l y b e l o n g . I f n o n e , w r i t e i n n o n e .

112

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113

1 our s e n Hus ban a./W ife F a tn e r liotn er


S o c ia l
C lu b s

L o dges o r
S o c ie tie s

P o litic a l
O r g a n iz a tio n s

C iv ic
O rg a n iz a tio n s

Labor
U n io n s

ITe i ghbo r ho o a
O rg a n iz a tio n s

O th er
K in d s

1 0 . T h in k a b o u t how yo u s p e n d y o u r l e i s u r e t i m e . L is t th e th in g s
y o u h a v e b o u g h t t o r e a d i n t h e l a s t s i x m o n t h s : _________________

L i s t t h e t h i n g s y o u r e a d e v e n t h o u g h y o u may n o t buy th e m :

When you h a v e t i m e t o k i l l w h a t do you do?

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APPENDIX C

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TABLE 25

.SHOWING SCORES OF THE POPULATION OH THE CALIFORNIA


PUBLIC OPINION QUESTIONNAIRE

F E S c a le
Subj e c t S c a le T o ta l A-S . N M TT_,wi nne«*T 'I

1 150 72 25 10 37 62
2 100 14 13 11 25 38
3 122 43 12 .9 22 34
4 108 43 12 12 19 31
5 132 40 14 7 29 33
6 108 44 13 6 25 38
7 136 38 6 6 26 32
8 108 45 11 7 27 38
9 120 33 9 10 14 23
10 107 37 7 7 23 30
11 130 61 18 7 36 54
12 182 80 30 13 37 67
13 127 61 16 12 33 49
14 160 76 26 14 36 62
15 140 53 15 e 32 47
IS 178 85 26 7 52 78
1? 176 90 26 18 46 72
18 113 49 14 8 27 41
19 134 53 13 12 28 41
20 124 42 12 6 24 36
21 159 68 21 13 34 55
22 138 66 82 9 25 57
23 160 64 17 6 41 58
24 183 68 24 6 38 62
25 122 55 13 18 24 37
26 179 84 31 13 40 71
27 123 26 12 6 8 20
28 187 85 27 32 26 53
29 79 38 10 12 16 26
30 ■ 155 66 14 19 33 47
31 157 85 27 17 41 68
32 146 56 19 6 31 50
33 158 59 20 10 29 49
34 146 66 20 9 37 57
35 130 44 14 8 22 36
36 147 77 29 9 39 68
37 127 35 9 6 20 29
38 156 80 34 12 34 68
39 157 63 19 19 25 44
40 108 51 10 12 29 39

115

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116

TABLE 25— Cont in u ed

E S c a le
F
Sub j e c t S c a le T o ta l A-S N M E -m inus-N

41 103 34 9 8 17 26
42 88 28 8 6 14 22
43 41 20 6 6 8 14
44 132 70 24 18 28 52
45 124 48 11 8 29 40
46 103 35 11 6 18 29
47 107 41 10 6 25 35
48 138 49 10 6 33 43
49 135 61 23 10 28 51
50 62 27 8 6 13 21
51 144 89 24 30 35 59
52 173 109 36 23 50 86
53 175 64 21 7 36 57
54 182 91 34 8 49 83
55 127 89 24 27 38 62
56 140 77 30 6 41 71
57 192 102 36 17 49 85
58 175 84 34 13 37 71
59 140 54 1? 12 25 42
60 127 83 33 21 29 62
61 152 72 38 11 33 61
62 150 94 24 24 4? 70
63 162 81 22 17 42 64
64 153 81 29 20 32 61
65 155 65 24 17 24 48
66 191 124 37 37 50 87
67 170 71 31 9 31 62
68 137 75 32 6 37 69
69 15? 75 21 16 36 5?
70 164 102 35 26 41 76
71 169 92 31 19 42 73
72 117 93 25 24 44 69
73 173 96 39 14 43 82
74 147 62 18 8 36 54
75 182 69 24 1? 28 52
76 13? 62 14 11 3? 51
77 160 64 28 6 30 58
78 153 64 18 12 34 52
79 151 85 29 26 30 59
80 139 79 20 17 42 62
81 140 74 29 9 32 65
82 126 62 14 12 36 50
83 127 65 18 14 33 51
84 121 45 8 8 29 37

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APPENDIX D

INSTRUCTIONS FOR USE OF TAT SCORING CATEGORIES

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INSTRUOTI OH'S

The f o l l o w i n g a r e a l i s t o f p o s s i b l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f
TAT s t o r i e s . T h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e o f two k i n d s :
f o r m a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w h ic h a r e s e e n i n t h e u s e o f
l a n g u a g e and c o n t e n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w h ic h a r e i n f e r ­
r a b l e fro m t h e m e a n in g s i n t h e s t o r y . Some o f t h e f o l ­
lo w i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s may b e c o n s i d e r e d c o m b i n a t i o n s
o f t h e s e twro k i n d s .

I t i s assum ed t h a t e a c h s t o r y w i l l i l l u s t r a t e a t l e a s t
on e and p o s s i b l y s e v e r a l o f t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . Ex­
am in e e a c h s t o r y and p l a c e t h e a p p r o p r i a t e l e t t e r - s y m b o l
f o r e a c h c h a r a c t e r i s t i c d i s c o v e r e d a l o n g t h e b o tto m o f
th e s h e e t.

A. The w r i t e r d e s c r i b e s c h a r a c t e r s who e n g a g e i n f a n t a s y a c t i v i ­
t i e s i n th e s t o r i e s .

3. The w r i t e r u s e s t r i t e , pom pous, s t e r e o t y p e d l a n g u a g e .

C. The w r i t e r d e n i e s n e e d s a n d f e e l i n g s o f t h e c h a r a c t e r s h e
d e sc rib e s. Ex. "He d o e s n o t show any r e s p e c t . ’1

D. The w r i t e r d e s c r i b e s c h a r a c t e r s who condemn t h e n e e d s e t c .


o f o th e r c h a ra c te rs .

F. The e x p r e s s i o n s o f t h e w r i t e r r e v e a l t h a t h e i s e v a l u a t i n g
th e n e e d s, e t c . , o f t h e c h a r a c t e r s he i s d e s c r i b i n g .

G. The w r i t e r d e s c r i b e s who d i s p l a c e t h e i r own n e e d s , e t c . ,


upo n o t h e r c h a r a c t e r s i n t h e s t o r i e s .

H. The w r i t e r d e s c r i b e s t h e p i c t u r e w i t h o u t t e l l i n g a b o u t t h e
f e e l i n g s , t h o u g h ts , o r r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e tw ee n t h e p e o p le .

I. The w r i t e r d e s c r i b e s c h a r a c t e r s who h a v e s t r o n g e m o tio n s


and r e l a t i o n s w i t h o t h e r s .

J. C h a r a c t e r s a r e d e s c r i b e d who show i m p o t e n c e , o r p a s s i v i t y
or in a b ility .

K. The ’w r i t e r e n d s s t o r i e s w i t h b a n a l , P o l l y a n n a - l i k e e n d i n g s .

L. The w r i t e r s t a t e s t h a t a c h a r a c t e r i n h i s s t o r y i s p l a y i n g
a ro le .

118

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119

M. Tlie w r i t e r u s e s t h e q u e s t i o n f o r m t o e x p r e s s i d e a s .

K. The w r i t e r a v o i d s p e r s o n a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e f e a t u r e s
in th e sto ry .

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APPENDIX E

ILLUSTRATIVE SAMPLE OF THEMATIC APPERCEPTION

TEST STORIES PRODUCED IN THE EXPERIMENT

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STORY 3 -2 5

" P o o r J e d and N a n c y ," t h o u g h t J a n e — "No aim i n l i f e w h a t­


ev er. J e d ’ s b e e n s h a r e c r o p p i n g s i n c e I can rem ember and h e ’ l l go
on d o i n g i t f o r e v e r . And Nancy— w h at a f o o l sh e was t o m a r ry a
man w h o ' l l n e v e r ge*t a n y w h e re i n l i f e .

"Not me. I ' l l k e e p s t u d y i n g t h e way I ’ v e b e e n . I ' l l sta y


i n s c h o o l a n d make p e o p l e p ro u d o f me. I ’ l l n e v e r b e a s h a r e ­
c r o p p e r ' s w i f e . " J a n e f i n g e r e d h e r b r a n d new copy o f A u t o b i o g r a ­
p h i e s o f Famous Men.
L i t t l e d i d s h e know t h a t one day s h e ' d b e i n t h e same po­
s i t i o n a s N ancy.

STORY 2 - 1 9

I h a v e c h o s e n t o u s e t h e p i c t u r e a s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e and
s y m b o l ic o f a n a s p e c t o f t h e N egro i n t h e A m e ric an S o u t h . The
y o u n g e r woman ( f o r e g r o u n d ) l o o k s a h e a d t o r a c i a , l and p e r s o n a l de­
v e lo p m e n t w i t h a v iew t o w a r d s a c a d e m ic p r e p a r a t i o n ( e i t h e r h e r ­
s e l f o r t h e y o u t h ) w h i l e t h e o t h e r woman l o o k s t o h e r c h i l d a n d
t h e man t o h i s f i e l d s .

STORY 2 - 5

B e f o r e t h e N egro h a d b e g a n t o in v a d e t h e w o r l d o f e d u c a t i o n
t h e i r l o t w as o n l y l a b o r f o r t h e g a i n s o f o t h e r p e o p l e . A fte r th e
a d v e n t o f f r e e d o m a n d o p p o r t u n i t y w e re b e g i n n i n g " t o a p p e a r t h e
y o u n g e r g e n e r a t i o n w e re f r e e t o o b t a i n t h e s e o p p o r t u n i t i e s . T h is
g i r l i s o n h e r way t o s c h o o l a n d i n t h e b a c k g r o u n d we s e e a f a t h e r
o r b r o t h e r a n d N o t h e r w o rk in g t h i s show s t h e o l d s i t u a t i o n o f t h e
Negro w i t h l i m i t e d o p p o r t u n i t y and t h e new N egro w i t h t h e c h a n g e
to

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122

STORY 12M-25

C h a r l e y l a y p r o s t r a t e o n t h e h o s p i t a l bed.. H is t h o u g h t s
r e e l e d a r o u n d a n d a ro u n d i n h i s b e f u d d l e d b r a i n . What h a d h e done
t o d e s e r v e t h i s t e r r i b l e b e a t i n g h e h a d s u f f e r e d from h i s to w n s ­
p e o p le .
C h a r l e y h a d l i v e d i n t h i s s m a l l tow n o f C e n t e r v i l l e , G e o r g i a
e v e r s i n c e h e c o u l d rem em b er. He h a d grow n u p w i t h w h i t e a n d b l a c k
fo lk s. Now t h e s e same w h i t e f o l k s w e re b e a t i n g him & t r y i n g t o
k i l l him b e c a u s e t h e y s a i d he h a d t r i e d t o r a p e a w h i t e woman.
G o o d n e ss knows C h a r l e y w o u ld n ’ t do a t h i n g l i k e t h a t . A ll
h e h a d s a i d was "Hya B a b e ," t o l i t t l e Mary A n n - t h e w h i t e g i r l n e x t
door.
The p r e a c h e r b e n t o v e r C h a r l e y and p r a y e d . " L o rd , h a v e
m erc y on t h i s c o l o r e d m a n 's s o u l — he d i d n ’ t do n o t h i n ' , L o r d . "

C h a rle y d i e d t h a t n i g h t .

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APPENDIX P

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TABLE 26

JUDGES* RELATIVE RATINGS OF DEFENSIVENESS CHARACTERISTICS

C n a ra c te ris tic s
Judges A B C D F G H I J K L H N 0 P X

1 10 4 6 13 15 14 2 16 9 1 11 7 5 12 3 8
TA
2 16 3 6 11 7 9 1 12 4 15 10 5 8 2 13

3 8 5 12 14 13 15 1 16 9 4 7 6 3 10 2 11
4 16 2 12 14 13 8 1 15 6 4 11 5 10 7 3 9

5 11 4 9 13 7 12 1 16 10 5 8 6 2 15 3 14

6 13 2 10 12 15 I S 3 14 8 4 11 6 5 7 1 9

f IS 4 14 12 15 11 1 8 9 3 10 7 5 13 2 6
8 14 2 7 8 16 10 4 15 12 1 9 5 6 13 3 11

124

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LIST OF REFERENCES

1. A b t, L. E. "A T h eo ry o f P r o t e c t i v e P s y c h o l o g y , " i n L. E.
Abt a n d L . B e l i a k ( e d s . J , P r o t e c t i v e P s y c h o l o g y . Hew Y ork:
A lf r e d . A. K n o p f, 1 9 5 0 . P . 4 6 .

2. A b t, L . E . , a n d B e l i a k , L. ( e d s . ) P r o t e c t i v e P sy ch o lo g y .
Hew Y o rk : A l f r e d A. K n o p f, 1 9 5 0 .
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S a n f o r d , R. N. The A u t h o r i t a r i a n P e r s o n a l i t y . Hew * o rk :
H a rp er & B r o s ., 1950.

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T e s t . B e r k e l e y : W i l l i s E. B e r g , 1 9 4 9 .

5. B r a l y , K. W. "The I n f l u e n c e o f P a s t E x p e r i e n c e i n V i s u a l
P e r c e p t i o n , " J . E xp. P s y c h o l . , - 1933, 1 6 , 6 1 3 - 4 3 .

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P s y c h o lo g y i n th e R o rsc h ac h E x p e rim e n t," R o rsc h . R es. E xch. ,
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7. B r u n e r , J . S . , and K r e c h , D. ( e d s . ) P e r c e p t i o n an d P e r ­
s o n a l i t y : A Sym posium . Durham, N. C .: Duke t f n i v e r s i t y
P r e s s , 1950.

8. G a r t e r , L . , an d S c h o o k , E . " V a lu e , h e e d , and O th er F a c to r s
in P e rc e p tio n ," P s y c h o l. Rev. . 1949, 56, 200 -2 0 8 .

9. C l a r k , K. B . , and C l a r k , M. K. "The D evelop m ent o f Con­


s c i o u s n e s s o f S e l f a n d E m e rg en c e o f R a c i a l I d e n t i f i c a t i o n
i n N e g ro P r e - S c h o o l C h i l d r e n , " J . Soc. P s y c h o l . , 1 9 3 9 , 1 0 ,
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H a f n e r ' P u b l i s h i n g Company, I n c . , 1 9 4 9 .

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a l i t y , " J . P s y c h o l . . 1 9 3 9 , 8,, 389—4 1 3 .

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C h a r l e s C. Thom as, 1 9 4 8 .

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14. F re n k e l-B ru n sw ik , E. ’’P s y c h o a n a l y s i s and P e r s o n a l i t y


R e s e a r c h , " i n Symposium on P s y c h o a n a l y s i s by A n a ly z e d
E x p erim e n tal P s y c h o lo g is ts . E d i t e d by G. W. A l l p o r t .
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H i l l Book C o ., I n c . , 1 9 3 6 . P . 225.

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S tu d y o f C u l t u r e - P e r s o n a l i t y R e l a t i o n s , " Gen. P s y c h o l . Mon. ,
1 9 4 7 , 3 5 , 3—1 3 5 .
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C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e A m e ric a n N e g ro . E d i t e d by 0 . K l i n e -
b e r g . hew Y ork: H a r p e r & B r o s . , 1944.

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G r i f f i n & Company, L t d . , 1 9 4 8 .

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N e g r o . New Y o rk : H a r p e r & B r o s . , 1 944.

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H a r c o u r t , B r a c e & C o ., 1 9 3 5 .

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l i s h i n g C o rp ., 1947.

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& B r o s ., 1948. Pp. 186-200.

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12?

29. Mciiemar, Q. P s y c h o l o g i c a l S t a t i s t i c s . New Y ork: J o h n


W ile y & S o n s, I n c . , 1949.

30. Muxpny, G. P e r s o n a l i t y : A B i o s o c i a l A p p ro a c h t o O r i g i n s
an d S t r u c t u r e , Hew Y ork : H a r p e r & B r o s . , 1 9 4 7 .

31. M u r r a y , H. E. "The E f f e c t o f F e a r u p o n E s t i m a t e s o f
M a l i c i o u s n e s s o f O t n e r P e r s o n a l i t i e s , 11 J . S o c . P s y c n o l . ,
1933, 4, 3 1 0 -2 9 .

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Y o rk : O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 19 38.

33. M y r d a l , G. An A m e ric an D ilem m a. Hew Y o rk : H a r p e r & B r o s . ,


1944.

34. P o s tm a n , L . , 3 r u n e r , J . S . , a n d M c G in n is, E. “P e r s o n a l
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